SUMMARY OF CONTENTS Volume I · 2019-06-05 · SUMMARY OF CONTENTS Volume I Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS

Volume I

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Case Digest Information and User’s Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UG-1

Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TC-1

Table of Digests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TD-1

Table of Statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TS-1

CHAPTER 1: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

CHAPTER 2: Application of the Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

CHAPTER 3: Jurisdiction of Court to Grant Charter Remedy. . . . . . . . . . 3-1

CHAPTER 4: Practice and Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

CHAPTER 5: Principles of Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

CHAPTER 6: Justification (Section 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

CHAPTER 7: Freedom of Religion (Section 2(a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

CHAPTER 8: Freedom of Conscience (Section 2(a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

CHAPTER 9: Freedom of Thought, Belief, Opinion and

Expression (Section 2(b)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

CHAPTER 10: Freedom of the Press (Section 2(b)). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

CHAPTER 11: Freedom of Assembly (Section 2(c)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

CHAPTER 12: Freedom of Association (Section 2(d)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1

CHAPTER 13: Right to Vote and Run for Office (Section 3) . . . . . . . . . 13-1

CHAPTER 14: Term of Parliament and Legislative Assemblies

(Section 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

CHAPTER 15: Sittings of Parliament and the Legislature (Section 5) . . . 15-1

CHAPTER 16: Mobility Rights (Section 6). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1

CHAPTER 17: Right to Life, Liberty and Security of the Person

and the Principles of Fundamental Justice (Section 7) . . . . . . 17-1

Volume 2

CHAPTER 18: Right Against Unreasonable Search and Seizure

(Section 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

CHAPTER 19: Right Against Arbitrary Detention (Section 9) . . . . . . . . 19-1

CHAPTER 20: Right to be Informed Promptly of the Reasons

for Arrest and Detention (Section 10(a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

CHAPTER 21: Right to Retain and Instruct Counsel (Section 10(b)). . . . 21-1

CHAPTER 22: Right to Have Validity of Detention Determined

and to be Released if Detention Invalid (Section 10(c)) . . . . . 22-1

SCI-1 November 2012

CHAPTER 23: Application of Section 11 — Meaning of

“Charged With an Offence” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1

CHAPTER 24: Right to be Informed Without Unreasonable Delay

of the Specific Offence (Section 11(a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1

CHAPTER 25: Right to be Tried Within a Reasonable Time

(Section 11(b)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1

CHAPTER 26: Right of Non-Compellability in Criminal Proceedings

(Section 11(c)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1

CHAPTER 27: Right to the Presumption of Innocence (Section 11(d)) . . 27-1

CHAPTER 28: Right to an Independent Tribunal (Section 11(d)) . . . . . . 28-1

CHAPTER 29: Right to a Fair Trial (Section 11(d)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1

CHAPTER 30: Right to an Impartial Tribunal (Section 11(d)) . . . . . . . . 30-1

CHAPTER 31: Right to a Public Hearing (Section 11(d)) . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1

CHAPTER 32: Right not to be Denied Reasonable Bail Without

Just Cause (Section 11(e)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1

CHAPTER 33: Right to Trial by Jury (Section 11(f)). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1

CHAPTER 34: Right not to be Found Guilty of an Act or Omission

Unless it Constituted an Offence under Canadian or

International Law at the Time of the Act or Omission

(Section 11(g)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1

CHAPTER 35: Right Against Double Jeopardy (Section 11(h)) . . . . . . . 35-1

CHAPTER 36: Right to Benefit of Reduction in Sentence Made

Between Time of Commission of Offence and Time of

Sentencing (Section 11(i)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1

CHAPTER 37: Right Against Cruel and Unusual Punishment

(Section 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1

CHAPTER 38: Right Against Self-Incrimination (Section 13). . . . . . . . . 38-1

CHAPTER 39: Right to Assistance of Interpreter (Section 14) . . . . . . . . 39-1

CHAPTER 40: Equality Rights (Section 15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1

CHAPTER 41: Equality of Status and Equal Rights and Privileges

Regarding Use of Official Languages in Governmental

Institutions (Sections 16 and 16.1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1

CHAPTER 42: Language Rights in Legislative Debates (Section 17) . . . 42-1

CHAPTER 43: Language of Statutes, Records and Journals of

Parliament and the Legislatures (Section 18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1

CHAPTER 44: Language of Court Proceedings (Section 19) . . . . . . . . . 44-1

CHAPTER 45: Language of Government Services (Section 20) . . . . . . . 45-1

CHAPTER 46: Minority Language Educational Rights (Section 23) . . . . 46-1

CHAPTER 47: Remedies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1

Issues in Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-1

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IN-1

SCI-2

CHARTER OF RIGHTS IN LITIGATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

VOLUME I

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Case Digest Information and User’s Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . UG-1

Table of Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TC-1

Table of Digests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TD-1

Table of Statutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TS-1

CHAPTER 1: CANADIAN CHARTER OF RIGHTS AND FREEDOMS . 1-1

1:01 Text of the Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

CHAPTER 2: APPLICATION OF THE CHARTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2:01 Text of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

2:02 General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2

2:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6.1

2:04 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8.6

2:05 Meaning of “Government”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8.7

2:06 What Is Governmental Action?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-19

2:07 Application of the Charter to Common Law Rules . . . . . . . . . 2-26.1

2:08 Application of the Charter to Interpret Legislative Provisions. . 2-28.6

2:09 Application of the Charter to Private Litigation . . . . . . . . . . . 2-30.8

2:10 Retrospective Application of the Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-31

2:11 Justiciability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-33

2:12 Extraterritorial Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-36

2:13 Application of the Charter to Other Parts of the Constitution . . . . 2-42

2:14 Equality Rights — Section 32(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-44

2:15 Section 33 — The Override Provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-45

2:16 Application of the Charter to Constitutional Conventions . . . . . . 2-46

2:17 Limitation Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-46

CHAPTER 3: JURISDICTION OF COURT TO GRANT

CHARTER REMEDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1


3:02 General Principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3

3:03 Jurisdiction of Provincial Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6

3:04 Preliminary Hearing Magistrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7

3:05 Superior Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7

[1] Original Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7

CI-1 June 2016

[2] Concurrent Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10

[3] Preference for Trial Court Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11

3:06 Pre-Trial Relief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11

3:07 Rights of Appeal from a Denial of Pre-Trial Relief . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14

3:08 Availability of “Civil” Remedies in Criminal Court . . . . . . . . . . 3-15

3:09 Effect of Charter Violation on Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-16

3:10 No Gaps in Jurisdiction; Guarantee of Access to Courts . . . . . . . 3-17

3:11 Jurisdiction of Bodies Other than Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-18

3:12 Federal Court or Provincial Superior Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-23

CHAPTER 4: PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1


4:02 Bringing a Charter Claim — The Interrelationship of the

Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

4:03 Obtaining Leave to Appeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

[1] Statutory Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4

[2] Criteria for Granting Leave. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

(a) National importance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

(b) Legal principles which are uncertain or require

reassessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8

(c) A genuine dispute between the parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9

(d) A dispute of larger public interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9

(e) A pressing need for the issue to be resolved . . . . . . . . 4-9

(f) The facts of the case are appropriate . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10

(g) The case is well presented . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10

(h) The merits of the case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11

4:04 Standing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11

[1] Rights of a Party Are Infringed or Denied . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11

[2] Rights of a Party Are About to be Infringed or Denied . . . 4-12

[3] Accused Challenges Provision Under Which it is

Charged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12

[4] Interested Citizen in “Public Interest Litigation” . . . . . . 4-14.1

[5] Intervention in Appeal by an Interested Party . . . . . . . . 4-18.4

(a) Interest in the proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18.5

(b) Useful and different submissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18.6

(c) Other relevant considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-18.7

(d) Selected bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

[6] Relying Upon Third Parties’ Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-19

4:05 Compliance with Procedural Requirements of the Court . . . . . . . 4-20

[1] Dispensing with Requirements in Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20

[2] Procedural Requirements in the Supreme Court Act and

Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-20.1

[3] Stating Constitutional Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-22

CI-2


[4] Factums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24

[5] Providing Notice of Constitutional Question. . . . . . . . . 4-24.1

4:06 Onus of Proof in Charter Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24.2

4:07 Causation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24.4

4:08 Evidentiary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24.4

[1] Placing Facts Before the Court . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-24.4

[2] Need for Full Factual Record Before the Court in Order to

Show the Presence of a Rights Violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-25

[3] Types of Admissible Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30

[4] Weight to be Attached to Extrinsic Evidence . . . . . . . . 4-30.2

[5] Factual Record for Justification Under Section 1 . . . . . 4-30.3

[6] Selected Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30.3

4:09 Mootness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30.4

[1] Is the Controversy Now Academic?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-30.5

[2] Exercise of Discretion to Hear Moot Appeal . . . . . . . . . . 4-32

[3] Selected Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-35

4:10 Raising Charter Claims for the First Time in the Supreme Court. . 4-35

4:11 Prior Decisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-37

CHAPTER 5: PRINCIPLES OF INTERPRETATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1


5:02 Specific Sections Governing Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3

[1] Text of Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3

[2] Cases Considering Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4

5:03 General Approaches to Interpretation of Charter Provisions . . . . 5-6.1

[1] Purposive Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6.1

[2] Framers’ Intention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8

[3] Textual Approach. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8

[4] Contextual Method and Abstract Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-8.1

5:04 Proper Approaches to Challenged Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9

5:05 Principles of Interpretation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10.2

[1] Trivial or Insubstantial Breaches of Rights Are

Not to be taken into Account . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10.2

[2] Analytical Distinction Between Rights Violation and

Justification Should Be Maintained . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10.3

[3] Avoid Narrow and Technical Interpretations of Charter

Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10.6

[4] Avoid Inflexible Categorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10.8

[5] Interpret Charter Provisions in Accordance with Other

Charter Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-10.8

[6] Interpret Charter Provisions in Accordance with

Practical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

[7] Effect of Illegality by Complainant; Clean Hands

Doctrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-11

[8] Charter Provisions Should Be Interpreted in a Manner

Consistent with Principles of Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-12

[9] All Portions of Text Must Be Given Meaning . . . . . . . . . 5-14

[10] Interpret to Avoid Interference with Government Action

Concerning Interstate Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-14

[11] Language Rights are to be Approached with Restraint . . . 5-15

[12] Interpret Provisions in Accordance with “Living Tree”

Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16

[13] Avoid Distinguishing Between Statutory Privileges and

Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-16

[14] Absurdity is to be Avoided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17

[15] Broad Interpretations Are to be Adopted Free of Doubts

About Legitimacy of Judicial Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-17

[16] Rights May Be Waived . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-18

[17] There is No Presumption of Constitutionality . . . . . . . . 5-18.1

[18] The Court Must Be Mindful of its Proper Role . . . . . . 5-18.1

[19] The Court Must Promote Certainty of the Rights

Guaranteed in the Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-21

[20] Interpretations Which Lessen the Burden on the Charter

Complainant are to be Adopted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.1

[21] Interpretations Which Trivialize the Charter Should Be

Avoided . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.1

[22] The Meaning of the Less Ambiguous Version of the

Charter Should Be Adopted . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.1

[23] Statutory Defences Are Not Owed Special Deference . . 5-22.1

[24] Exercise Caution in Reversing Precedent where Charter

Protection Diminished . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.2

5:06 Aids to Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.2

[1] Margin Notes and Headings in Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.2

[2] Framers’ Intention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.2

[3] Legislative Debates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22.4

[4] Other Charter Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23

[5] “Free and Democratic Society” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-27

[6] The Concept of a “Right” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28

[7] American Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28

[8] European Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-30

[9] British Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31

[10] Other Countries’ Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31

[11] Academic Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31

[12] Canadian Bill of Rights Authorities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-31

[13] United Nations Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32.1

[14] The Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32.1

CI-4


[15] Purpose of the Charter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32.2

[16] “Majoritarian” or “Community” Opinion . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32.3

[17] Law Reform Commission Materials and Royal

Commissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-33

[18] Philosophical Insights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34

[19] Legislative History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-34

[20] International Treaties and International Law. . . . . . . . . . . 5-35

[21] Unwritten Constitutional Principles and Rules . . . . . . . . . 5-37

(a) Principle of federalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-38

(b) Principle of democracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-38

(c) Principle of constitutionalism and the rule of law. . . . 5-39

(d) Principle of the protection of minorities. . . . . . . . . . . 5-41

5:07 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-41

CHAPTER 6: JUSTIFICATION (SECTION 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

6:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1


6:02A Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4

6:03 Meaning of “Free and Democratic Society” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6a

6:04 Test for Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6.1

6:05 Objective of Sufficient Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6.4

6:06 Measures Rationally Connected to Achievement of Objective . 6-22.10

6:07 Minimal Impairment of Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-26.14

6:08 The “Flexible Approach” to Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52.11

[1] Less Reluctance to Use Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52.11

[2] Language of Legislative Deference, “Flexibility” and

“Reasonableness” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52.11

[3] Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52.14

[4] Minimal Impairment Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52.14

[5] Incorporating Justification Analysis into Assessment

Whether a Right Has Been Breached. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-52.16

[6] Which Cases Are Subject to the “Flexible Approach”? . 6-52.17

6:09 Proportionality Between Effects of Measures and Importance

of the Legislative Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-64.4

6:10 Onus of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-74.6

6:11 Standard of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-74.8

6:12 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-76

6:13 “Prescribed by Law” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-82.6

6:14 “Limit” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-88

6:15 Relationship Between Section 1 and Fundamental Justice . . . . . . 6-88

6:16 Relationship Between Section 1 and Equality. . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-88.2

6:17 Relationship Between Section 1 and Mobility Rights . . . . . . . . . 6-89

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6:18 Relationship Between Section 1 and Unreasonable Search and

Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-89

6:19 Special Considerations Relating to the Justification of Common

Law Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-91

CHAPTER 7: FREEDOM OF RELIGION (SECTION 2(a)). . . . . . . . . 7-1

7:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1


7:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

7:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6.1

7:05 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6.1

7:06 Meaning of “Freedom” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8.1

7:07 Purpose of Freedom of Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9

7:08 Scope of Freedom of Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10

7:09 Method of Assessing Legislation Against Guarantee of Freedom

of Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14.1

7:10 Meaning of “Religion” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-19

7:11 Religious Rights Granted in Constitution Act, 1867 . . . . . . . . . . 7-20

7:12 Protection of Economic Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21

7:13 Who Can Invoke Freedom of Religion? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-21

7:14 Relationship with Other Charter Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-23

7:15 Relevance of American Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-25

7:16 Relevance of Bill of Rights Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26

7:17 Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-26

7:18 Freedom of Religion as a Group Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-28

7:19 Laws Establishing Religion and the State’s Duty

of Neutrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-29

7:20 Religious Communications Privilege. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-30.1

CHAPTER 8: FREEDOM OF CONSCIENCE (SECTION 2(a)) . . . . . . 8-1

8:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1


8:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

8:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

8:05 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2

CHAPTER 9: FREEDOM OF THOUGHT, BELIEF, OPINION

AND EXPRESSION (SECTION 2(b)). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

9:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1


9:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4

CI-6


9:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8.4b

9:05 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8.4c

9:06 Purpose of Freedom of Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-8.11

9:07 Effect of Unlawfulness by Complainant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16

9:08 Relationship with Other Charter Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16.2

9:09 What Is “Expression”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16.5

[1] General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-16.5

[2] Examples of “Expression” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-18

[3] Relevance of Content of Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-20.2

9:10 Purpose or Effect Must Be to Restrict Freedom of Expression . 9-22.3

9:11 Listeners’ Rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-22.7

9:12 Forced Speech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-22.8a

9:13 Justification Under Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-22.8a

9:14 Political Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-26.6

9:15 Commercial Speech as “Expression”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-26.9

9:16 Choice of Language as “Expression”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-26.12

9:17 Relevance of American Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-26.12

9:18 Access to a Public Arena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-28

[1] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-28

[2] Rationales Underlying Access to Public Arenas for

Expressive Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-29

[3] Types of Public Arenas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-31

(a) Libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-31

(b) Streets and parks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-32

(c) Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-32

(d) Internal government offices and installations . . . . . . . 9-33

(e) Private property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-33

(f) Elections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-33

(g) Utility poles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-34

(h) Public transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-34

(i) Courts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-35

[4] Limits on Access to Public Arenas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-36

(a) Requirements of law and order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-36

(b) Time, place and manner restrictions . . . . . . . . . . . 9-36.1

CHAPTER 10: FREEDOM OF THE PRESS (SECTION 2(b)). . . . . . . 10-1

10:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

10:02 General Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1

10:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2

10:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6.2

10:05 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-6.2

10:06 Purpose of Freedom of the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8

10:07 Scope of Freedom of the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-8

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10:08 When Violated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-14

10:09 Justification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-15

10:10 Enhanced Role of the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-15

10:11 Freedom of the Press and Search and Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-15

CHAPTER 11: FREEDOM OF ASSEMBLY (SECTION 2(c)). . . . . . . 11-1

11:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1


11:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1

11:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1


CHAPTER 12: FREEDOM OF ASSOCIATION (SECTION 2(d)) . . . . 12-1

12:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1


12:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3



12:06 Purpose of Freedom of Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8.5

12:07 Scope of Freedom of Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8.6

12:08 Freedom of Association as a Group Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-30

12:09 Protection Against Forced Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-34

CHAPTER 13: RIGHT TO VOTE AND RUN FOR OFFICE

(SECTION 3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1

13:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1


13:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1



13:06 Purpose of the Right to Vote and Run for Office. . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4

13:07 Scope of the Right to Vote and Run for Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6

13:08 Role of History in Determining Scope of the Right to Vote and

Run for Office . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-11

CHAPTER 14: TERM OF PARLIAMENT AND LEGISLATIVE

ASSEMBLIES (SECTION 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

14:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1


14:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1

CI-8




CHAPTER 15: SITTINGS OF PARLIAMENT AND THE

LEGISLATURES (SECTION 5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1

15:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1


15:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1



CHAPTER 16: MOBILITY RIGHTS (SECTION 6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1

16:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1


16:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2



16:06 The Right to Enter, Remain In and Leave Canada (Section 6(1)) 16-4.1

16:07 The Right to Move to and Take up Residence in Any Province

(Section 6(2)(a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-916:08 The Right to Pursue the Gaining of a Livelihood in Any Province

(Section 6(2)(b)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1016:09 Limitations on the Right (Section 6(3)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12

CHAPTER 17: RIGHT TO LIFE, LIBERTY AND SECURITY OF

THE PERSON AND THE PRINCIPLES OF

FUNDAMENTAL JUSTICE (SECTION 7) . . . . . . . . . 17-1

17:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-2


17:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4.3

17:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6n.4e

17:05 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6n.5

17:06 “Everyone” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6x

17:07 Preliminary Considerations — Rights to Life, Liberty

and Security of the Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6y

17:08 Meaning of “Right”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6ab

17:09 Right to Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6ab

17:10 Right to Security of the Person . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6ac

17:11 Right to Liberty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.6am

17:12 Relationship with Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-22.20

17:13 Threatened Violations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-24.2

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17:14 Cabinet Decisions and the Royal Prerogative . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-24.3

17:15 Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-24.4

17:16 Interstate Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-24.4c

17:17 Relationship with Other Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-24.8d

17:18 Fundamental Justice — General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-25

17:19 What Are the Principles of Fundamental Justice? . . . . . . . . . 17-30.10

[1] Requirement of a “Guilty Mind” for Conviction . . . . . 17-30.10

[1a] Requirement of “Moral Voluntariness” for Conviction . 17-32.8i

[2] Depriving a Section 7 Right Which Has the Effect of

Violating Another Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-32.8j

[3] Arbitrariness or Unfairness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-32.9

[4] Procedural Protections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-32.22

[5] Punishing an Accused for What He Might Have Done

Rather Than for What He Had in Fact Done . . . . . . . . 17-36.9

[6] Providing Notice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-36.9

[7] Imprisonment for Administrative or Disciplinary

Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-37

[8] Illusory Defences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-37

[9] Vagueness, Overbreadth or Imprecision of Legislation . . 17-37

[10] Fingerprinting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-42.4g

[11] Accused Must Be Punished Under Law in Force at Time

Offence Was Committed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-42.4g

[12] Cross-examination of Adverse Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . 17-42.4h

[13] Protection Against Self-incrimination. . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-42.8c

[14] Right to Silence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-42.16

[15] Disclosure Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-54.6

[16] The Right of an Accused to Control the Conduct of

His or Her Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-62.1

[17] An Insane Accused Cannot be Convicted of an

Offence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-62.2

[18] Pre-Charge Delay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-62.4

[19] Laws Must Not Obstruct the Finding of Truth in Criminal

Cases Absent Clear Policy Grounds. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-62.6

[20] Impartial Decision-Maker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-63

[21] Laws Must be Codified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-68

[22] Appeal Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-68

[23] Right to Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-69

[24] Changing How Sentence is Served . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-72

[25] Appellate Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-72.1

[26] Concept of Human Dignity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-72.1

[27] The Case to Meet Principle; Limits on the Crown’s Ability

to Reopen its Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-72.2

[28] The Right to Make Full Answer and Defence. . . . . . . . . 17-73

[29] Solicitor-Client Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-78.2

CI-10


[30] Protection of Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-79

[31] Proportionality in Sentencing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-82

[32] Gross Disproportionality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-82

[33] Aboriginal Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-83

[34] Lawyer’s Duty of Commitment to a Client’s Cause . . . . 17-85

[35] Prosecutors Must Not Act for Improper Purposes,

Such as Purely Partisan Motives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-86

17:20 Procedural Due Process and Substantive Due Process . . . . . . . 17-86.2

17:21 Economic Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-87

17:22 Waiver of Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-92

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Volume II

CHAPTER 18: RIGHT AGAINST UNREASONABLE SEARCH

OR SEIZURE (SECTION 8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1

18:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2


18:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7

18:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-22.2f


18:06 Scope of Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-22.9

[1] General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-22.11

[2] Meaning of “Search or Seizure” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-24

[3] Privacy Interests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-24.8

[4] The Principle Against Self-Incrimination . . . . . . . . . . . 18-34.5

18:07 What Is “Unreasonable”?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-34.6

[1] General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-34.6

[2] How Strong Are the Privacy Interests? . . . . . . . . . . . 18-38.4b

(a) What is being searched or seized?. . . . . . . . . . . . 18-38.4b

[i] Body searches or seizures of intimate

samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-38.4b

[ii] Searches of premises. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-38.12a

[iii] Searches of media premises . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-38.20

[iv] Commercial documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-39

[v] Searches or seizures in hospitals . . . . . . . . . . . 18-47

[vi] Property in other person’s premises . . . . . . . . . 18-47

[vii] Motor vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-46

[viii]Searches or Seizures in Schools . . . . . . . . . . 18-48.2a

[ix] Law offices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-48.3

[x] Bus terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-48.9

[xi] Searches of computers and other

electronic media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-48.9

[xii] Airports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-48.11

(b) Nature of the proceedings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-48.11

[i] General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-48.11

[ii] Particular cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-50.1

[iii] Whether the search and seizure concerns a

person under arrest or in custody . . . . . . . . . 18-50.2c

[iv] Foreign searches and seizures . . . . . . . . . . . 18-50.2h

(c) Measures to preserve privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-50.2h

CII-1 November 2017

[3] Search or Seizure Properly Authorized. . . . . . . . . . . . 18-50.4e

(a) Authorized by law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-50.4e

(b) Prior authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-53

(c) Authorization procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-61

(d) Standards for authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-65

(e) Evidence in support of authorization . . . . . . . . . . . 18-66.4

(f) Failure to disclose facts in the sworn evidence

offered in support of the authorization. . . . . . . . . . 18-68.5

(g) Mistaken facts in the sworn evidence offered

in support of the authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-68.7

[4] Manner of the Search or Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-68.9

[5] Scope of the Search or Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-72.4

[6] Societal Needs (Law Enforcement) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-72.4d

18:08 Onus of Proof Under Section 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-72.11

18:09 Standard of Proof Under Section 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-72.13

18:10 Relationship with Right to Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-73

18:11 Challenging Authorizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-76

[1] Reviewing the Authorizing Judge’s Discretion . . . . . . . . 18-76

[2] Disclosure of Material Offered in Support of

Authorization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-78.1

[3] Cross-Examination of Deponents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-80.2

18:12 Search or Seizure and Freedom of the Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-80.4

18:13 Consent to a Search or Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-84

18:14 Regulatory Searches or Seizures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-86.1

[1] The Nature of the Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-86.1

[2] The Scope of the Search or Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-91

[3] The Needs of Law Enforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-92.1

[4] The Manner of the Search or Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-93

[5] The Location of the Search or Seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-93

[6] What is Being Searched or Seized? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-94

18:15 Relying on Others’ Section 8 Rights as the Basis of a Section 8

Claim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-100

CHAPTER 19: RIGHT AGAINST ARBITRARY DETENTION

(SECTION 9) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1

19:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1


19:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1



19:06 “Arbitrary”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-8.2

19:07 Meaning of “Detained” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-15

19:08 Arrest Powers and Section 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-17

CII-2


CHAPTER 20: RIGHT TO BE INFORMED PROMPTLY OF

THE REASONS FOR ARREST AND DETENTION

(SECTION 10(a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1

20:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1


20:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-1


20:05 Meaning of “Detained” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-2

20:06 Purpose of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-5

20:07 What Must the Accused Be Told? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20-6

CHAPTER 21: RIGHT TO RETAIN AND INSTRUCT COUNSEL

(SECTION 10(b)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1

21:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-1


21:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-3

21:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-14

21:05 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-14

21:06 Meaning of “Detained” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-16

21:07 When Does the Right Arise? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-16

21:08 Purpose of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-17

21:09 Duties Imposed on Police by the Right to Counsel . . . . . . . . . . 21-18

[1] General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-18

[2] Duty to Inform Person of Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-18

(a) When does the duty arise? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-18

(b) Content of the duty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-22

[3] Duty to Provide the Detainee with a Reasonable

Opportunity to Exercise the Right to Retain and

Instruct Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-30

[4] Duty to Afford Access to Counsel “Without Delay” . . . . 21-36

[5] Duty to Cease Questioning and Refrain from

Obtaining Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-38

[6] Duty Not to Undermine the Solicitor-Client

Relationship by Denigrating Counsel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-42

[7] Duty Not to Engage in Plea Discussions Without

Counsel Present . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-42

21:10 Circumstances Affecting Duties of Police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-42

[1] Urgent or Dangerous Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-42

[2] Waiver of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-42.3

[3] Accused’s Lack of Diligence in Exercising Rights . . . . . 21-48

[4] Suspension of the Right During Searches . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-50

[5] Reimposition of Duties upon Police. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-50

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21:11 Onus of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-52

21:12 Justification Under Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-52

21:13 Relevance of Utility of the Right to Counsel in the Circumstances

of the Case in Determining Whether There Has Been an

Infringement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21-53

CHAPTER 22: RIGHT TO HAVE VALIDITY OF DETENTION

DETERMINED AND TO BE RELEASED IF

DETENTION INVALID (SECTION 10(c)) . . . . . . . . . 22-1

22:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1


22:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-1


22:05 Availability of Habeas Corpus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22-2


CHAPTER 23: APPLICATION OF SECTION 11 — MEANING

OF “CHARGED WITH AN OFFENCE” . . . . . . . . . . . 23-1


23:02 What Proceedings Concern “Offences”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2

[1] General Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-2

[2] The “True Penal Consequences” Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-5

[3] The “By Nature” Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-8

23:03 When Is an “Offence” Present?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-10

23:04 Selected Bibliography — Criminal Law Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-11

23:05 Section 11 Rights and Corporations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-13

23:06 The Distinction Between “True Criminal Offences” and

“Regulatory” or “Public Welfare Offences” . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23-14

CHAPTER 24: RIGHT TO BE INFORMED WITHOUT

UNREASONABLE DELAY OF THE SPECIFIC

OFFENCE (SECTION 11(a)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1

24:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1


24:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24-1



CII-4


CHAPTER 25: RIGHT TO BE TRIED WITHIN A REASONABLE

TIME (SECTION 11(b)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1

25:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-1


25:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-4



25:06 Meaning of “Trial” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-12

25:07 Test for Unreasonableness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-13

25:08 Length of the Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-18.1

[1] General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-18.1

[2] When Does Time Start Running? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-20.1

25:09 Reasons for the Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-20.2

[1] Delay Attributable to the Crown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-20.2

[2] Time Requirements Inherent in the Nature of the Case . 25-20.7

[3] Institutional or Systemic Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-22

[4] Delay Attributable to the Accused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-29

25:10 Waiver of Time Periods by Accused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30.3

25:11 Prejudice to the Accused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30.7

[1] Relevance of Non-Physical Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30.8

[2] Relevance of Pre-Charge Delay. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-30.8

[3] Relevance of Pre-Charter Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-31

[4] Impairment Arising as a Result of Delay by Foreign

Authorities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-32

[5] Relevance of Civil Consequences Arising from Delay

in the Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-32

[6] Relevance of Actual Prejudice to Accused’s Interests . . . 25-32

[7] Relevance of Impairment of Fair Trial Interest . . . . . . . . 25-36

[8] Impairment Arising as a Result of What?. . . . . . . . . . . . 25-37

[9] Impairment of Whose Interests? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-38

[10] Length of the Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-38

[11] Relevance of the Accused’s Conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-40

[12] Corporations and Prejudice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-42

[13] Relevance of Sentencing Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-42

25:12 Remedy for Unreasonable Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-43

25:13 When Can the Applications Be Brought? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-44

25:14 Burden of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-46

25:15 Relevance of Prosecutorial Misconduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-49

25:16 Review of Lower Courts’ Exercises of Discretion . . . . . . . . . . . 25-49

25:17 Appellate Delay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25-50

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CHAPTER 26: RIGHT OF NON-COMPELLABILITY IN

CRIMINAL PROCEEDINGS (SECTION 11(c)) . . . . . 26-1

26:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1


26:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-1


26:05 Purpose of the Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-4


26:07 Applicability to Corporations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26-5

CHAPTER 27: RIGHT TO THE PRESUMPTION OF INNOCENCE

(SECTION 11(d)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1

27:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-1


27:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-2


27:05 Purpose of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-4.5

27:06 What Must Be Proved Beyond a Reasonable Doubt . . . . . . . . . . 27-5

27:07 Relationship with Other Charter Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-17

27:08 The Presumption of Innocence and “Regulatory” or “Public

Welfare Offences” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27-19

CHAPTER 28: RIGHT TO AN INDEPENDENT TRIBUNAL

(SECTION 11(d)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1

28:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1


28:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-1

28:04 Meaning of “Independent” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-4

28:05 Security of Tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-8

28:06 Financial Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-10

28:07 Institutional Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-10.6

28:08 Appearance of Independence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-11

28:09 “Independent” and “Impartial” Distinguished. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-14

28:10 Purpose of the Right to an Independent Tribunal. . . . . . . . . . . . 28-15

28:11 Administrative Tribunals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28-16

CHAPTER 29: RIGHT TO A FAIR TRIAL (SECTION 11(d)) . . . . . . 29-1

29:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1


29:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-1

CII-6


29:04 Some Pending Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-11

29:05 Pre-Trial Crown Disclosure in Criminal Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-11

[1] General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-11

[2] In What Offences Does the Crown’s Duty to Disclose

Apply? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-13

[3] What Must Be Disclosed?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-13

[4] Timing of Disclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-18

[5] Review Crown’s Exercise of Discretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-19

[6] Consequences of Improper Non-Disclosure by the Crown 29-19

[7] Disclosure and Informers’ Privilege . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29-21

[8] Disclosure Obligations and Lost Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . 29-24

CHAPTER 30: RIGHT TO AN IMPARTIAL TRIBUNAL

(SECTION 11(d)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1

30:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1


30:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-1


30:05 Meaning of “Impartial” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-4.1

30:06 Test for Reasonable Apprehension of Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30-7

CHAPTER 31: RIGHT TO A PUBLIC HEARING (SECTION 11(d)) . 31-1

31:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1


31:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31-1


CHAPTER 32: RIGHT NOT TO BE DENIED REASONABLE

BAIL WITHOUT JUST CAUSE (SECTION 11(e)) . . . 32-1

32:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-1


32:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-2


32:05 General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-4

32:06 The Right to Bail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-5

32:07 “Just Cause” to Deny Bail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32-7

CHAPTER 33: RIGHT TO TRIAL BY JURY (SECTION 11(f)) . . . . . 33-1

33:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-1


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33:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-2

33:04 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-5


33:06 Meaning of “Benefit” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-6

33:07 Right to a Non-Jury Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7

33:08 Waiver of the Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33-7

33:09 Accused Not Reasonably Diligent in Exercise of Right . . . . . . . . 33-9

CHAPTER 34: RIGHT NOT TO BE FOUND GUILTY OF AN ACT

OR OMISSION UNLESS IT CONSTITUTED AN

OFFENCE UNDER CANADIAN OR INTERNATIONAL

LAW AT THE TIME OF THE ACT OR OMISSION

(SECTION 11(g)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1

34:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1


34:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-1


34:05 Purpose of the Section 11(g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-2

34:06 Ascertainability of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34-3

CHAPTER 35: RIGHT AGAINST DOUBLE JEOPARDY

(SECTION 11(h)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1

35:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1


35:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-1


34:05 Relationship to Common Law Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-3


35:07 Meaning of “Finally Acquitted” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-4

35:08 Same Offence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35-5

CHAPTER 36: RIGHT TO BENEFIT OF REDUCTION IN SENTENCE

MADE BETWEEN TIME OF COMMISSION OF

OFFENCE AND TIME OF SENTENCING

(SECTION 11(i)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1

36:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1


36:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36-1

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CHAPTER 37: RIGHT AGAINST CRUEL AND UNUSUAL

PUNISHMENT (SECTION 12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1

37:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1


37:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-1



37:06 Criteria for “Cruel and Unusual”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-4.2

37:07 Effect of Punishment on Accused . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-15

37:08 Relevance of Prosecutorial Discretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-19

37:09 Relevance of Other Charter Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-19

37:10 Relevance of Parole Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-20

37:11 Relevance of Change in Sentencing Provision After Sentence . 37-20.1

37:12 Relevance of Pre-Charter History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-20.2

37:13 What is “Treatment”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-20.2

37:14 What is “Punishment”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37-22

CHAPTER 38: RIGHT AGAINST SELF-INCRIMINATION

(SECTION 13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1

38:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-1


38:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-2




38:07 Meaning of “Proceedings” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-8

38:08 Meaning of “Witness” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-9

38:09 Meaning of “Any Other Proceedings” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-10

38:10 Meaning of “Incriminate” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-11

38:11 Relationship with Other Charter Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-13

38:12 When Does Protection of the Section Operate?. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-14

38:13 Irrelevant Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-14

38:14 Justification Under Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-14

38:15 Relationship with Protection Against Self-Incrimination

in Canada Evidence Act . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38-15

38:16 Cross-Examination on Knowledge of Section 13 . . . . . . . . . . . 38-19

CHAPTER 39: RIGHT TO ASSISTANCE OF INTERPRETER

(SECTION 14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1

39:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1


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39:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-1



39:06 The Purpose of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-2

39:07 The Test for Breach of the Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-3

39:08 The Requirement to Show a Need for Interpreter Assistance . . . . 39-3

39:09 The Requirement to Show Non-Existent or Inadequate

Interpreter Assistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-4

39:10 The Requirement to Show that the Alleged Lapse in

Interpretation was Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-5

39:11 Waiver of the Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-6

39:12 Remedies for Breach of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-6

39:13 Civil Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-7

39:14 Administrative Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39-7

CHAPTER 40: EQUALITY RIGHTS (SECTION 15) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1

40:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-1


40:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-4

40:04 Purpose of the Right . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-22.2

40:05 The Section 15(1) Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-23

[1] Does the Law Impose Differential Treatment Between

the Claimant and others in Purpose or Effect? . . . . . . . . 40-24

(a) General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-24

(b) Particular Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-24.3

[2] Is there Differential Treatment Based on One or More

Enumerated or Analagous Grounds of Discrimination? . . 40-28

(a) General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-28


[3] Does the Law have a Discriminatory Purpose or Effect? 40-40a

(a) General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-40a


40:06 Affirmative Action — Section 15(2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-64.1

[1] General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-64.1

[2] Particular Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-65

40:07 Meaning of “Laws”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-68.3

40:08 Evidentiary Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-71

40:09 Relationship with Section 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-73

40:10 Relevance of Bill of Rights Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-76

40:11 Who May Bring a Claim? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-76

40:12 Waiver of Equality Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-77

40:13 Relevance of Discrimination Claim to Division of Powers

Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-78

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40:14 Selected Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40-79

CHAPTER 41: EQUALITY OF STATUS AND EQUAL RIGHTS

AND PRIVILEGES REGARDING USE OF

OFFICIAL LANGUAGES IN GOVERNMENTAL

INSTITUTIONS (SECTIONS 16 and 16.1) . . . . . . . . . 41-1

41:01 Text of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-1


41:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-2




41:07 Method of Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41-6

CHAPTER 42: LANGUAGE RIGHTS IN LEGISLATIVE

DEBATES (SECTION 17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-1

42:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-1


42:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42-1



CHAPTER 43: LANGUAGE OF STATUTES, RECORDS AND

JOURNALS OF PARLIAMENT AND THE

LEGISLATURES (SECTION 18) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1

43:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1


43:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43-1


CHAPTER 44: LANGUAGE OF COURT PROCEEDINGS

(SECTION 19) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1

44:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1


44:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44-1






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CHAPTER 45: LANGUAGE OF GOVERNMENT SERVICES

(SECTION 20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1

45:01 Text of Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1


45:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45-1


CHAPTER 46: MINORITY LANGUAGE EDUCATIONAL

RIGHTS (SECTION 23) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1

46:01 Text of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-1


46:03 Decided Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-2





46:08 Relationship with Other Charter Sections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-10.1

46:09 Relationship with Rights Contained in Constitution Act, 1867 . 46-10.2

46:10 Meaning of “Where Numbers Warrant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-11

[1] General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-11

[2] Particular Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-12

46:11 Right of Minority to Manage and Control Schools . . . . . . . . . . 46-13

46:12 Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-16

46:13 Legislation Implementing Section 23 Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-18

46:14 Court Orders Implementing Section 23 Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46-19

CHAPTER 47: REMEDIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-1

47:01 Text of Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-2



47:04 Remedies for Unconstitutional Government Action Pursuant

to Section 24(1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-8

[1] Purpose of the Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-8

[2] Right to a Remedy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-9

[3] Relationship of Remedy to Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-9

[4] Availability of Remedies Before Charter Violation . . . . . 47-10

[5] Relationship Between Common Law Remedies and

Charter Remedies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-12

[6] Availability of Remedies for Persons Outside Canada . . 47-16.1

[7] Stays of Criminal Proceedings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-17

[8] New Trial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-24.2

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[9] Standard of Review for Discretionary Remedies . . . . . . 47-24.4

[10] “Court of Competent Jurisdiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-25

[11] Exclusion of Evidence Pursuant to Section 24(1) . . . . . 47-26.1

[12] Declaratory Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-26.3

[13] Charter Damages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-26.4

[14] Sentence Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-26.10

47:05 Exclusion of Evidence Pursuant to Section 24(2) . . . . . . . . . 47-26.11

[1] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-26.11

[2] Particular Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-26.13

[3] Onus of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-42.3

[4] Threshold for Exclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-43

[5] Meaning of “Evidence Obtained in a Manner that Infringed

or Denied any Rights or Freedoms Guaranteed by This

Charter” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-43

(a) Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-46

[6] Meaning of “Bring the Administration of Justice into

Disrepute” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-48.3

(a) “Disrepute” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-48.3

(b) Factors to be Assessed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-48.4

(c) Fairness of the Trial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-48.5

(d) Seriousness of the Violation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-62

[i] Degree to which complainant’s rights violated . 47-63

[ii] Police conduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-68.4

[iii] Dangerous and urgent circumstances . . . . . . . 47-82.1

(e) Effect of Excluding the Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-82.5

[7] Causal Link Between Rights Violation and Obtaining

the Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-90.4

[8] Purpose of the Remedy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-94.1

[9] Reviewability of Discretion Under Section 24(2) . . . . . 47-94.2

[10] Standing to Claim Section 24(2) Remedy. . . . . . . . . . . 47-98.2

47:06 Remedies for Unconstitutional Laws Pursuant to Section 52

of the Constitution Act, 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-99

[1] Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-99

[2] Interpret to Avoid Breaches of the Charter . . . . . . . . . 47-100.1

[3] Reading in; Reading down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-101

[4] Severing Invalid Provisions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-112

[5] Validity of Dependent Provisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-114

[6] Delay of Effect of Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-114

[7] Prosecutorial Discretion as Reason for Denial of

Declaration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-119

[8] Unusual Declarations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-120

[9] Constitutional Exemptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-124

[10] Interlocutory Relief (Generally). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-126.4

[11] Mandatory Injunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-126.5

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[12] Stay of Proceedings Pending Constitutional Challenge

of a Legislative Provision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-128

(a) Serious Issue to be Tried . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-130

(b) Irreparable Harm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-132

(c) Balance of Convenience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-135

47:07 Relationship Between Section 24 of the Charter and

Section 52 of the Constitution Act, 1982. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47-140

Issues in Focus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-1

What is the correct approach to judicial review of administrative

decisions involving Charter issues? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-3

In what circumstances will misconduct of a state agent amount

to an abuse of process? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.1

Can the federal government be sued under ss. 7 and 11(b)of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms for abacklog in administrative decisions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.15

As a result of the Supreme Court of Canada’s decision in

Carter v. Canada (Attorney General), are the CriminalCode provisions prohibiting physician-assisted suicideconstitutionally valid? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.21

What does the case law indicate with respect to an accused’s

waiver of their right to counsel under s. 10(b) of theCanadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms? . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.27

Are mobility rights, double jeopardy, the imposition of the

death penalty, the imposition of minimum penalties by

the requesting state, and the possibility of oppressive

treatment in the requesting jurisdiction within the extra-

dition judge’s Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedomsjurisdiction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.35

What is the legal status of labour unions in cases involving

the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms? . . . . . . . IF-10.44a

What procedural rules are applicable when one brings a

Charter claim in the civil court?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.44s

How do mandatory minimum sentences interact with s. 12

of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms? . . . . IF-10.44aa

What is the “reasonable suspicion” standard in warrantless

searches and s. 8 of the Canadian Charter of Rightsand Freedoms? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.44am

What are appropriate circumstances justifying a stay of

extradition proceedings based on a Canadian Charterof Rights and Freedoms breach or on grounds of abuseof process? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.45

Does a corporation have standing to seek relief under the

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms? . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.53

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At what point does the administration of justice come into

such disrepute that s. 24(2) of the Canadian Charter ofRights and Freedoms will operate to render evidence

inadmissible in a criminal trial? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.61

If a police officer unconstitutionally records a conversation

to which he is a party, and both the recording and the

transcript of it are excluded from evidence as a s. 24(2)

Charter remedy, what use can be made of a transcript of

the recording by the police officer when he or she

testifies about the content of intercepted conversation?. . . . IF-10.73

Does the Privacy Act or similar provincial legislation

factor in a determination of “reasonable expectation

of privacy” and/or represent “lawful authority” for

purposes of s. 8 of the Charter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-10.85

Does s. 2(b) of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedomscreate a positive or negative obligation on the government,

and how are positive and negative rights distinguished? . . . . . IF-11

Does legislation limiting total amount of non-monetary damages

for minor injuries resulting from an automobile accident

violate claimant’s equality rights guaranteed by s. 15(1) of

the Charter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-21

Does s. 7 of the Charter protect non-citizens? Do non-citizens

have the right to enter or remain in Canada? . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-33

In discrimination/equality claims under s. 15(1) of the CanadianCharter of Rights and Freedoms, what are the criteria foridentifying the appropriate comparator group? What constitutes

differential denial of a benefit (or imposition of a burden)

provided by law under s. 15(1) of the Charter? . . . . . . . . . . . IF-49

Is producing noise through use of sound equipment on a public

street considered an expressive activity under s. 2(b) of theCharter and, if so, can by-law regulating such expression be

justified under s. 1 of the Charter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-57

Is collective bargaining a protected activity falling within the

scope of freedom of association pursuant to s. 2(d) of theCanadian Charter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-73

Do s. 10B of theWorkers’ Compensation Act, S.N.S. 1994-95,c. 10, as amended and the Functional Restoration (Multi-Faceted Pain Services) Program Regulations, N.S. Reg.57/96, infringe equality rights guaranteed by s. 15(1) of the

Charter? If so, does infringement constitute a reasonable

limit pursuant to s. 1 of the Charter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-83

Does the open court principle apply to the application for and

the conduct of judicial investigative hearings provided for

in s. 83.28 of the Criminal Code? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-91

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How has the Charter of Rights and Freedoms been used in

cases concerning employee privacy in workplace

technology and surveillance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-114.1

Is a law that prohibits hate propaganda a constitutionally

valid limit on the freedom of expression protected under

s. 2(b) of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms? . . . . . . . IF-114.17

Is it a violation of the s. 8 Charter right when a cell phone is

searched incident to arrest? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-115

Mandatory minimum sentences and s. 12 of the Charter ofRights and Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-126.1

The “reasonable suspicion” standard in warrantless searches

and s. 8 of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms . . . . . . . IF-126.13

Does the Charter of Rights and Freedoms protect privacyover computers and the Internet? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-126.25

The right to strike and freedom of association under the

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms . . . . . . . . . . IF-126.33

Does the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedomsprovide the “right to counsel”? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-126.43

What arguments may be made that the mandatory mediation

regime violates section 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rightsand Freedoms? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-127

Is it possible to raise a Canadian Charter of Rights andFreedoms argument after conviction, but before sentencing? IF-141

Does s. 13 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedomsprotect the accused from being cross-examined at retrial

on statements voluntarily made at trial on the same

indictment? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-148.1

Is imprisonment for simple possession of marijuana under

the Narcotics Control Act an unconstitutional infringement

of s. 7 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms? IF-148.23

How have the courts treated the issue of police misconduct

and actual or near Charter breaches in relation to

sentencing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-148.41

Are damages available to remedy a violation of an individual’s

privacy rights by a government actor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-148.51

What factors does a court consider when contemplating the

exclusion of evidence under s. 24(2) of the Charter? . . . . . . IF-149

Can the courts award monetary damages as a remedy under

s. 24(1) of the Charter? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IF-165

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IN-1

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Documents

SUMMARY OF CONTENTS Volume I · 2019-06-05 · SUMMARY OF CONTENTS Volume I Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii