Study Skills for Effective Learning

8/8/2019 Study Skills for Effective Learning

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CEMBA KNUST 2009

Study Skills for Effective Learning

Study Skills for Effective Learning(memory, concentration, reading & listening, exams, time use)by Craig Rusbult, Ph.D.

These "power tool" ideas for studying really work, and your improved learning skills will help you

immediately and will continue paying dividends for a long time.You can read the following sections (*) in any order:

20.3 Memory as a Problem-Solving Tool

20.4 Concentration, Confidence, and Fun

20.5 Active Study: Reading and Listening20.6 Exam Preparation and Performance

20.7 Using Your Time Effectively

* written in 1989 for my book, Physics: Tools for Problem Solving20.3 Memory as a Problem-Solving Tool

Good problem solving requires an "active memory" that gives you quick, reliable access to essential

thinking tools. A good memory isn't sufficient to make you an expert problem solver (you also needcreativity and logic) but it is necessary.

To improve your memory, take advantage of original awareness with intention to remember,

organization, and review.

STORAGE: ORIGINAL AWARENESS with INTENTION TO REMEMBER

It is useful to consider memory as a two-step process: storage and retrieval. If you want to remembersomething, it must be "stored" in your memory.

After being introduced to someone, have you ever forgotten the name? When this happens youtypically haven't forgotten the name, because you never really "had it." But if you listen carefully

(original awareness) and then silently review the name (intention to remember), the name is now stored inyour memory so you can remember it later. When you find something worth remembering in your

reading or problem-solving practice, stop for a few seconds and review it before you lose it!

RETRIEVAL: the importance of ORGANIZATION

It's easy to find page 86 of a book, the word "grace" in a dictionary, or a book in a library, due to

organization. Book pages are in numerical order, dictionary words are alphabetical, and library books arearranged according to a system (Library of Congress, Dewey Decimal,...). Logical organization also

makes it easy to retrieve information from your memory.

Quiz #1: For a few seconds, look at these 22 letters: t s e k h a u o e n d y g c a l h t e y n mThen close your eyes and try to remember all of them; don't leave any letters out and don't put anyextras in.

If you were given enough time and incentive, you could memorize these letters. But there is a better

way to do it -- by using organization!Quiz #2: Try to remember these letters after a few seconds of study: sneaky the lunch dog my ate

Each quiz contains the same 22 letters. So why is Quiz #2 easier to remember?

1) QUANTITY: It's easier to remember 6 things (in #2) than 22 things (in #1).
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2) MEANING: Simply forming letter-groups isn't enough. Is it easy to remember letter-groups like

"temuy acnh gnte ysol aek dh"? No, because they aren't organized into words that have meaning.

A meaningful "sneaky dog" is easy to remember, but nonsense word-groups like "temuy acnh" aren't.3) STRUCTURE: Did you organize the words of Quiz #2 into a sentence? What does the dog do?

RETRIEVAL: the importance of REVIEWIf you want to remember something (concepts, equations, problem-solving strategies,...), review it. A

balanced combination of review distributed throughout the course and a massed cramming session before

the exam is better than either one alone.Each type of review offers advantages. Flash cards require activity, a summary provides organization,

and both let you make quick reviews of the entire chapter. Generally, review is more effective when you

are active.SUMMARY NOTES

One powerful organizing technique is summary notes. To make them, choose the most important ideas

from your textbook, lecture notes and problem-solving practice, then organize these ideas into a unified

summary. Be creative. Divide information into idea-clusters, spread these all over the page, and use

spatial cues to show their relationships. Use flowcharts, hierarchy structure, outlines, tables, or free-formchaos. Experiment with different kinds of organization. Personalize your summary. For example, an

author may use several pages to explain a new concept, but you can use a small phrase (that wouldn'tmake sense to anyone else) to bring the concept's whole meaning back to your memory.

Invent and use your own system of symbols ( + - vs ! ? / * x arrows linklines ... ), underlining and

circling (of various types), brackets { [ ( , differing print size, and (one of my favorites) colors.You can make your summary "from scratch." Or use a chapter summary in this book as your starting

point, and then change it in any way you want. Make photocopies of my summary and you'll feel more

free to experiment creatively; if you don't like the changes you've made, just try it again on another copy.

Make a "rough draft summary" early. Then as you use these notes for problem-solving, think abouthow you can change them to make a new improved version. You may find it freeing to use a pencil for

the rough draft. This encourages creativity because you'll feel more spontaneous if you know it will beeasy to revise the summary later.In your early summary, include everything you think might be useful. Then notice which tools are used

most often when you solve problems, and edit the summary accordingly. Eventually, you'll want to travel

lightly so your summary includes only the tools you really need: no more and no less. When youeliminate "excess clutter" the important ideas stand out more clearly.

You'll learn a lot during the "choose and organize" process of making summary notes. And when you

study it, a summary is useful in many ways. It will help you to:1) memorize. When information is condensed in a small area you can literally see the visual and logical

interconnections, and it is easier to understand relationships. Because the information is organized on

paper, it is easier to organize in your mind, which makes it easier to remember! And summary notes are

short, so you can do many quick yet thorough reviews.2) develop problem-solving strategies. Most of the tools you need are available in clear view, so you

can focus your attention on how to use them.

3) acquire more knowledge. New information is easier to understand when it is related to what youalready know, if it is a variation on a familiar theme, or is a logical consequence of a principle you

understand. Summary notes organize the essential ideas into a framework, providing a structure where

you can insert details and new ideas.a Section Summary: The best way to insure good recall is good preparation, to achieve storage. The


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final step of "retrieval" is usually easy if you've done a good job with the earlier stages: 1) learn with

intention-to-remember, 2) organize the information (with intrinsic logic or an external system), 3) review

actively and often, using appropriate cues.Other memory-improving tips are given in Sections 20.4 (the effects of interest and motivation), 20.5

(remembering ideas from reading and lectures), and 20.93 (memory tricks and systems, plus principles for

customizing and minimizing this book's flashcard cues).

20.4 ConcentrationAccording to the Random House Dictionary, concentration is "exclusive attention to one object" and to

concentrate is "to bring all efforts, faculties, etc., to bear on one thing or activity." Good concentration is

an extremely valuable thinking tool.Interest and Activity

Do you have to "try to concentrate" when you watch the climax of an exciting movie, or when you're in

the middle of a fascinating conversation? No; if you are truly interested in an activity, good concentrationis natural and effortless.

In her excellent book "On Becoming an Educated Person," Virginia Voeks describes how interest-and-activity helps you learn more -- and have more fun -- when you read: "Start with an intent to make the

very most you can from whatever you read. Treat the author as you do your friends. When talking with afriend, you listen attentively and eagerly. You watch for contributions of value and are sensitive to them.

You actively respond to his ideas with ones of your own. Together you build new syntheses."

You can read with similar expectations and results. Expect the author to present facts you had notknown before, to offer new ideas, to give new slants on old problems and to formulate new problems.

When alert to these things, you will see them. Reading becomes refreshingly stimulating fun. Of course,

you can use this positive attitude for all of your studying. Listening to a lecture becomes an excitingconversation, reviewing flashcards is a self-testing game, making a summary is a chance to be logical-and-

creative with no grading pressure, and solving problems is a fun, idea-stimulating challenge.

Ignoring DistractionsThe human mind responds to sensory input (sight, sound,...) and also constantly generates its ownideas. When these mental activities interfere with what you are trying to think about, it causes external

distraction or internal distraction, respectively.

The best way to cope with either kind of distraction is to provide competition, with interest andactivity. During an interesting conversation it is easy to totally ignore distractions (or tell them to "go

away, don't bother me now, I'm busy") and keep good concentration. When you develop an interest in

what you're studying, distractions won't have a chance. And if you are extremely active (reading,listening, thinking, reviewing, note-taking, ...) your mind is so filled with thoughts about physics that there

is "no room" left for a distraction to squeeze into.

If you have a valuable thought about a non-physics topic, quickly write it down. The thought is on

paper as a reminder, so you don't have to worry about forgetting it and you can return to studying with fullconcentration. Later, look at the paper and give the thought your undivided attention.

Taking notes during a lecture requires a combination of externally and externally directed

concentration. You must receive information (listen), process it (think) and preserve it (write). Section20.5 discusses ways to improve your note-making skill: prepare before the lecture, be alert during it, and

review afterward.

If possible, study in a quiet place. But when noise occurs, ignore it and remember that your ownresponse (of interest or irritation) is usually the main distraction, not the noise itself. If you learn to
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concentrate despite noise, you increase your own freedom; you can study in a wider variety of situations,

independent of other people's actions. This will also increase the freedom of others; they can do what they

want.BUILDING UP GOOD CONCENTRATION: First, practice high-quality concentration under ideal

conditions, like an easy interesting subject for a short time in a quiet place. Then practice keeping good

concentration when you're in non-ideal situations, until you can study a difficult boring subject for a longtime in a noisy place. {A similar "building up" strategy can be used to improve many other skills.}

Fully Alive!

Do you ever think "when I'm not studying I feel like I should be, and when I am studying I wish Iwasn't"? If there is conflict between your perceptions of what you "should" do and what you want to do, it

will cause a waste of mental and emotional effort, like two tug-of-war teams pulling in opposite

directions.The key to resolving this conflict is balance. All work and no play (or vice versa) does not lead to a

happy, productive, full life. Don't make yourself choose between work and play. Do both with

enthusiasm!

Studying is a two-step, two-level process: 1) just do it, 2) do it with gusto!

You can make yourself study with willpower and the procrastination-avoiding techniques of Section20.7. To reach the gusto level, which is more efficient and more fun, generate interest with the "positive

attitude" that was discussed earlier, and generate motivation with a "piecework incentive" attitude.When you are paid by the hour, you earn the same amount of money no matter how slow or fast you

work. But with a piecework salary the more you produce the more you earn, so you get to harvest the

rewards of your own efficiency.Studying is a piecework activity. If you are efficient, you automatically receive a higher "learning per

hour" salary -- you'll learn a lot quickly, and will feel a real satisfaction about studying. Later, when you

"play" you can relax and enjoy it because you won't be nagged by worries about unfinished schoolwork.

Be fully alive! Wherever you are, be all there. Whatever you're doing, do it fully.Factors that contribute to Success in Physics

Motivation is important, but just wanting something doesn't make it happen.This diagram shows some of the factors that contribute to success in physics:

Many arrows point toward the first box because many factors, including success in physics, affect your

self image, values and goals. These in turn influence your decisions about the time you'll spend studying

physics, and what your attitude is during this time. The quantity and quality of your studying (plus naturalability and previous background) determine your knowledge of physics and problem solving skill, and

(along with exam-taking skill) your performance on exams.


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Try to learn from each exam so the next time you will do better in any part of the cycle ( self image,

time & attitude, tools, exam skill) that needs improving. Physics tools are interdependent, so an

improvement in one part of the cycle also improves other parts of it and your overall skill can improverapidly.

For example, if you're good at doing something you'll probably like it (this is the opposite of "sour

grapes"), and if you like it you'll usually become better at doing it. When you break into this cycle byimproving your "attitude while studying" your exam scores will also improve, which makes it easier to be

enthusiastic about studying for the next exam, and you're into a very nice cycle.

It helps when you have hope, when can see progress toward "knowing your stuff," because you have areason for realistic confidence and hope, and enthusiasm.

Factors that contribute to Concentration

Concentration is a "master skill" that affects everything you do. If you have good concentration(represented by *'s on the diagram above) you will learn more during study and perform better on exams.

But what is good concentration? You don't get it by "trying to concentrate", but by focusing on what you

are doing, as you search for insightand use problem solving tools effectively and study actively (20.5)

with the goal of increasing your knowledge and skill.

As emphasized earlier in "Fully Alive," motivation is important.A confident "lack of worrying" usually helps, but it isn't necessary. You can learn and perform well in

spite of anxiety, if you have a positive action focus. Instead of worrying about negatives (what you fear,dislike, or want to avoid), focus your full attention on the "positive" of what you want to accomplish and

the action you're taking to reach that goal.

It is usually good to study enthusiastically with high intensity, trying to learn a lot in a short time. Usepiecework incentive! I've noticed that many of my best ideas and exam performances come when I'm

"trying really hard."

But creative ideas and good performance also occur during times of relaxation. One colorful example

involves the great scientist Archimedes. Over 2000 years ago he was appointed to test a king's crown, tofind out if it made of pure gold, as ordered, or if less costly (and lighter-weight) silver had been mixed in.

To complete his analysis, Archimedes needed a way to find the volume of the crown. For awhile, theanswer eluded him. But one day as he stepped into the bath he saw the water level rise, and suddenly heknew how to find the crown's volume! Archimedes was so delighted that he jumped from the water and

ran naked into the street gleefully shouting "I found it! I found it!"

In many situations a mixture of freedom-from-worry and high intensity, a sort of "relaxed alertness,"will help you to think more effectively.

Physical fitness and mental fitness: There is an intimate connection between mind and body. Each

affects the other. If you take better care of your body with "whole-person living" that includes goodnutrition, exercise and (of course) getting enough rest, your concentration and thinking quality will

improve.

It isn't easy to know what produces good concentration because many factors are involved, their effect

varies from one person to another, and the goal of thinking depends on the situation. For example, theconcentration needed for early exam-preparation (reading, lecture-listening, making summary notes,

problem-solving while searching for insight, ...) is a little different than the concentration you need during

an exam when you must work very fast. This is why Section 20.6 urges you to do "realistic practice"during late exam-preparation.

There is also a difference between converging thinking, when your thought is focused on a single well-

defined goal, and divergent thinking, when you search for creative ideas but aren't sure what the ideas willbe until you actually get them. And some types of mental organization, especially for big projects that
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synthesize a variety of ideas, require a special kind of logic that works best when you think clearly but in a

"diffuse" way, with your attention spread over a large area so you see "the big picture," the overall

patterns and links-between-ideas, how pieces of the puzzle fit together to form a unified and coherentwhole.

As with most skills, a good way to develop concentration is to search for insights. Notice what works

best for you in different situations, and practice until fast, clever, reliable thinking becomes a natural andeasy habit.

20.5 Active Reading and Listening

Activity makes studying more fun and more efficient. Other parts of this book discuss the activities of

making summary notes, using flash cards, and solving problems. This section focuses on two importantskills: reading and listening.

Active Reading

FLEXIBILITY: Decide what your purpose is, and adjust your reading accordingly. You may want toaim for maximum understanding, to get out of a book everything the author put into it. Often, however,

your goal is more specific: to learn the book's main ideas, to look for a specific fact, to gather ideas for aterm paper, or...

Each goal requires a different approach, but here is a basic principle: unless you really need "totalcomprehension", you should resist the compulsion to read every word in a chapter or every page in a

book. For example, most experts suggest that before you read a textbook chapter you preview it to

discover the chapter's overall content and structure. To do a quick preview, read the introduction andsummary, look at section titles and diagrams, the things in special print (large, bold, italics, underlined),

and whatever seems important.

You can do a quick book survey (it's like a preview, except that a survey isn't always a preliminary tocloser reading) by looking at the chapter and section titles in the table of contents, and then reading the

parts that seem interesting or useful.

To find the places where a book discusses a specific idea, form a mental image of the idea, then scanthe pages (or table of contents) and keep comparing what you see with the idea-image until you find a"match".

SPEED: One simple, effective speed technique is effort -- just try to read faster. Another is to be

flexible, so you don't waste time by reading more closely (and slowly) than is necessary.You should read groups of words, not one word at a time. This is easier if you focus your eyes slightly

above the tops of the letters; try reading a line with only the top half of the letters visible, with the bottom

half visible, and compare the results. Or practice making fewer eye fixations per line (your eye seesclearly only when it temporarily stops) and decreasing the time-per-stop. Move only your eyes (not your

head), don't "lip sync" the words, and minimize unnecessary backtracking. Most important, practice

reading faster, to discover effective techniques and develop good habits. If your college offers a reading

improvement course, it might be a wise use of your time to take it and get some expert advice.To QUICKLY LEARN (speed plus comprehension) you must gather information quickly with your

eyes by using the "mechanics" suggestions in the previous paragraph, and process it quickly using the

"thinking skills" discussed throughout this section.COMPREHENSION: Accurately interpret the author's ideas. Read carefully, think about sentence

structure and word meaning [use the "technical" definition of words like velocity, acceleration, force,

work, energy and heat, not "everyday meanings" ] , study the diagrams, work out the examples &derivations, and answer the questions that are asked -- they'll stimulate your thinking and this will help


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you learn.

As described in Section 20.95, at a certain stage of the writing process a writer can make an outline that

is organized in a "visual form" to show relationships (logical, historical, cause-effect, application,flowchart, hierarchy,...) between ideas. A writer translates these ideas into a logical sequence so they can

be printed in "linear form" and you read the book in linear order, one word after the other. If you are a

good reader you will try to translate ideas in the reverse direction, from linear to visual, so you can see-and-understand the relationships that the writer is communicating:

VISUAL OUTLINE

----(writer)--->


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Recite: When you find something worth remembering, look away from the book and say the idea to

yourself, either mentally or aloud. This activity helps move the idea from temporary short-term memory

where, like the "vanished name-introduction" of Section 20.3, it can be easily lost, into permanent long-term memory. Recitation provides original awareness with intention to remember and makes you practice

the active recall you'll need for answering questions and solving problems on exams. Timing is important,

because you must capture ideas while they're still in your short-term memory. Don't wait until the end ofthe chapter to do reviews; recite often, during stop-and-go breaks, while you're reading.

Kenneth Higbee, Ph.D., author of the excellent book "Your Memory -- How It Works and How to

Improve It", summarizes the scientific research on recitation: "The effectiveness of recitation does notdepend on whether the learners are dull or bright, whether the material is long or short, whether the

material is meaningful or not -- in virtually every case it is more efficient to read and recite than to just

read. A recent introductory psychology textbook discussing learning strategies concluded that 'recitationis the most powerful tool in all learning'."

Write: Use a pencil to underline, circle or bracket the most important parts [as shown in these three

paragraphs] , or highlight them with a translucent marker. You can also write your own notes (comments

or summaries) in the book's margin or on a separate piece of paper. If you have good book-marking or

notes, it preserves much of the thinking you've done while reading; this will help when you review or re-read the chapter.

Will stop-and-go reading slow you down? Yes, but that can be good. If original awareness is minimaland you don't understand-and-remember what you read, it would be more appropriate to call it "wasting

time" than "reading". Activity breaks may help you understand and remember; because of increased

learning efficiency, frequent brief stops will save you time in the long run.RE-READING: Use "successive approximations" to get an increasingly accurate and complete

understanding. It is often useful to do three readings: a quick survey, careful reading, and re-reading.

Depending on your time, purpose and motivation, re-reading can be done carefully, or a quick review of

the important points (use your notes and book-marking as a guide), or just read what you need for doingproblems.

Use the welder's "search for insight" strategy to develop an effective way to combine your reading(survey, careful, re-reads) with other important activities: listening to lectures, making a summary,problem solving practice, and reviewing.

Active ListeningThis is like active reading, with two major differences.

During a lecture you can learn from the content and also how it is said: voice pitch, loudness, inflection

and rhythm, facial expressions and hand-waving, ...You control the pace of your reading, but a speaker talks as fast as he (or she) wants. Unless a lecture is

on tape, stop-and-go is not practical. Instead, you must do several things almost-simultaneously: listen,

analyze, and make notes. Here are three ways to improve your listening-and-processing skill.

PREPARE BEFORE THE LECTURE: How? Quickly review your notes from previous lectures, andread the appropriate textbook sections. If the teacher's lecture notes from a previous quarter are available,

read them for a "preview".

Why? If you know something about a subject already, it's easier to understand the lecture. Bycomparing the treatment of material by the textbook and teacher, you will learn something about the

teacher's "emphasis". You can probably take less notes, so you can do more thinking-while-listening, and

it will be easier to make quick decisions about what is important enough to put in your notes.CONCENTRATE DURING THE LECTURE: With quality practice (relaxed yet alert, motivated,


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Cramming will help you get better grades. When you practice fact-recalling and problem-solving in the

days before an exam, very little "fading" occurs between studying and the exam, so your memory and skill

levels remain high. But if you use the time before an exam for "original learning" that could have beendone earlier, you're wasting time that is extremely valuable for memory and skill practice. To be

effective, cramming should be a supplement to earlier study, not a replacement. It should be mainly

consolidation (review & practice) of knowledge and skill that have been built on a solid foundation over along period of time.

If the exam is CLOSED BOOK, memorize everything you'll need to know. { If you find out what

information will be "given" on the exam, it decreases the amount you have to memorize.} Practicesolving problems without your summary notes, using only the information that you'll be able to use during

the exam.

If the exam is SEMI-OPEN (when you can use a limited amount of your own notes), make a rough-draft summary early, practice using it for homework problems and revise it to make an improved exam

version. If your summary is over the size limit, make a photocopy reduction; at 64%, two pages condense

into one.

If the exam is OPEN BOOK, it still helps to prepare. Make a summary so you can quickly find things

(on the summary or in the book) during the exam. If you'll need to use textbook data-tables, know wherethey're located.

When you study for a FINAL EXAM, review your midterms. They are an example of what the teacherthinks is important. Sometimes teachers put midterm questions, either as-is or slightly modified, on the

final exam.

Realistic PracticeRELEVANCE. When you seek out and solve problems similar to those you expect to encounter later,

on an exam or in real-life situations, this realistic practice makes it more likely that in the future the

information within a problem will trigger your memory of useful problem-solving strategies.

SPEED. If you always do homework problems slowly you'll get accustomed to "thinking slowly." Ifyou work at a comfortable slow pace you may not finish a typical exam, but if you suddenly change to

"fast thinking" it may be difficult to avoid the rushed, frantic feeling that can lead to mistakes. If youpractice solving problems quickly before the exam, your ability to do fast-yet-clear thinking will improve,and so will your exam score. { By doing homework quickly you also get to practice a wider variety of

problems in the same amount of study time; this extra experience will help during the exam. You may

find it useful to try this stop-and-go combination: mix fast-thinking solutions with pauses to "search forinsight" like the skier and welder. }

Here is some excellent advice, paraphrased from "The Art of Trombone Playing" by Edward

Kleinhammer: When you practice at home pretend you're in the concert hall, and when you're in theconcert hall pretend you're at home. Let's examine these suggestions. First, practice "quality" playing --

with good tone, accurate rhythm and melodic feeling, just like you'll want to play during the performance.

Later, instead of being nervous you can play with the same un-selfconscious relaxed concentration you

had in your living room. And because you've practiced playing with good quality until it feels natural andcomfortable, it will be easier for you to play with this same good quality during the performance.

You can use this "practice --> performance" strategy to improve your exam scores. During late exam

preparation, practice doing problems quickly and confidently. Then work quickly and confidently duringthe exam, just like you did in practice.

4) Exam PerformanceThe most reliable way to do well on exams is good preparation, as described above in 1-3. But the


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quality of your thinking during the exam is also important.

Some exam excitement is normal and if you use it wisely is helpful. Instead of interpreting this

as harmful "anxiety" you should choose to think of it as helpful "energetic alertness." You can use yournervous energy for constructive action, and/or try to get more relaxed, physically and mentally, by

breathing slow, deep, and natural. However you feel, it's OK because, whether you feel excited or

relaxed, it's what you do that counts, so concentrate on the here-and-now action of answering the examquestions. { In most situations, experienced speakers, stage performers and athletes get excited before

their event. But once the action begins, their focus quickly shifts to doing whatever they have to do, and

they perform well. And so can you. }KNOW YOURSELF: Do you perform better in some situations than in others? If you can figure out

what causes this difference in response, maybe you can learn to "focus your excitement" and perform well

in a wider range of situations.MOTIVATION: Avoid extremes of apathy or anxiety. An effective combination is a strong desire to

do well coupled with a lack of excessive worry about the outcome. { Attitude, self image and

concentration are discussed more fully in Section 20.4. }

PRACTICE: Use each exam as a chance to "practice doing your best", to perform as well as your

abilities and preparation allow. The accumulated effect of this practice will improve your skill at facinghigh pressure situations, in or out of school, with confidence and self-control. This is a valuable skill to

learn.{ Different aspects of school let you practice thinking that is "deep" and "quick". In many life

situations you work as a member of a group, are given a relatively large amount of time to solve problems

(much longer than in an exam), are asked to do analysis that is deep, creative, complete, detailed andcorrect, and to make wise decisions. In other situations, as an individual you must do quick evaluation-

and-decision: for example, when you listen to a lecture, participate in a conversation or debate, give first

aid or respond to other emergencies, play sports or drive a car. Quick thinking is also useful for long-term

projects because, as discussed in the "Efficiency" part of Section 20.7, "total time = sum of parts." Youpractice deep thinking when you make summary notes, write a term paper, or do a research project. You

practice quick thinking when you listen to lectures, and solve problems quickly in homework or exams. }POINT STRATEGY: In case you don't finish the entire exam, try to get maximum points by decidingwhich questions to answer first. Consider these factors:

How many points is a particular question worth?

How certain are you of getting it correct?How much time will doing it require?

PACING: Start the exam working at "optimal pace" -- at a speed that you think is the best combination

of maximum speed with minimum error. After awhile, compare your progress with the time remainingand ask, "Working at the present pace, will I be able to finish the exam?" If necessary, adjust your speed.

If you have a question, suspect an exam error, or if formulas are supplied on the exam and you need one

that isn't there, ask the teacher about it.

If you're not sure about the answer for a question, record your thoughts (cross off multiple choiceoptions you've eliminated, write short comments,...) and go on to the next question. Take advantage of

"incubation" and when you return to the question later in the exam, you may know the answer.

Should you guess? Usually, but it depends on the grading policy and the "expected returns" fromguessing.

If you finish early, check your work.

5) After the Exam
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Think about what happened so you can learn from it, for each phase discussed above.

How was your preparation? Knowing what you do now, would you approach it differently? In what

specific ways?How much "exam excitement" did you have? Did it seem to help or hurt you?

How was your pacing? Point strategy? For each question you missed, ask WHY? Was it due to a lack

of knowledge and skill, or was it a problem you should have been able to solve but didn't? Ask thequestions from the "How To Learn More from your Problem-Solving Experience" and "Find The Trouble

and Fix It" parts of Section 20.2.

Can you gain any insights from this experience? What wise advice would you give, if you could talk toyourself two weeks before the exam? Two days before it? At the start of the exam? Halfway through it?

Can these insights help you prepare for your next exam?

20.7 Using Your Time Effectively

Dost thou love life? Then do not squander time, for that's the stuff life is made of. { BenjaminFranklin, 1746 }

Three ways to use your time more effectively are wise planning, good timing, and increased efficiency.Planning

The foundation of planning is knowing yourself and what you want to do with your abilities andopportunities. { This doesn't necessarily mean having a specific career goal. As a student, your

immediate goal may be to earn grades (and skills) that give you good options to choose from later. } Wise

planning is choosing daily activities that help you make progress toward your long-term goals. In hisexcellent book "How to Get Control of Your Time and Your Life," Alan Lakein describes the relationship

between goals and activities:

"When you have planned well on both long-term and short-term levels, then goals and activities fittogether like well-meshed gears. Most if not all of the activities specified in short-term plans will

contribute to the realization of the goals specified in long-term plans."

When should you plan? In the evening [so you can review the previous day and plan for the next] ormorning [when you're well rested and ready to go], or at any time during the day when you ask "What isthe best use of my time right now?"

A useful time-management tool is a daily To-Do List. First think of all the things you might want to do,

then set priorities -- it is very important that you do certain activities today (so be sure you do them),others would be nice to do but they aren't "necessary", while some probably shouldn't be done at all (cross

them off your list). Then use this prioritized list to plan your activities for the day.

You can use a time schedule, or just "improvise as you go." The ideal amount of scheduling structuredepends on your personal preference and the situation. For example, when I tutor students a schedule is

essential, but during work on this book I just wake up and start writing, then take breaks (for a nap, walk,

prayer, eating...) whenever I'm in the mood for it. Try different mixes of structure and spontaneity, and

find out what works best for you in different situations.BALANCE. Your daily plan can include studying, rest and recreation, work and play, solitude and

socializing. Leave some flexibility for "surprises."

A portable to-do list (like a 3 x 5 card in your pocket) increases the probability of getting activitiesdone, and decreases your memory load -- you don't have to think about "what to do today" so your mind is

free for creative thinking. I use a cheap alarm watch to remind me that it's time to go to class, or catch a

bus, or...The purpose of planning is to use time effectively. It's all right if you don't finish all of the activities on
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a to-do list. If a list gets you to use your time for high priority activities, it has served its purpose.

A little time invested in planning (it can be done quickly!) is a great investment. If you ever feel "too

busy to plan", consider it a reminder about the importance of planning -- you don't have enough time to doeverything you want, so it is essential that you decide how to use your limited time wisely.

When you set priorities, consider urgency and long-term importance. To find out if something is

urgent, ask "What will happen if I don't do this today?" Urgency tends to demand action, but non-urgentactivities can be just as important because their effects are "cumulative" -- for example, brushing teeth,

nutrition & physical fitness, and preparing for an end-of-semester term paper or final exam. Be sure to do

non-urgent yet important activities on a regular basis.Occasionally, to keep things in perspective, stop for introspection, orientation and long-term planning.

Re-think your present situation (Where am I now?), values and goals (Where do I want to go?), and time

use (Are my activities effective in bringing me closer to my goals?). Use orientation times to make amaster list of activities. Write your goals on the left side of a page, and activities that will help you reach

each goal on the right side. Then use this master list to help you make daily to-do lists.

A whole-semester schedule (like the one below) will help you plan ahead, so you can skillfully

coordinate your daily and long-term activities. On this schedule, put the due-dates for everything that

must be done: homework, exams, papers, ...Aug 30 S M T W R F S

Art History

Biology

English

Physics

Events

Sep 6

Art History

.....

Timing

Good timing lets you take advantage of opportunities while they're still available.Timing is an important part of planning; you are deciding what to do and also when to do it. But

planning doesn't always lead to doing. A valuable time-use tool (Lakein devotes 1/3 of his book to it) is

the ability to convert planning into action at the proper time.

If you avoid an activity that you know is "high priority," you are procrastinating. You are especiallylikely to avoid a task you feel is unpleasant or overwhelming, or if you have doubts about whether you

should do it.If you have doubts, re-think the situation and ask "Is this something I should do? Is it a top-priorityproject?" If you answer NO, decide what you should do instead. If you answer YES, then you can move

into action with increased confidence that you are doing what you should be doing.

It may help to think about why you are avoiding a project. Does the project involve work you findunpleasant? Is it in any way unethical? Could it be dangerous (physically, socially, financially,...)? Are

you afraid of failure, or the changes in life that success might bring? Ask yourself: Is there any way I can

decrease the project's unpleasant aspects, or change my attitudes toward them?


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The "unknown" is a common reason for fear. If a project requires doing things you've never done

before, it may be wise to get advice from someone with experience. { Talk with an expert, or ask a

librarian to help you find useful books or magazine articles.}Alan Lakein suggests turning an overwhelming project into "Swiss Cheese" by poking holes in it with

small tasks that are quick and easy to do. You can gather information, do brainstorming (as described in

Section 20.8), make a plan of action, or begin work on some aspect of the project. After you've poked afew holes in it, the project may not look so overwhelming.

Hopefully, your first small steps will lead to full scale action. If your initial involvement leads to

interest-and-enthusiasm, which leads to more involvement and more interest, you'll want to continueworking on the project.

But if your first steps don't lead to eager involvement, you have to use willpower. This is easier when

you have logical reasons for "doing what you don't want to do." Ask yourself: what are the consequencesof delay, and what are the benefits of doing the project now? And convince yourself that since you have

to do the project anyway, you might as well choose the best time to do it.

Let's look at a common victim of student procrastination, a term paper that must be written. If you wait

until the last minute there may be unexpected interruptions, you may be uninspired or have "writer's

block", pressure-plus-fatigue can decrease your writing quality and speed. If writing the paper takeslonger than expected (it usually does) you face a difficult choice. You can submit a late paper, or one that

is poor quality compared with what you could produce with more time.If you begin early, you can take advantage of your moods and write when you want to, not when you

have to. You can make an almost-final draft, ignore it for a few days (or give it to a friend for

constructive criticism), then look at it with "fresh eyes" and revise it into a paper you'll be proud tosubmit. Perhaps the biggest benefit of good planning is the sigh of relief and night of contented sleep

before the paper is due, the satisfaction of knowing that you conquered indecision, laziness and fear, that

you acted responsibly and did your best.

What are the benefits of studying physics regularly instead of only cramming before exams? You cando repeated reviews that help you remember, make a summary and revise it, take advantage of "creative

incubation," prepare for lectures, and use the time just before an exam for realistic practice and effectivecramming. If you get behind in your classes, you may have to leap from one cramming crisis to the nextas every crisis puts you further behind in all classes except the one you're cramming for. This game of

catch-up, which is inefficient because you don't get the benefits listed above, can be avoided if you study

regularly for each class.Ask yourself, "Do I work well under pressure? In what ways does my thinking quality depend on the

type of pressure? on the type of project?" If you don't work well with pressure, try to find out why and

what you can do about it. { Some possibilities are discussed in the "Exam Performance" part of Section20.6. } If you work best with pressure, try to analyze this high-intensity concentration and then figure out

how you can do it all of the time. Maybe you can pretend it's the night before the deadline, to fool

yourself into thinking like you do when the pressure is on. If you can do high-intensity thinking in low-

pressure situations, the flexibility of your time planning increases and so does your freedom and sense ofcontrol.

As much as possible, try to "use your moods" and study what you want to study, when you want to do

it. Then monitor your progress in each class, for each phase of studying (reading, lectures, making asummary, solving problems, review). If you are neglecting a class (or part of the learning process) that

you don't especially like, you can use willpower to get yourself to do it.

You may find it useful to keep a record of the time spent studying each subject. I keep three lists: asimple checklist for activities (exercise, ...) and two "time lists" for writing. One list is a record of writing
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time; I make a game of trying to reach my total-hours-per-week goal, and this helps me to be more

disciplined. The other list, which records the hours-per-chapter, reminds me to use piecework motivation,

to think quickly so I can get this book finished -- with a satisfactory level of quality -- in a reasonableamount of time.

If necessary, use the "no choice" weapon against procrastination. Instead of giving yourself a choice

between doing a high priority project and a desirable but lower priority activity, make it a choice betweendoing the project or doing absolutely nothing -- just stare at a blank wall. This confronts you with your

procrastination, eliminates rationalization, and soon gets you moving into action.

If your studying is often interrupted by thoughts like "I'd rather be doing ___", there is a conflict ofinterest. Physics will do better in this competition if you enjoy it. I find physics fascinating and hope that

you also feel a genuine enthusiasm for it. But even if you aren't convinced that physics is fun, you can use

willpower to do what you know is good for you. An effective strategy is to link physics (or any subjectyou're studying) with a future goal and think about delayed gratification. Say to yourself, "I'm doing

physics now so I can do ___ later."

Efficiency

To get more done, you can 1) waste less time, and 2) work more efficiently.There may be more time than you realize. Do the following hours-per-week seem reasonable? Sleep

(50), classes (17), study (21) and meals (10), for a total of 98 hours. There are 168 hours in a week: wheredid the other 70 hours go? / Some time is used for getting dressed, commuting, work (if you have a job)

and play, but probably not 70 hours. Do you think you could find more studying time by using small

blocks of time (like "transition times" between major activities) that are usually wasted, and by takinglarge blocks of non-study time and cutting them down to medium size blocks?

To minimize your transition time, be decisive and avoid procrastination.

A good way to use small time blocks is to have 5-minute fillers, things you can do immediately with no

"warmup": review flashcards, read a textbook you carry with you (and mark it to preserve your thoughts),review and mark lecture notes,...

Since "total time = sum of parts", one way to reduce big blocks of study time is to think more quicklyand use better tools. When you study, if your attitude is analogous to "working for piecework wages" youwill be highly motivated to "learn more per hour" and you probably will.

Be aware of your biological rhythms. Find the times of day when clear thinking is easiest, and use

these "prime times" for important creative thinking and for the most challenging parts of your studying.A writer never finishes a book. Instead, at some point he decides to abandon it. Similarly, you must

decide on an acceptable level of perfectionism. Is it a wise use of your time to "polish" a project, or

should you abandon it and move on to another activity? Try to answer without being influenced too muchby laziness, impatience or frustration (these can make you give up too soon) or by excessive pride (that

keeps you working past the point where it is worthwhile).

Section 20.1's "Rapid Progress" and 20.4's "factors that contribute to success" explain how the

interdependence of physics tools can let you make rapid progress. Analyze your tools and find the placeswhere more time and effort will bring the greatest improvement per hour invested.

You can also be efficient in non-study activities. For example, try to combine the tasks on a weekly to-

do list into efficient "errand runs" that reduce the number of trips you make. Sometimes you can do twothings at once, like listening to educational tapes while you commute, jog, exercise, do dishes or clean

your room.

To organize your school-related or general paperwork, thus making it easier to find things quickly, usehanging files. Ask about them at your college bookstore.
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About 1/3 of life is used for sleeping. But the time you invest in sleep isn't wasted; it helps you stay

healthy, and makes your waking time more efficient and enjoyable. When you are tempted to "gain time"

by sleeping less, consider this: 16 high-quality hours may be worth more than 20 lower-quality hours.If you feel overworked during semesters, you may want to try "spreading your vacations out." Study a

little during the semester break (try to find something that is relatively fun and will reduce next semester's

workload), then treat yourself to mini-vacations during the semester when you really need them. { Or youmay prefer to make your semester break a complete no-study vacation and avoid a feeling of "taking your

work home with you." }

BALANCE: Education can be an exciting part of life. But a full life is more than maximizing study-productivity. The "Fully Alive" part of Section 20.4 examines attitudes toward work and play. It

encourages you to work hard, play joyfully, relax with a free mind, and avoid the extremes of workaholic

or lazy bum.

The following sections (20.93, 20.95, and 20.96)

are supplements to Sections 20.3, 20.5, and 20.6.

20.93 More about MemoryThis section contains a loose mix of information about flash cards, sensory recall, memory tricks, and

memory systems.1. FLASH CARDS

If you mix problem-solving practice with reviews of the flashcards and summary at the end of each

chapter in this book, it will do wonders for your "tool memory" and problem solving skill.MAKING AND USING FLASH CARDS: Put a CUE on one side of a 3x5 index card, and its

corresponding "ANSWER" on the other side. Then use the card for self-testing: look at the cue, predict

the answer, turn the card over to see if it's correct. / Use cards for anything you want to memorize. { Forexample, information from summary notes,... Every chapter ofPhysics: Tools for Problem Solving has

suggestions for specific cue-answer pairs. }

The CUE is important; choose it carefully. Try to use the same kind of cue that real problems willprovide. And "minimize" it; the less cue you need during flash card practice, the more likely it is thatinformation within a problem will be enough to trigger the correct response. Here is a minimum-cue

example. The 4 basic right-triangle relationships {definitions of sine, cosine & tangent, plus the formula

"aa + bb = cc"} are often used in physics to split a diagonal line, / , into its horizontal and verticalcomponents. For review, should you use a cue like "What are the 4 right- triangle formulas?" or "How

can I split a diagonal into components?" or " / " ? The last cue is best. Why? Because a problem won't

jab you in the ribs and shout in your ear "Hey Sam! Why don't you use one of the 4 trigonometryformulas?" Instead, there will be a diagonal vector, / , that needs to be split, and the sight of this must be

enough to trigger your recall of the trig-formula tools. Do you see why memorizing with a minimal "/"

cue (instead of a long "give-away" cue) is better preparation for real problem-solving situations? Almost

always, the less cue you need for retrieval, the better.MULTIPLE CUES: One fact may have several cues. This makes it more likely that the cues within a

problem will let you retrieve the fact from memory. [similar to funneling]

The ANSWER can be practiced in different ways. You can WRITE it (and also SEE), or SAY it (andalso HEAR), or REHEARSE it mentally (along with "VISUALIZING" of sight, sound, meaning,...). Try

each method and choose your favorite, or alternate them to store the knowledge in your memory using

several sense-modes, thus making it easier to retrieve.MULTIPLE ANSWERS: One thing can remind you of several associated items. This is useful for real
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life problem-solving and creative thinking, because it gives you different "options" to choose from.

[similar to fanning]

EDITING FLASH-CARDS: After you've used the cards awhile, you can change the cues to make themmore appropriate and minimal. Or sort cards into piles, like well known pairs vs. those needing review,

essentials vs. optionals, according to topic,... Use paper clips or rubber bands to keep each group together.

REVERSIBLE CARDS are useful in some situations. For example, in learning a language you'llprobably want to translate in both directions. To learn English -> Spanish translation, use the English side

of the card as cue; for Spanish -> English translation, just flip the cards over. / Or to learn a chemical

reaction like "A + B -> C" in both directions, put "A + B -> __" on one side and "__ -> C" on the other;then alternate which side you use as cue.

TWO COLUMN self-testing: Put cues in one column, answers in the other, as in my end-of-chapter

"flashcard" sections. Then use the flash card method: cover the answer column, look at the cue andpredict the answer, then check by sliding the cover down one line at a time. This format is good for some

purposes, like memorizing language vocabulary in both directions. And one page is more compact than

many cards. But flash cards are adaptable to a wider variety of situations, and cards can be shuffled to

avoid using one card as a cue for the next -- as occurs, for example, when you hear a CD often, and one

song reminds you of the next song.In any form, flashcards force you to actively search your memory to find a response to the cue, and this

activity will help you remember.

2. SENSORY RECALL

In some situations, "retrieval from memory" will improve if you MATCH THE SENSE-MODE:During active review, did you write (and see), or say (and hear), or mentally rehearse (and sub-vocalize)?

When you want to recall, use the same sense mode. Depending on which method you used earlier, either

try to write it (and remember the way it feels and looks) to say (and hear) it, or to mentally sub-vocalize

it. / RELIVE THE SCENE: To remember where you put the car keys, mentally review (with as muchrealism as possible) what you did the last time you had them. With suitable modification, this principle

can be used for academic purposes.3. MEMORY TRICKS

Summary notes take advantage of a subject's internal logical organization. Now we'll look at ways to

impose external organization onto any kind of material, even if it has no inherent logic of its own. Forexample,

The Great Lakes (and their spatial order) are SHE-OM: Superior, Huron, Erie, and Ontario; Michigan is

not in the west-to-east sequence of "sheo" ).To change clocks for daylight savings time, remember to "spring forward" and "fall back."

"Can I draw a circle?" { pi = 3.1416 }

"In fourteen hundred and ninety two, Columbus sailed the ocean blue."

Stalactites hang from a cave's ceiling, stalagmites grow from the ground.For unit-circle trigonometry (it doesn't matter if you don't understand trig; just notice how the "links"

are made): x and cosine both have "ks" sounds, but y and sine don't. For the vector-splitting results of

"adjacent = hyp cos Z" and "opposite = hyp sin Z", a & c (adjacent & cos) are early in the alphabet, o & s(opposite & sine) are late.

Or for music, the treble clef space-notes spell "FACE" while the line-notes are "EGBDF" (every good

boy deserves favor).How do you set a table? "fork knife spoon" are alphabetical; the fork goes on the left (both have 4
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letters), and knife spoon right (5 letters).

a mental calendar: For 1998, "411 537 526 416" gives the first Sunday of each month; add 7, 14, 21 or

28 to get the other Sundays; for Mon, Tues, Wed, Thurs, Fri, or Sat, just add 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6.Memory tricks depend on linked pairs. For example, the Great Lakes are first linked with "she-om".

Later, just remember this one word, and it will remind you of the lakes' initials & location; they tag along

as "free riders."HOW TO MAKE LINKED PAIRS: You can use INITIALS (as in she-om, the cave's c-g, or face &

egbdf), COUNTING LETTERS (for 3.1416), SOUND ("ks"), POETRY (In fourteen hundred and...),

ALPHABETICAL ORDER (a & c early, o & s late), or VISUAL IMAGERY (as in the action-phrases"spring forward & fall back").

VISUAL IMAGERY is a good way to form the "mediating link" between a pair of words you want to

remember. Use your imagination to invent vivid images that will be easy to remember; make themhumorous or dramatic, logical or ludicrous, use exciting action or a story line. Make the paired words

"interact" in some way; this forms a strong memory link between them. To discover easily remembered

association links (using sound, alphabetical order, initials, interactive imagery, or ...), brainstorm and edit

-- first use creative freeflow imagination to get lots of ideas (without judging whether they're good ones or

not) and then decide whether to use them. After you have constructed exciting visual imagery, store it inyour memory as interactive pictures.

VISUAL LOGIC is sometimes a good organizing method. For example, first try to memorize our 50states in alphabetical order, then by using the map shown below. [imagine the map described below] The

map makes it easier to memorize because of chunking and location. / It is easier to remember 12

"chunks" than 50 individual states. Also notice that 9 of the 12 groupings contain four states, so you know(like having a "string on your finger") that you must remember four states for most groups. / The map

uses "visual location memory" which can be very effective. And the U.S. map is familiar; you've seen it

often, so you've already done much of the work needed to memorize its spatial organization.

4. MEMORY SYSTEMS

If you want to recall the 26 letters of the English alphabet, you'll probably do it in order (abc...), not randomly. This is an example of long-chain association, the principle used in most memorysystems. A chain offers two advantages: 1) it's easy to remember things in a certain order, and 2) you

can keep track of what you have and haven't done already (so you'll end up with 26 letters -- no more, no

less).Here are short descriptions of common memory systems:

For the CHAIN SYSTEM, link each item to the one before it, using imagery or weaving them into a

story. / In the PEG SYSTEM, use concrete nouns associated with numbers (like bun-shoe-tree-door-hive-sticks-heaven-gate-wine-hen that rhyme with 1-10) or letters (ape-boy-cat-dog-egg,... for abcde...) and

then link the first, second, third, fourth,... things you want to remember with ape, boy, cat, dog,...

respectively. / The LOCATION SYSTEM, used long ago by Greek and Roman orators, links items with

sequential locations in a building (or in an outdoor setting); when you want to remember the items, justtake a mental walk and retrieve the items one by one, in the proper sequential order.

It takes some time to learn a system, but the results (being able to remember things you previously

couldn't) may be worth the time you invest. Many readily available books describe such systems in detail.

20.95 Active Writing


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The following discussion can help you improve your skill in writing and reading, speaking and

listening. The same organizing principles, adapted as appropriate, are used for all of these ways to

communicate. { I recommend that you take courses in writing and speaking, to help you improve theseimportant skills! }

As an example of "the writing process" I'll describe how I write a book chapter. First I gather ideas

from my research notes, memory and imagination. Then I edit these ideas (to narrow the topic bydeciding what is essential or is important supporting material, and omitting the rest) and structure them.

Some visual outline structures are branching (a central idea with other ideas branching from it, and other

ideas branching out from these, like a circular tree), funneling (other ideas "come in" to help explain acentral idea) and fanning (from a central idea, other ideas "go out" -- the logical and practical

consequences of this idea, ways it can be applied, other ideas it inspires or can help explain,...). Or there

can be idea-clusters scattered around the page, with some space left between the clusters (for additions andrevision).

No matter which form is preferred (I tend to think in terms of branching & funnel-fan, but use clusters

for outlines), the ideas are translated from "visually logical outline" form to a "sequential, linear written"

form. To do this, I group the clusters and number them. After the initial numbering I usually discover

"leftover ideas", so my numbering ends up looking like "1, 2, 2.5, 2.7, 3, 4, 4.5, 5" instead of "1, 2, 3, 4,5." Then I write sentences and paragraphs, in numerical order, based on the ideas in each cluster. /

Computer programs with "outlining" features can also be very helpful.In the group-and-number step, a writer translates ideas from a "visual outline" form to a "linear written"

form. As a reader, you want to translate in the reverse direction; find the main ideas in the writing and

organize them in a way that shows their relationships (flowchart, cause-effect, hierarchy, funnel-fan,...).And this, as discussed in Section 20.3, is the main purpose of summary notes.

Like Section 20.2's problem solving steps (orientation, planning, action, checking), writing steps (gather

ideas, edit-and-structure, group-and-number, write) often overlap; while a writer is doing one step, the

other processes are also occurring.These steps can be repeated at different levels of detail (book, chapter, section, sub-section, paragraph,

sentence), like levels of mapping (world, country, state, city, campus). And for the steps at each level,there can be "successive approximations." I often draw outlines in pencil, and usually write with a wordprocessor, because this makes it easier to do revisions.

20.96 Exam Tactics

SHOULD YOU GUESS? It depends on the point policy. Consider three grading schemes for an

ABCDE multiple choice exam: A) If nothing is deducted for wrong answers, guessing is rewarded. B) Ifcorrect and wrong answers are given +4 and -1 points, respectively, average-luck guessing on 10 questions

will be 2 correct (+8 points) and 8 wrong (-8 points) and you'll break even. But if you can eliminate one

or more options, the guessing odds are in your favor. C) If +1 and -1 points are given for correct and

wrong answers, a 2-of-10 result will get -6 points (+2 and -8), and guessing is punished.MULTIPLE-CHOICE LOGIC. A city in California is: a) Los Angeles, b) Grizzly Flat, c) Lodi, d) San

Francisco, e) all of the above. / Beginning with what you know about LA and SF, logic tells you that "e"

is the answer, even if you've never heard of Grizzly Flat or Lodi.

This page (with Sections 20.3-20.7,...) was written in 1989.

Copyright 1989 Craig Rusbult, all rights reserved


20/20

THREE TYPES OF LINKS in this website for Whole-Person Education:

An ITALICIZED LINK keeps you inside a page, moving you to another part of it.

Above, a NON-ITALICIZED LINK is page-adding, opening a new page in a new window.Below, a NON-ITALICIZED LINK is page-replacing, opening a new page in this window.

Here are some related pages:

The main ideas from Section 20.8,

about combining creativity and critical thinking,

are explored more deeply in Productive Thinking.More pages about LEARNING SKILLS (these are written mostly by

people who help students "learn more effectively" at universities, but

the ideas are useful for students at all levels, from elementary schoolthrough graduate school, and in all areas of life outside school)

are described (and linked to) on a Learning Resources page.and in my mini-website,Strategies for Problem Solving:

Using Creativity and Critical Thinking in Science, Design, and Education a useful

MASTER SKILL is Learning from Experience

Eventually, an interesting extension of Section 20.5 will be Two Types of Active

Learning: Direct and Inquiry

(this page will be available later)
http://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/think/prod.htm#ihttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/learn/study-skills.htm#ihttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/think/sde.htmhttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/think/sde.htmhttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/learn/motives.htm#weldhttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/think/prod.htm#ihttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/learn/study-skills.htm#ihttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/think/sde.htmhttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/think/sde.htmhttp://www.asa3.org/ASA/education/learn/motives.htm#weld

Documents

Study Skills for Effective Learning