SUPERTRAINING

Copyright 2009 Yuri Verkhoshansky Sixth Edition Expanded Version

All rights reserved. No part o f this book may be reproduced by any means or in any form whatsoever without the written permission o f the author.

Inquiries should be addressed to Ultimate Athlete Concepts, www.ultimateathleteconcepts.com and to Verkhoshansky.com, www.verkhoshansky.com

This book has been written solely for the purposes o f education and information. It is not intended to be used as a practical manual by the unguided athlete or coach who may not be sufficiently aware o f the efficient and safe ways of implementing the means and methods o f training discussed in the text. While every effort has been made to stress the importance o f safety and correctness o f skill, there are many technical subtleties inherent in all of the methods which need to be learned with the assistance o f a highly qualified coach. Before implementing any o f the means, methods, exercises or techniques presented in this book, you are strongly advised to obtain medical clearance for strenuous strength training and to consult a specialist strength coach. Always be aware that any form o f exercise inappropriately executed can lead to injury, for which the author and the publishers cannot be held responsible.

Typeset in Times New Roman for the main text and Bookman for headings.

Published by Verkhoshansky; Rome 2009 Distributed by Ultimate Athlete Concepts, USA

ISBN 978-88-904038-0-4

First Edition, 1993 Second Edition, 19%Third Edition, 1998 Fourth Edition, 2000 Fifth Edition, 2000 Sixth Edition, 2003, 2009

SUPERTRAININGSixth Edition-Expanded Version

Yuri Verkhoshansky Mel C. Siff

Acknowledgements

Because o f past difficulties in reaching agreement on previous editions of Supertraining. I determined that it was necessary to exert my authorship rights beginning with this expanded edition. It was not an easy decision but with the support of several people who knew the genesis of Supertraining I was persuaded to continue this project and develop new content for Supertraining.

1 would like to thank my son in law Massimo Nunno and Yosef Johnson, who supported and convinced me to overcome the past and to look to the future with a new perspective.

The project would not have been possible without Dr. Michael Yessis. Only he, who understands the Russian system of training as well as most Russian coaches and scientists, with the support of my daughter Natalia, could translate my work on adaptation.

Dr. Yessis has honored me with his friendship by many years. Since the 1960's Dr. Yessis has translated my material published in Soviet journals. He was the first, together with Fred Wilt who introduced the term plyometrics, to report on plyometric training (Shock Method).

Dr. Yessis was also the first to report on the Conjugate-Sequence System (Block Training System) and The Delayed Training Effect in the Soviet Sports Review' also known as the Fitness and Sports Review International of which he was Editor-in-Chief for 29 years.

The new section on the Shock Method could not have had a better translator than Dr. Yessis. Thank you for your effort and expertise.

My last thanks are for my daughter, she is my last pupil and interpreter of my ideas.

Yuri Verkhoshansky

CONTENTS

Acknowledgem ents............................................................................................................................................................ i

1. STRENGTH AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM................................................................ 1Objectives What is Strength?The Origins of Strength Training Science Pioneers of Strength Training The Divergence of Training Philosophies The Modem Era DawnsThe Fundamental Principle of Strength Training Neural Changes with Training Strength Deficit

1.1 Preliminary' Issues................................................................................................................... 101.1.1 Resistance Training for Different Purposes..................................................................................... 101.1.2 Factors limiting Strength Production................................................................................................. 12

TrainabilityNeuromuscular Efficiency Biomechanical Efficiency Psychological Factors Pain and Fear of Pain Injury and Fear of Injury Fatigue

1.2 Fundamental Biomechanics of Strength.............................................................................17Biomechanics and Training Initial Implications of Mechanics Mass and Acceleration Issues Muscle Tension and Training Stimulus Application of Basic Biomechanics

1.3 A Philosophy of Physical Training...................................................................................... 241.4 Specificity in Training........................................................................................................... 271.5 Strength and Fitness..............................................................................................................32

Fitness. Preparedness and Work Capacity1.6 The Nature of Strength..........................................................................................................33

Determinants of Strength Shock Training and Plyometrics Strength and Connective Tissue1.7 The Muscle Complex............................................................................................................. 35

1.7.1 The Structure o f M uscle.......................................................................................................................35Further Muscle Research

1.7.2 A Model o f the Muscle Com plex......................................................................................................40Further Information on Collagenous TissuesThe Structure and Function of Ligaments and TendonsMechanical Loading of Collagenous TissueThe Role of Stored Elastic EnergyThe Influence of Exercise on Connective TissueA Modified Muscle Model

1.7.3 Implications o f the Muscle Model for Flexibility........................................................................... 481.7.4 The Relationship between Stability and Mobility.......................................................................... 48

1.8 Classification of Muscle Actions...........................................................................................491.9 Cocontraction and Ballistic Movement............................................................................... 501.10 Types of Muscle Action........................................................................................................ 51

Quasi-isometric Action1.11 The Triphasic Nature of Muscle Action............................................................................. 54

1.12 Types of Muscle Fibre..........................................................................................................55Slow and Fast Twitch Muscle Fibres Muscle Protein Isoforms Muscle Fibres and Training Further Aspects of Muscle Plasticity The Implications of Ballistic Research

1.13 The Mechanism of Muscle Growth.....................................................................................65The Effects of High versus Moderate Intensity Exercise

1.14 Neurophysiological Aspects of Exercise............................................................................. 691.15 Bioenergetics and the Energy Systems................................................................................73

1.15.1 The Energy Systems and Types o f Activity................................................................................ 741.15.2 Energy Mechanisms.......................................................................................................................... 751.15.3 The Short-Term Energy S y stem .................................................................................................... 761.15.4 The Intermediate Energy' S y stem ..................................................................................................771.15.5 The Long-Term Energy System.....................................................................................................781.15.6 Implications for Physical Conditioning........................................................................................ 791.15.7 Hormonal Factors and Strength Training.....................................................................................82

1.16 Adaptation and the Training Effect....................................................................................82The Effects of Stress1.16.1 The General Adaptation Syndrome..................................................................................................83

Adaptive Reconstruction versus Supercompensation1.16.2 The Biochemistry o f Adaptation in Sport.......................................................................................85

The Specificity of Biochemical AdaptationThe Sequence of Biochemical Changes during Training

1.16.3 General Theories o f the Training Process.......................................................................................87Single-Factor Model of TrainingTwo-Factor Model of TrainingThe Concept of Progressive Overload Training

1.16.4 A Model o f Physical Fitness..............................................................................................................912. SPORT SPECIFIC STRENGTH TRAINING...................................................................95

Special Strength TrainingThe Russian System of Classifying AthletesThe Early Stages of Strength Training

2.1 Schemes for Perfecting Movements.....................................................................................972.1.1 Increasing the W orking-Effect o f M ovem ents..............................................................................972.1.2 Perfecting the Motor Structure o f Sports M ovem ents................................................................. 100

The Kinematic Pair The Kinematic Chain The Kinematic System

2.1.3 Perfecting the Kinesiological Pattern o f M ovements.................................................................. 1052.2 Specialisation to Develop Sports Mastery......................................................................... 107

2.2.1 Specific Forms o f Producing Muscular Strength.................................................................... 1072.2.2 Sports Implications o f Strength Indices...................................................................................... 1092.2.3 The Functional Topography o f the Muscular S ystem ........................................................... 1102.2.4 Motor Specialisation in Developing Sports M astery...............................................................112

HeterochronicitySpecialisation Processes

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2.3 C h a ra c te r is t ic s o f P h y sica l F itn e s s ....................................................................................................... 1162.3.1 The Structure o f Physical Fitness....................................................................................................1162.3.2 The Interrelation between Motor A bilities.................................................................................... 11?

General and Partial Connections Essential and Non-essential Connections Positive and Negative Connections Direct and Indirect Connections

2.3.3 The Structure o f Motor Abilities...................................................................................................... 1202.3.4 General Concepts o f the Structure o f Physical Fitness............................................................... 120

3. F A C T O R S IN F L U E N C IN G S T R E N G T H P R O D U C T IO N ....................................................1253.1 T h e R eg im es o f M u s c u la r W o r k ........................................................................................................... 1253.2 Q u a li ta t iv e C h a ra c te r is t ic s o f S t r e n g th ............................................................................................. 129

3.2.1 Explosive Strength...............................................................................................................................129Quickness and Reactive Ability Speed. Speed-Strength and Quickness

3.2.2 Strength-Endurance.............................................................................................................................1423 .3 T h e In f lu e n c e o f E x te rn a l C o n d itio n s o n S t r e n g th ........................................................................144

3.3.1 The Influence o f the Pre-working State o f the M uscles............................................................. 1443.3.2 The Effect o f the Load on Speed o f Muscle Contraction.......................................................... 146

Contraction Speed and Strength in Acyclic Activity Limitations of the Force-Velocity Relationship Contraction Strength and Speed in Cyclic Activities

3.3.3 The Effect o f Strength on Speed o f Muscle Action..................................................................... 149Speed-Strength and Strength-SpeedThe Interrelation between Strength and Other Fitness Factors

3.3.4 The Relationship between Strength and Posture.......................................................................... 1523.3 .4 .1 Strength Variation with Postural Change................................................................................... 1523.3.4.2 Strength, Safety and Pelvic T ilt.................................................................................................... 1533.3.4.3 The Effect o f Head Position on Strength.................................................................................... 1543.3.4.4 Strength, Symmetry and Limb Alignment..................................................................................1553.3.5 The Dependence o f Strength on Bodymass................................................................................... 1553.3.6 The Relationship between Strength and Height............................................................................ 1593.3.7 The Relationship between Strength and Age.................................................................................1593.3.8 The Relationship between Strength and Gender........................................................................... 1613.3.9 The Increase in Human Strength over Tim e..................................................................................161

3.4 F a c to rs in c re a s in g th e W o rk in g E ffec t o f S t r e n g th ..................................................................... 1623 .4 .1 The Warm-up and Pre-Activity Preparation............................................................................ 1623.4.2 The After-effect o f Muscle Activity........................................................................................... 1643.4.3 Additional M ovement.................................................................................................................... 1663.4.4 Preparatory M ovem ent................................................................................................................. 1673.4.5 Coordination in Muscular Work.................................................................................................... 1673.4.6 Efficiency o f Energy Expenditure................................................................................................. 1683.4.7 Emotion and other Psychological Factors................................................................................... 1703.4.8 The Effect o f Cold Application......................................................................................................1713.4.9 Breathing and Strength Production................................................................................................1723.4.10 Strength Development and Proprioception................................................................................173

3 .5 F lex ib ility a n d S p o r tin g P e r fo rm a n c e ................................................................................................. 1743.5.1 A Definition o f Flexibility.............................................................................................................1743.5.2 The Effects o f Stretching...............................................................................................................1763.5.3 The Neuromuscular Component o f Flexibility.........................................................................1763.5.4 Components o f Joint Flexibility.................................................................................................. 179

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3.5.5 Parameters o f Flexibility.................................................................................................................1793.5.6 Soft Tissue Biomechanics and Flexibility................................................................................. 180

Flexibility, Stability and Muscle Activity3.5.7 The Influence o f Exercise on Connective Tissue........................................................................ 1823.5.8 Stretching Techniques...................................................................................................................... 183

The Use of Ballistic Stretching3.5.9 Low Flexibility versus Non-Functional Muscle Tension.........................................................187

3.6 The Stretching Matrix System.............................................................................................188Is Stretching Always Necessary?

3.7 The Movement Matrix System............................................................................................193Limitations of Anatomical Movement Analysis

4. THE MEANS OF SPECIAL STRENGTH TRAINING...................................................2014.1 The Problem of Training Means........................................................................................201

4.1.1 Characteristics o f Strength Increase................................................................................................ 2014.1.2 The Effect o f Strength Training M ean s......................................................................................... 204

Algebraic Relations and TrainingSteps Towards Structuring the Training Process

4.2 Different Means of Strength Development....................................................................... 2074.2.1 Electrostimulation.............................................................................................................................. 208

4.2.1.1 The Physiological Effects o f Electrostimulation........................................................2084.2.1.2 Reasons for Conflicting R esearch ................................................................................. 2094.2.1.3 Clinical Applications o f Electrostimulation............................................................... 2104.2.1.4 Further Research Findings............................................................................................... 2134.2.1.5 An Integrated Theory o f Electrostim ulation..............................................................2144.2.1.6 The Use o f Electrostimulation in Training..................................................................214

The Integrated Use of ElectrostimulationSports Functional Electrostimulation Overtraining and Restoration Concluding Remarks

4.2.2 Resistance and Strength Training................................................................................................2164.2.3 Kinetic Energy and Strength Processes......................................................................................2204.2.4 Isometric Training............................................................................................................................223

Isometric Training and Angular Specificity Isometric Endurance Recovery after Isometric Activity Other Aspects of Isometric Activity Loadless Training

4.2.5 Eccentric Training.................................................................................................................................2304.2.6 Isokinetic and Other Training M eans.............................................................................................. 231

4.2.6.1 The Isokinetic Training M ethod ....................................................................................2314.2.6.2 Limitations o f the Isokinetic M eth o d .......................................................................... 233

Fundamental Biomechanics of Isokinetic DevicesRecommended Strength Ratios Functional Anatomy Muscle Physiology The Importance of Specificity Concluding Remarks

4.2.6.3 Static-Dynamic M ethods................................................................................................ 2364.2.6.4 Choice o f Muscle Training Regimes.............................................................................236

4.2.7 The Use O f Training M achines......................................................................................................... 2374.2.7.1 Functional Resistance M achines.....................................................................................2374.2.7.2 Non-Functional Resistance M achines............................................................................238

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4.2.7.3 Machines and the Variable Resistance Philosophy................................................... 2394.2.7.4 The Training Safety o f M achines.................................................................................. 2394.2.7.5 The Efficiency o f Machine Training............................................................................. 239

4.2.8 The Concept o f Symmetric Training..............................................................................................2404.2.9 The Concept o f Muscle Iso lation ...................................................................................................241

4.3 Dynamic Correspondence as a Means of Strength Training.......................................... 2414.3.1 The Amplitude and Direction o f M ovement................................................................................242

Parachute Resistance Training4.3.2 The Accentuated Region o f Force Production...............................................................................2444.3.3 The Dynamics o f the Effort............................................................................................................... 2454.3.4 The Rate and Time o f Maximal Force Production.......................................................................2464.3.5 The Regime o f Muscular Work........................................................................................................ 2474.3.6 Correspondence o f Training Means to the Sports M ovements................................................247

4.4 Strength Training and General Endurance.....................................................................248Oxidative Capacity and Muscular Endurance Strength Training and General Endurance The Process of Functional Specialisation Factor Analysis

5. THE METHODS OF SPECIAL STRENGTH TRAINING............................................ 2555.1 The Problem of Methods..................................................................................................... 255

Some Implications of the Laws of Dynamics5.2 General Principles of Special Strength Training.............................................................257

5.2.1 The Development o f Maximum S treng th .....................................................................................258The Repetitive Effort Method The Brief Maximal Tension Method

5.2.2 Autoregulating Progressive Resistance Exercise (APRE)..........................................................2615.2.3 The Development o f Speed-Strength..............................................................................................2645.2.4 The Development o f Explosive Strength and Reactive Ability................................................267

The Plyometric MethodPlyometrics as a Discrete Training SystemPlyometric Training and SafetyThe Fundamental Theory of PlyometricsThe Prescription of Plyometric ExerciseAsymmetric PlyometricsNon-Impact PlyometricsNon-Impact Plyometrics in Sports TrainingResisted and Water Plyometric TrainingAnalysis of Popular Texts on PlyometricsPlyometrics and the BrainVarious Shock Methods

5.2.5 The Development o f Strength-Endurance.......................................................................................2855.3 Application of Special Strength Training Means..............................................................287

5.3.1 Interaction between Different Training M eans......................................................................... 2915.3.2 A Sequential System o f Training M eans....................................................................................2915.3.3 The Conjugate Sequence System o f Training M eans............................................................. 292

5.4 The Principal Aims of Special Strength Training.............................................................2945.4.1 Converging the Partial Effects o f Strength Training M eans................................................. 2945.4.2 Acceleration o f Specific A daptation.......................................................................................... 2965.4.3 Specific Correspondence o f The Training E ffec t................................................................... 2965.4.4 Maintaining the Strength Training Effect..................................................................................297

5.5 Cross Training in Sport...................................................................................................2985.6 Circuit Training............................................................................................................... 300

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6. ORGANISATION OF TRAINING...............................................................................3136.1 The Development of Training Organisation................................................................ 313

Ways of Organising Training......................................................................................................................... 3146.2 Periodisation as a Form of Organisation...................................................................... 316

Definitions and Fundamental ConceptsPreparatory Phases o f TrainingFurther Phases and PrinciplesAcquisition and Stabilisation of Technical Skills6.2.1 Types o f Periodisation.........................................................................................................................3196.2.2 Calculation o f the Parameters o f Periodisation............................................................................323

Drawing up the Periodisation Scheme Cybernetic Programming and Periodisation Training Intensity, Heart Rate and Other Tests Non Technological Testing

6.2.3 The Relationship between Intensity and Volume......................................................................... 33263 The Periodisation Controversy.......................................................................................333

Chronobiology and Periodisation6.4 Training as an Objective of Management.................................................................... 3366.5 Prerequisites for Organising Training.......................................................................... 3386.6 Basic Management Theory..............................................................................................339

6.6.1 Human Needs and M otivation ......................................................................................................... 339Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Other Theories of Needs Expectancy Theory of Motivation

6.6.2 Management M odels ........................................................................................................................... 342The Traditional ModelThe Managerial GridSituational LeadershipThe Leadership ContinuumDecision Making and Problem Solving

6.7 Classification of Sports.................................................................................................... 3456.8 Characteristics of the Training Process........................................................................ 346

6.8.1 Adaptation to Intense Muscular W ork.......................................................................................3466.8.2 Structural-Functional Specialisation in Training......................................................................3506.8.3 The Structure o f Special Physical Preparedness......................................................................352

6.9 Preparedness and the Training Load................................................................................3526.9.1 The Training Load and its Effect.....................................................................................................3526.9.2 Factors determining the Training E ffec t........................................................................................ 3556.9.3 The Contents o f the L oad ing ............................................................................................................. 356

Specificity of the Load Training Potential of the Loading

6.9.4 The Volume o f the Training Load.................................................................................................... 3586.9.5 The Organisation o f Training L o a d s ............................................................................................... 359

6.10 The Long-Term Delayed Training Effect....................................................................... 362The Delayed Training Effect and Long Duration Work Concluding Comments

6.11 The Dynamics of Training in the Annual Cycle.............................................................368

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6.12 Principles of Programming and Organising Training..................................................3686.12.1 Forms o f Constructing Training.................................................................................................... 3686.12.2 Organisational Aspects o f Structuring Training.........................................................................368

Complex Training Unidirectional Training Concentrated Loading Problems with Concentrated Loading The Use of Concentrated Loading Use of the Conjugate Sequence System

6.12.3 Constructing Training by Functional Indicators........................................................................3746.13 Primary Aims in Programming Training........................................................................ 3786.14 Models for Structuring Annual Training........................................................................ 379

Examples of Descriptive ModellingThe Composition of the Concentrated Loading Volume6.14.1 A Model for Sports requiring Explosive Strength......................................................................3836.14.2 A Model for Medium Duration Endurance S p o rts ................................................................... 3846.14.3 A Model for Long Duration Endurance Sports.......................................................................... 3856.14.4 A Model for Sports requiring Tricyclic Periodisation...............................................................386

More Advanced Use of Concentrated Loading6.14.5 Practical Principles o f Programming.............................................................................................389

6.15 A Sequence for Programming Annual Training............................................................3896.16 Managing the Training Process........................................................................................3916.17 The Future of Programming Training............................................................................. 3927. STRENGTH TRAINING METHODS............................................................................. 3937.1 Bodybuilding and Other Strength Training Methods...................................................394

Maximal Methods Supramaximal Methods Circa-maximal Methods Submaximal Methods Reactive Methods Miscellaneous Methods Methods for Overcoming Barriers Concluding Remarks

7.2 PNF as a Training System................................................................................................. 4037.2.1 Definition and Scope o f PNF............................................................................................................. 4047.2.2 Relationship o f PNF to Physical Conditioning..............................................................................4057.2.3 The Fundamentals o f PNF..................................................................................................................4057.2.3.1 The Principles o f PNF..................................................................................................................... 4051.2 .32 Procedures o f PNF............................................................................................................................ 4067 2 3 .3 Patterns o f PNF.................................................................................................................................. 4077.2.3.4 Positions and Postures o f PNF....................................................................................................... 4107.2.3.5 Pacing in PNF.................................................................................................................................... 4107.2.4 Modifications to PNF.......................................................................................................................... 410

Pattern Deviations and Safety Factors7.2.5 Functional Neuromuscular Conditioning.......................................................................................411

7.3 Combinations of Resistance Methods.............................................................................. 411Scientific Analysis of Different Combinations................................................................................................412Accelerated Powermetrics..................................................................................................................................415

7.4 Muscle Training.................................................................................................................. 4167.4.1A Summary o f Movements o f the Joints.........................................................................................4167.4.2 Examination o f Some Joint A ctions............................................................................................... 418

7.5 Use of the Strength Training Compendium.................................................................... 4187.6 Training for Hypertrophy?.............................................................................................. 4198. DESIGNING SPORT SPECIFIC STRENGTH PROGRAMMES...........................4218.1 Preliminary Considerations............................................................................................4218.2 Needs Analysis and Sports Modelling........................................................................... 423

Selection of Training NeedsGeneral Fitness Issues InjuriesTraining to Avoid Injury Training of the Soft Tissues

83 The Training Programme..................................................................................................428Components of the Training Programme Statute of Fitness Limitations The Minimax Principle and Training Economics List of Popular Resistance Exercises

8.4 Classification of Exercises for Sports Training............................................................... 4338.4.1 Principles o f Exercise Classification............................................................................................... 4338.4.2 Classification o f Weightlifting Exercises.......................................................................................434

Categorisation of Fundamental and Additional Exercises General Preparatory Exercises in Weightlifting List of Exercises in Weightlifting Training Examples of Powerlifting Exercises Examples of Hybrid Lifting Exercises

8.5 Overtraining.........................................................................................................................4418.6 Restoration and Stress Management................................................................................444

Stress and Restorative Measures Application of Restorative Measures Restorative Means Massage Methods Massage VariablesFurther Fundamentals of Sports Recovery Complexes and Periodisation in Restoration Research into Restoration Methods Sports Science and Stress Management

8.7 The Use Of Testing.............................................................................................................. 456The Vertical Jumping TestMuscle Strength RatiosWork Capacity and Functional Pressure Tests

8.8 Injury and Safety in Strength Training............................................................................460Biomechanics of the Injury Process General Biomechanical Causes of Injury Injury Prevention by Imperfection Training

8.9 Safety and Training Apparel............................................................................................. 4678.9.1 Lifting, Belts and B reath ing.............................................................................................................. 4678.9.2 Shoes and Safety................................................................................................................................... 468

Shoe DesignShoes in the Weights Facility

8.10 Safety and Machinc Training............................................................................................ 4698.11 Protection by the Muscles..................................................................................................472

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8.12 Towards the Future 473Non-Physical Factors Lessons from Modem Physics Changes of State Fuzzy FitnessApplication o f New Methods Innovations in Testing Kinaesthetic Manipulation and Education Advances in Methods of Coaching Concluding Remarks

R E F E R E N C E S A N D B IB L IO G R A P H Y .................................................................................................... 481IN D E X ............................................................................................................................................................................ 4959. A D D E N D U M ..................................................................................................................................................... 5039.1 L a w s o f S p o r ts M a s te ry : P r in c ip le s o f T r a in in g ............................................................................. 504

Introduction..............................................................................................................................................................5049.1.1. Understanding compensatory adaptation........................................................................................ 5109.1.2. Current adaptation reserves o f the body...........................................................................................5109.1.3. The adaptation strategy....................................................................................................................... 5119.1.4. Specificity o f protein synthesis during adaptation........................................................................5139.1.5. Essentials o f the constructive effects o f the adaptational process............................................. 5199.1.6. Heterochronism o f the adaptational restructuring.........................................................................5279.1.7. Functional economy o f the adapted body.......................................................................................5309.1.8. The optimal regime o f adaptation.....................................................................................................5339.1.9. The phenomena o f decreasing o f immunological reactivity...................................................... 5419.1.10. General schematic o f the adaptational process during sports activity.................................542CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................................... 544B ib liography in R u ssian .................................................................................................................................. 552B ib liography not in R u ssian ...........................................................................................................................556

9.2 T h e S h o c k M e th o d fo r D ev e lo p in g P o w e r ..........................................................................................563What is reactive ability?.......................................................................................................................................563What is the Shock method?................................................................................................................................. 563History o f the Shock M ethod...............................................................................................................................563Guidelines for using the shock method............................................................................................................. 565Technique o f the depth jum p ...............................................................................................................................565Recommendations for using depth-jum ps....................................................................................................... 566Program to develop explosive strength and reactive ability o f the leg muscles..................................... 567Program for Perfecting Starting Acceleration................................................................................................ 572Program for improvement o f ball throwing speed......................................................................................... 575CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................................... 577

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STRENGTH AND THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM

ObjectiveIt is the objective o f this book to explore the phenomenon o f strength and to apply to physical conditioning the discoveries arising from this quest, with a particular emphasis on the development o f special fitness and preparedness fo r sporting performance at the highest level. In meeting this objective, the concepts o f work capacity, fitness and preparedness, as well as the different types o f strength are examined in detail to provide the necessary framework for research and practical application o f all findings.

It analyses the different types o f strength, their roles in human movement and how they may be developed efficiently. In illustrating how scientific research may be applied in training or rehabilitation, it discusses the various means and methods o f strength training, ranging from resistance training with weights to impulsive ('plyometric') loading without weights. It identifies which specific types o f strength fitness are required by the athlete, the forms in which strength is produced over the range o f a given sporting movement and the most appropriate sequences for developing the different types o f strength fitness over a prolonged training period.

Since considerable research reveals that strength is not a single fundamental fitness factor like cardiovascular endurance, as is often implied, this textbook introduces the reader to the exquisite complexity o f strength via an understanding of the biomechanics, functional anatomy and physiology o f the human movement system. This is not done simply as an intellectual exercise, but to prevent the reader from devising sport specific training programmes based on deficient traditional schedules which may have ignored the nuances o f the different types of strength and the specificity o f training for a given sport and individual.

This text, although aimed primarily at the exercise scientist, specialist high level coach and physical educator, also has direct relevance to the sports medical practitioner or therapist who may be involved with rehabilitating athletes whose return to top level competition depends on restoration o f the necessary type o f strength fitness.

What is S tren g th ?Strength is an essential component o f all human performance and its formal development can no longer be neglected in the preparation o f any athlete. Successful strength conditioning depends on a thorough understanding of all processes underlying the production o f strength by the body. Therefore, it is appropriate that this text commences with an outline o f the structure and function o f the more important systems involved in producing all types of strength.

Strength is the product o f muscular action initiated and orchestrated by electrical processes in the nervous system of the body. Classically, strength is defined as the ability o f a given muscle or group o f muscles to generate muscular force under specific conditions. Thus, maximal strength is the ability o f a particular group o f muscles to produce a maximal voluntary contraction in response to optimal motivation against an external load. This strength is usually produced in competition and may also be referred to as the competitive maximum strength, CFmax. It is not the same as absolute strength, which Zatsiorsky (1995) calls Fmm, the maximum of all maxima, and which usually is associated with the greatest force which can be produced by a given muscle group under involuntary muscle stimulation by, for example, electrical stimulation o f the nerves supplying the muscles or recruitment of a powerful stretch reflex by sudden loading.

For certain practical purposes, absolute strength may be regarded as roughly equivalent to maximal eccentric strength, which is difficult or impractical to measure, because a maximum by definition refers to the limit point preceding structural and functional failure o f the system. Thus, it is apparent that specific neural feedback mechanisms, like governors in a mechanical engine, exist to prevent a muscle from continuing to produce force to the point of mechanical failure. This is why it probably would be more practical to use the maximum explosive isometric strength (produced under so-called maximum plyometric conditions or explosive thrust against a dynamometer, as discussed in Ch 5) as a working approximation to absolute strength (or Fmm). To prevent confusion, it also should be noted that the term absolute strength sometimes is used to define the maximum strength which can be produced by an athlete irrespective o f bodymass.

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It is vital to recognise a training maximum TFmax or training 1RM (single repetition maximum), which is always less than the competition maximum CFmax in experienced athletes, because optimal motivation invariably occurs under competitive conditions (Fig 1.1). Zatsiorsky states that the training maximum is the heaviest load which one can lift without substantial emotional excitement, as indicated by a very significant rise in heart rate before the lift (Medvedev, 1986). It is noteworthy that, in the untrained person, involuntary or hypnotic conditions can increase strength output by up to 35%, but by less than 10% in the trained athlete. The mean difference between TFmax and CFmax is approximately 12.5 2.5% in experienced weightlifters, with a larger difference being exhibited by lifters in heavier weight classes (Zatsiorsky, 1995).

The merit o f identifying the different types o f strength or performance maximum lies in enabling one to prescribe training intensity more efficiently. Intensity is usually defined as a certain percentage o f one's maximum and it is most practical to choose this on the basis o f the competitive maximum, which remains approximately constant for a fairly prolonged period. The training maximum can vary daily, so, while it may be o f value in prescribing training for less qualified athletes, it is o f limited value for the elite competitor.

It is relevant to note that competitions involve very few attempts to reach a maximum, yet they are far more exhausting than strenuous workouts with many repetitions, since they involve extremely high levels of psychological and nervous stress. The high levels o f nervous and emotional stress incurred by attempting a competitive maximum require many days or even weeks to reach full recovery, even though physical recuperation would appear to be complete, so that this type o f loading is not recommended as a regular form o f training.

In other words, any attempt to exceed limit weights requires an increase in nervous excitation and interferes with the athlete's ability to adapt, if this type o f training is used frequently. In attempting to understand the intensity o f loading prescribed by the apparently extreme Bulgarian coaches who are reputed to stipulate frequent or daily use o f maximum loads in training, one has to appreciate that training with training maxima (which do not maximally stress the nervous system) is very different from training with competitive maxima (which place great stress on nervous processes).

Fi gure 1.1 Different types o f maximal strength. Absolute strength (or Fmm, maximum o f maximum forces) is produced under involuntary conditions, whereas the other two maxima are the result o f voluntary action. The strength deficit, the difference between absolute strength and maximal strength, is discussed later in this section.

Strength is a relative phenomenon depending on numerous factors, so it is essential that these conditions are accurately described when strength is being assessed. For instance, muscular strength varies with joint angle, joint orientation, speed o f movement, muscle group and type o f movement, so it is largely meaningless to speak of absolute strength without specifying the conditions under which it is generated. Sometimes, the term relative strength is introduced to compare the strength o f subjects o f different bodymass. In this context, relative strength is defined as the strength per unit bodymass produced by a given individual under specific conditions (e.g. executing a well-defined lift or combination o f lifts, such as the squat, snatch or the weightlifting Total).

It is also useful to recognise that one may define isometric, concentric and eccentric strength maxima, since every sport requires distinct levels o f each one o f these types o f maximum. The importance o f these maxima is discussed later in the subsection entitled 'Strength Deficit', As a matter o f interest, these maxima given in order of magnitude are: eccentric, isometric, concentric.

Later, several other important strength-related terms such as explosive strength, starting-strcngth, acceleration-strength and speed-strcngth are analysed in detail. In particular, this text discusses strength and musculoskeletal conditioning in terms o f the following fundamentals:

The physiology o f muscle action

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The biomcchanics o f strength production Neuromuscular stimulation and control Adaptation to physical loading The various types o f strength fitness The specificity of muscular and neuromuscular training

The Origins of S t re n g th T ra in ing ScienceStrength training has always been synonymous with the so-called 'Iron Game', a broad generic term for the competitive lifting o f heavy objects by strong men during the last century or so. Feats o f lifting strength, however, have appeared throughout the history o f most nations, but it has only been in very recent times that training to produce strength has become a scientific discipline. This science did not arise overnight: it is the culminating point of thousands o f years o f trial-and-error methods o f training.

The earliest reference to formal strength training occurs in Chinese texts dating to as far back as 3600BC, when emperors made their subjects exercise daily (Webster, 1976). During the Chou dynasty (1 122-249BC), potential soldiers had to pass weight-lifting tests before being allowed to enter the armed forces. There is abundant evidence o f weight-training used in ancient Egypt and India, while the Greeks left numerous sculptures and illustrations of their athletes training with stone weights. In fact, the 6th century BC was known as the 'Age of Strength' and weight-lifting competitions involved the lifting of huge stones. The renowned ancient physician, Galen, referred frequently to exercising with weights (halteres), with his treatise Preservation o f Health even classifying exercises into 'quick' exercises without weights and 'violent' exercises which are performed with weights. The Roman poet Martial (40-104AD) pondered: "Why do the strong men labour with their stupid dumbbells? A far better task for men is digging a vine trench". Weight training was not confined to men: a wall mosaic from a Roman villa in Piazza Almeria in Sicily depicted a girl exercising with weights.

It should not be surprising, then, that the quest for superior strength led to numerous systems o f strength training, thereby laying a solid experiential foundation for the far more refined methods o f today. During the 16th century in Europe, books on weight-training began to emerge, with Sir Thomas Elyot's text on the topic being published in England in 1531. Several universities in France and Germany offered weight training and in 1544, Joachim Camcrius, a lecturer at Leipzig University, wrote several books recommending weight training as an essential activity for the model school. In 1728, John Paugh published A Physiological, Theoretic and Practical Treatise on the Utility o f Muscular Exercise fo r Restoring the Power to the Limbs, revealing that even then it was recognised that weight training offered therapeutic benefits. In the 1860s, the Scot, Archibald MacLaren, compiled the first system o f physical training with dumbbells and barbells for the British Army and formalised a crude form of progressive overloading. Some o f his ideas appeared in McMillans Magazine (1863) in his article, National Systems of Bodily Exercise, which compared various systems o f physical training used at that time.

Pioneers of S tren g th T rain ingThe path to strength training science is synonymous with the history o f many o f the legendary heroes of yesteryear, ranging from the biblical Samson and the bull-lifting Milo o f Italy to the Russian superheavy wcightlifter, Alexeyev. The showmen and strong man entertainers o f 19th century Europe in particular, laid the most solid foundations for the systematic development o f formal strength and physique training methods and the eventual acceptance o f the use o f these methods in the general fitness and sports specific strength training revolution of today. Space permits the mention o f only a few o f these pioneering strong men o f the past, so the history-minded reader is well advised to read David Websters fascinating and thorough book, The Iron Game, which presents the feats of these men from the distant past to 1975, upon which this brief summary is based.

On the basis o f many years o f research, Webster isolates the Italian circus and fairground performer, Felice Napoli, as the initiator o f the strong man boom on an international scale. Born in 1820, some o f his most illustrious disciples included Professor Attila (Louis Durlacher) and Eugen Sandow (Frederick Muller). The German-born Attila, in turn, became so well-known that he attracted as his pupils some o f the worlds most famous physical culturalists and many rulers o f Europe. Royalty whom he taught included King George of Greece, King Edward o f England (while he was Prince o f Wales), Crown Prince Frederick who became King Haakon of Norway, the six children o f King Christian o f Denmark, the Queen Mother Alexandra o f England, Princess Dagmar (who became Empress o f Russia and mother o f Tsar Nicholas), and the Duchess o f Cumberland.

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At the time, the training of royalty, the wealthy and the famous with weights and specialised exercises was a well-established and desirable profession, predating the current generation of so-called personal trainers by about 150 years. The fame and fortune o f the strongmen o f those days were a result o f their regular and well-publicised one-on-one stage challenges and entertainment hall competitions using some highly individual and unusual one and two arm lifts, swings, supports and manoeuvres against loads o f vehicles, humans and specially contrived barbells and dumbbells. These events, much like the music hall performances o f famous composers and musicians, were often attended by royalty and the wealthy, and served to publicise these men, not only as entertainers, but also as teachers or mentors o f physical culture.

The great Sandow, bom in Koningsberg in East Russia in 1867, was sought out by presidents and rulers from all around the world, with his book. Life is Movement being received enthusiastically by nine kings and queens and many princes o f Europe, as well as US Presidents William Taft and Woodrow Wilson. Besides defeating many strongmen o f his time, he was a generous sponsor of many charitable causes and an early champion of more hygienic conditions o f working and living for all, including the central role o f formal fitness and health management. As part o f his vision, he pressed for the introduction o f physical education and sport as compulsory school subjects, and the regular examination o f pupils by school doctors and dentists. At the same time, he toured the world lecturing to promote physical culture as a means o f improving quality o f life, with his contributions being described as follows by the Mirror o f Life and Sport (8 April 1911):

His Majesty King George has conferred an unique honour upon Mr. Eugen Sandow, the world-renowned exponent and founder o f scientific physical culture. Mr. Sandow ju st having had the honour o f being appointed Professor o f Scientific Physical Culture to his Majesty.The keen interest which the King has always taken in the physical welfare o f his people is well-known, and there is no desire more dear to his M ajesty's heart than to improve the conditions o f life fo r the masses.Mr. Sandow's appointment must be regarded as a striking recognition o f the undoubted benefits o f scientific physical culture, and there is no doubt that the interest shown by his Majesty in the subject will considerably increase the popularity o f the science o f which Mr. Sandow is the principal authority.Mr. Sandow is a man who has risen by his own unaided effort to a position in which he is not only a national but a world factor in the science o f improvement o f the human body and the combating o f that physical degeneracy which in form er eras has always accompanied the advances o f civilisation.

In many respects, therefore, Sandow was one o f the most important founding fathers o f the fitness revolution, with the history o f his efforts revealing that the modem phenomenon o f science-based physical training is by no means novel or innovative. Interestingly, Sandows methods focused largely on the development o f strength and skill as the foundation o f health, an approach which was almost completely deposed more than half a century later by cardiovascular scientists such as Dr Kenneth Cooper o f the USA, who massively downplayed the role of these fitness qualities and stressed aerobic fitness as being far more important to general health. It has taken more than 25 years for the quality o f strength advocated by Sandow to return to academic acceptance.

In Russia, during this same period, the eminent Polish-born physician, Vladislav Krayevsky (or Krajewski), founded the St Petersburg Amateur Weightlifting Society (1885), having visited various German towns to familiarise himself with what was already known throughout Europe as weightlifting or heavy athletics (or Tyazhelaya Atletika, the name still used in Russia to describe this sport), because of his great interest in the use of physical culture for the prevention and treatment o f illness. Many prominent scientists, artists and athletes became his pupils, including another famous strongman, George Hackenschmidt, who credited Krayevsky for teaching him all that he knew. Hackenschmidt, in his book, The Way to Live, added that some o f the worlds strongest men o f that era, including Sandow, were trained according to Krayevskys system.

Krayevsky's considerable knowledge in medicine, psychology, physical culture, methods o f using exercises and organizational abilities made him an acknowledged leader in weightlifting sports (including wrestling). He not only promoted weightlifting, taught classes and organized competitions, but also lifted himself, achieving significant success in barbell lifts. Krayevsky was president of the jury at the first world championships in Vienna in 1898.

Krayevsky's personal example, enthusiasm, authority and the popularity of his group o f distinguished students had a major effect on the development o f weightlifting in Russia. Krayevsky wrote two of his fundamental works during the period 18%-1899, one o f them being The Catechism o f Health - Rules fo r Athletes. Curiously, this work was sent to press on 9 December 1899, but was never published and now is preserved only

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in manuscript form. His other book. The Development o f Physical Strength with Kettlebells and without Kettlebells, however, was published in 1900 and reprinted three times (1902, 1909, 1916) after his death (1901).

Krayevsky displayed an excellent knowledge o f the history o f physical culture and all forms o f gymnastics. He paid special attention to therapeutic gymnastics in his Diagram o f Medico Gymnastic Uses and its accompanying detailed commentary. Krayevsky was very familiar with Swedish gymnastics and noted its therapeutic applications, but his concern with the lack o f scientific substantiation o f the Swedish system led him to recruit Russian experimentalists to research it.

Many of Krayevsky's methodological recommendations are still valid. These recommendations include medical control of the athlete's health, regularity o f workouts and planned sequencing o f increasing loads, multifaceted physical development, psychological management, observation o f wellness rules (especially sleep) and refraining from the use of alcohol and smoking. Krayevsky was especially concerned with forming correct breathing habits and methods o f combating fatigue, and felt that many o f the limitations imposed by heredity could be overcome by appropriate training.

Many of these early strength pioneers devised interesting and unique training weights and machines, including cable machines, variable resistance machines using cams and levers, elastic springs and cables, friction resistance devices, kettlebells, thick-grip bars, hollow-ended barbells and dumbbells whose weight could be increased by adding lead shot, odd-shaped bars, isolation machines, weighted boots and various throwing devices. Yet there are those today who lay claims o f originality to designing these machines more than 50 years after their original manufacture. In addition, a large number o f weight training, bodybuilding exercises and techniques which are believed to be original today had been tried and tested in that burgeoning exploration era o f finding the best methods of strength training.

Interestingly, some o f the earlier authors offered insights which even today tend to be ignored by some coaches. For example, Paschall (1954) wrote:

The main difference in physical strength between the ordinary barbell exerciser and the competing weight lifter may be traced to two things: the exerciser has been more interested in building up the 'belly ' or 'lump' o f the muscle than in joint or ligament strength, and also he has usually been more interested in performing a certain number o f repetitions rather than one top effort. In addition to these obvious differences, there are also several intangible points, such as conditioned reflexes due to practice o f certain repeated lifting motions a nd . . . a fuller development o f the useable muscle fibres.

It is noteworthy today that no popular Western texts on so-called plyometric training pay any attention to the fact that reflexes are not immutable and can be unconsciously or consciously conditioned by training actions.

The early names o f the machines and methods mentioned above invariably were replaced by more impressive or more marketable terms and thus, the modem fitness public has been deprived o f knowing the true designers and the illustrious history o f the early users o f strength apparatus.

The Divergence of T rain ing PhilosophiesThe development o f different scientific and educational cultures in the West and the East had a profound impact on the growth o f the different aspects o f strength and general fitness training. In the earliest days o f the strength game, most of the strong men travelled extensively to learn from colleagues and teachers with different outlooks and were keen to be apprenticed to those whose knowledge attracted widespread attention. With the advent o f World War I, the growth o f the USA into a great power, the advent o f communism and other controversial philosophies and economies, nationalism reached greater heights than ever before in Europe. The Great Depression followed a few decades later, leading to World War II and the partitioning o f the world into an Eastern and a Western bloc.

The increasing ideological isolation o f nations and well-protected prestige o f sporting success meant that research in all fields, including sport, took different directions. During the years after both World Wars, Russia and Europe still continued to promote the virtues o f physical strength and power, whereas research in the West rapidly veered in the direction o f cardiovascular fitness, assuming great impetus with the running for health and aerobics crazes, associated closely with Swedish endurance exercise research and popular fitness books such as Kenneth Coopers Aerobics. This resulted in a vigorous promotion o f the cardiovascular doctrine, the paradigm which maintains that cardiac and general health depends predominantly on prolonged endurance or aerobic exercise. At the same time, proponents o f this doctrine fairly vigorously denigrated the health benefits o f strength

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training. For example. Cooper (1968: p25) stated that: If it 's muscles or a body beautiful, youll get it from weightlifting or calisthenics, but not much m o re .. . If its the overall health o f your body youre interested in, isometrics wont do it for you, neither will isotonics or anaerobics. Aerobic exercises are the only ones that will.

It was inevitable that the accompanying high profile marketing and media campaigns, extensively underwritten by the medical profession, would make the pursuit o f strength oriented sports considerably less attractive in the public eye. Olympic Weightlifting became and still is a rarity in schools in the West and strong young men are steered more in the direction o f sports such as American football and rugby, games which by mere acceptance into the school curriculum ensure a huge pool of talent.

During the same period, the Russians and Eastern Europeans accumulated extensive international information on strength and sports training while developing a vast research effort into these topics, as well as establishing a vast coaching and educational sports programme. Most schools offered weightlifting and within a few decades after World War II there were at least a million Olympic lifters in the USSR alone. Besides its application in competitive weightlifting, strength training became an integral part of all sports training in Russia, whereas in the West, the attitude more often was one which claimed that weight training slowed one down, made for unnecessary bulk and reduced flexibility. Quite predictably, Russia began to dominate the Olympic Games, especially in Olympic weightlifting, at the same time that the cardiovascular doctrine began to dominate the West.

This Russian dominance often has been simplistically attributed to the extensive use o f drugs such as the androgenic-anabolic steroids, but, ironically, the synthesis and sporting use o f these drugs was pioneered in the West. It is more accurate to state that the use o f such drugs became equally extensive in East and West and that dominance in many international sports by Eastern nations was more a consequence o f several other vital factors, especially strength science and organisational systems.

The West today would appear to have reaccepted a useful role for strength training, but the proliferation of weight training facilities and personal trainers still has much more to do with commercialism than the impact of strength science, as is emphasized by the fact that the cardiovascular doctrine still dominates the fitness conscious psyche, there are few schools which offer Olympic lifting and there are fewer competitive lifters than ever before.

The Modern Era DawnsThe systems o f training o f the early pioneers touched upon above ultimately formed the framework o f modem competitive bodybuilding and weightlifting, with some o f the exercise techniques and machines being adopted into physiotherapy and the coaching regimes for other sports. Yet, serious scientific research into strength training only developed well into the 20th century and, as we have seen, even now research into cardiovascular training attracts considerably more attention from scientists.

Nevertheless, the evolution o f resistance training in several different directions has produced an invaluable data base from the following distinct sources (the details in parentheses refer to the purpose o f each discipline):

Weightlifting and powerlifting (competitive performance against maximal resistance) Bodybuilding (resistance training to maximise muscle hypertrophy) Supplementary resistance training (resistance exercise to enhance fitness in other sports) Physiotherapy (resistance exercise for rehabilitation) Scientific research (analysis to understand resistance exercise scientifically).

The information in this book is selected from the above sources to present an integrated approach to the use of strength training to enhance performance in all top level sport. Throughout, the approach has been to reconcile competitive lifting and sporting performance with scientific research, for theory without practice is as limited as practice without theory. It would be premature, however, to maintain that all questions in strength training have been answered: on the contrary, the quest for a definitive science and art o f strength training is still in its infancy.

The F u n d am en ta l Principle of S tren g th T rain ingThe production and increase o f strength both depend on neuromuscular processes. Strength is not primarily a function o f muscle size, but one of the appropriate muscles powerfully contracted by effective nervous stimulation. This is the foundation o f all strength training.

Several centuries ago, when electricity, less still bioelectricity, was not o f much scientific interest, this principle was already anticipated by Sir Isaac Newton, who wrote in his Principia M athematica (1687) of "a

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ccitain most subtle spirit which pervades and lies hidden in all gross bodies," and that "all sensation is excited, and the members of animal bodies move at the command o f the will, namely, by the vibrations o f this spirit, mutually propagated along the solid filaments o f the nerves, from the outward organs o f sense to the brain, and from the brain into the muscles." In other words, if we restate the terminology o f those times, we will note that the central role of the mind and nervous system in human movement was already stressed by one o f sciences leading figures.

In the 1930s, the New York strongman, Paul Boeckmann, stressed in his treatise. Nerve Force, the importance of the nerves in strength training, and considered nervous control, conservation o f nervous energy and the ability to generate explosive force at the time o f greatest need as the foundation o f physical power (Paschall, 1954). He also pointed out the great importance o f using regular rest periods to enhance nervous recovery.

Physiology tells us that structure is determined by function, where muscle hypertrophy is an adaptive response to neuromuscular stimulation o f a given minimum intensity. Thus, nervous stimulation produces two basic adaptive and interrelated effects in the body:

functional muscular action (the functional effect) muscle hypertrophy (the structural effect).

The fundamental principle o f strength training, then, is that all strength increase is initiated by neuromuscular stimulation. Although hypertrophy is the long-term result o f a certain regime of neuromuscular stimulation, it is not the inevitable consequence o f all types of work against resistance. Two basic types o f resistance training may be recognised, namely:

functional resistance training structural resistance training.

In drawing up this distinction, it should be noted that there is no such thing as purely structural training, since all training is essentially functional, which, under certain conditions, may also elicit structural changes. Moreover, the production o f maximal strength depends to a great extent on the existence o f an optimal degree o f muscle hypertrophy.

While structural resistance training is aimed primarily at producing muscle hypertrophy (and some aspects of tissue flexibility), functional strength training is associated with many different performance goals, including improvement in static strength, speed-strength, muscle endurance and reactive ability. In other words, the former produces increases in diameter and/or strength o f individual muscle fibres, whereas the latter implicates the contractions of the numerous muscle fibres to produce the appropriate performance effect. At a more detailed level, functional training involves the following processes (Fig 1.2):

1. Intermuscular coordination between different muscle groups. This involves the synchronisation or sequencing of actions between different muscle groups which are producing any given joint movements. Certain muscles may be inhibited from cooperating, while others may be disinhibited in contributing to the movement.

2. Intramuscular coordination o f fibres within the same muscle group. This implicates one or more o f the following mechanisms o f fibre control:

Number encoding, the control o f muscle tension by activating or deactivating certain numbers o f fibres. Rate (frequency) encoding, the control of tension by modifying the firing rate o f active fibres. Pattern encoding, the control o f tension by synchronisation or sequencing o f firing o f the different types o f

muscle fibre (e.g. slow or fast twitch fibres).

3. Facilitatorv and inhibitory reflexive processes in the neural pathways acting at various levels in the nervous system may be modified to optimise the development o f strength, either by improving intra- and intermuscular coordination or by promoting adaptive changes in the various reflex systems o f the body.

4. Motor learning, which is the process of programming the brain/central nervous system to be able to carry outspecific movement tasks (discussed in detail in 1.13). A great deal o f the early improvement in strength and performance is a result o f motor learning, this being vital to the continued efficiency o f later training. Motor learning continues as the intensity and complexity o f loading increases progressively, because skill under demanding conditions is significantly different from skill under less onerous circumstances.

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Figure 1.2 The structural and functional effects o f strength training stimulation. All training, to a greater or lesser degree, affects the above and all other physical systems, including the cardiovascular, endocrine and metabolic systems. Only the major training effects of strength loads discussed in this book are shown.

In the early stages o f training or during stagnation at an advanced level, the functional stages should precede the structural stages (see 1.2 and Ch 2). Thus, functionally transitional stimuli which include motor skill and coordination training are important for the beginner, and functionally powerful stimuli such as increased intensity and reflexive action are appropriate for the more advanced athlete. The need to prescribe structurally versus functionally dominant training at any stage of proficiency also should be guided by an assessment o f the strength deficit (discussed after the next subsection).

Neural Changes w ith TrainingThe fact that neuromuscular stimulation is fundamental to all training is emphasized further by recent findings that sensory experience results in enlargement and other changes in the cerebral cortex. Earlier hypotheses that the central nervous system cannot change after adulthood have now been proved to be incorrect. It was generally recognised that the young brain has a great capacity to adapt to changes such as injury or disease, but that neural tissue in the mature animal is unable to display this plasticity.

Rosenzweig (1984) has concluded that the capacity for plastic neural changes is present not only early in life, but throughout most, if not all, o f the human lifespan. These changes become particularly evident if one is exposed to a sufficiently enriched environment providing novel, complex and cognitively challenging stimulation, a finding which stresses the importance o f not limiting one's training to simple, largely unchallenging repetitive patterns o f training with exactly the same weights or machines. This is one o f the main reasons why this text emphasizes the importance o f planned variation utilising numerous different means, methods and exercises which draw on integrative whole-body disciplines such as physiotherapeutic PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation), discussed in Chapter 7.

The work o f Rosenzweig, Diamond and colleagues at Berkeley has not only revealed that neural changes occur in adulthood, but that these changes can occur easily and rapidly, within minutes and not years. Greenough at the University o f Illinois found that these alterations in the central nervous system include not only mass increase, but other structural changes such as the formation o f new cell synapses and dendrites (Hall, 1985). Other work being done with amputees, the disabled and other ncurally damaged patients is revealing that the brain in effect can rewire itself and recruit areas functionally or structurally adjacent to injured areas to carry out specific tasks. For example, blind individuals who read braille have enlarged brain regions devoted to control of their index fingers. Still further work has found evidence of neural growth in the hippocampus (Gibbs, 1998).

Some o f these findings are teaching better strategics for rehabilitating stroke patients. Conventionally, a patient with weak fingers, but efficient arm and shoulder movement is often advised to exercise the arm to help strengthen the fingers. However, the brain's plasticity decrees that undamaged parts o f the brain take over much o f the necessary functioning and the fingers grow weaker. A superior strategy is to restrict arm and shoulder movement and compel the fingers to exercise, so that the neural areas controlling the former areas will not overpower those controlling the latter. These findings have profound implications for fitness training, particularly the following:

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Fitness training not only causes physiological and functional changes in the motor and cardiovascular systems, but also in the central nervous system.

Strength training on machines which restrict the movements o f joints involved in producing a specific sporting action can modify the circuitry and programming o f the brain and thereby reduce the functional or sport specific capability of many o f the muscles used to execute that movement.

The rapidity of changes produced in the brain by repeated stimuli means that even short periods of inappropriate patterns o f strength training can be detrimental to sporting performance. The importance o f understanding the complexities o f prescribing concurrent and sequential methods of training in the short and long term then becomes obvious. This necessitates a thorough knowledge o f phenomena such as the delayed training effect, the long-term delayed training effect and the conjugate sequence method, discussed in detail in later chapters.

Over-reliance on ergogenic devices such as lifting belts, hand grips, bandages for the joints, special shoe inserts, wedges under the heels for squatting and elasticised training suits can modify the neuromuscular system to such an extent that efficient or safe training without them becomes difficult.

The avoidance of certain exercises (such as those often condemned by popular fitness training organisations) and the use of compensatory muscle action can alter the dynamic balance between interactive muscle groups and alter neural programmes so as to reduce the capability o f handling certain functional movements efficiently and safely in sport and daily activities.

If the likelihood o f total rehabilitation o f an injury is remote, then the teaching o f compensatory muscular action can be valuable in maintaining a high level of functional capability.

The existence of individual style reveals that each person will programme the central nervous system in subtly different ways, so that attempts to impose stereotyped, highly general patterns o f movement may prevent an athlete from ever reaching his full potential.

Subtle differences apparently as insignificant as a change in grip, stance or head position in regular training can cause significant neural changes which control the way in which the athlete executes a given skill.

Strength DeficitFor the preceding reasons, this text is careful to distinguish between resistance training to produce functional versus structural effects. In determining whether an athlete requires a specific type o f resistance training, it is useful to introduce the concept o f strength deficit (Fig 1.1), which is defined as the difference between maximum strength (voluntary effort) produced in a given action and absolute strength (involuntary effort) o f which the athlete is capable in that same action. This deficit may be defined under static or dynamic conditions, with the deficit depending on the rate at which force has to be developed in a given joint action. In the laboratory situation, absolute strength may be estimated by subjecting the muscles concerned to the maximum electrical stimulation which can be tolerated.

Since the maximum force which may be exerted depends on the load, one may define a strength deficit at different loads, according to the force-time curve shown in Figure 3.3. Zatsiorsky (1995) defines an explosive strength deficit as the difference between the maximum force produced under any condition and what he terms the maximum maximorum, Fmm (the maximum of all maxima).

Strength deficit reflects the percentage o f maximal strength potential which is not used during a given motor task, but its accurate measurement is seldom performed in practice, because determination o f maximum contractile strength by electrical stimulation is a difficult and potentially harmful task, and even if this were not the case, most sporting actions involve many muscles and joints, so that measurements o f deficits for separate muscle groups would not necessarily relate to performance deficits in complex tasks.

The closest one can approach involuntary recruitment o f as many muscle fibres in a given task is to force the body to react by reflex action to a suddenly imposed load. Thus, in a jumping or pulling activity, an approximate measure of strength deficit may be made by comparing the vertical jump achieved from a static start with knees flexed with a vertical jump preceded by a sudden dip. If there is a small difference between the two jumps, this suggests that training focuses more on nervous stimulation via the use o f shock and ballistic methods such as

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plyomctrics. If the deficit is large, then strength and hypertrophy training with 5RM to 8RM (8 repetition maximum) loads using methods such as CAT (Compensatory Activation Training) is more suitable.

In general, if the strength deficit is large for a given muscle group, an increase in speed-strcngth may be produced by maximal or near-maximal neuromuscular stimulation (e.g. via weightlifting or plyometric methods). If the strength deficit is small, hypertrophy must be induced by submaximal loading methods as commonly used in bodybuilding, followed by maximal efforts against heavy loads.

Verkhoshansky has shown that the strength deficit increases as the external resistance and the time o f motion decrease (see 3.2.1), indicating that training to increase maximum or absolute strength becomes more important as the time available for a movement becomes longer. Conversely, training to increase rapidity o f movement (i.e. nervous system conditioning) becomes more important as the external load decreases. His work implies that estimation o f explosive strength deficit is also more important in devising strength training regimes for athletes whose events do not allow them sufficient time to produce maximum force, in other words, for actions such as running, jumping and throwing. Chapter 3.2.1 gives further essential information on his research into the strength deficit and its relevance to training to increase power and explosive strength.

Before attempting to estimate strength deficit it is important to appreciate that sporting performance does not depend simply on the ability to produce maximum force , since many sporting actions take place so rapidly that it is impossible to recruit an adequate number o f muscle fibres. Presuming that technical skill is adequate, performance may also be limited by the inability to produce the optimal level o f strength at any given instant. In other words. Rate o f Force Development (RFD) or Rate o f Tension Development (RTD) in the muscles are other factors which are vital to sporting prowess. Thus, it can be highly relevant to estimate deficits in maximal force production as well as in the Rate o f Force Production (2.2.1).

Identification o f the strength deficit for the most important muscle groups o f an athlete enables the coach to design the specific type of strength training more accurately than relying on the more conventional approach of fairly a