Student Empowerment through Critical Thinking...75 Student Empowerment through Critical Thinking brings students into line with global academic standards. When they are able to view

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Student Empowerment through Critical Thinking

Dale J. Ward

What is Critical Thinking?

Though there is continuing debate on the precise meaning and scope of the

term “critical thinking,” it can broadly be described as an evidence-based

methodology or thought process which helps one decide on the veracity of a claim

(Brookfield, 2000). Rudinow & Barry (2004) describe it as “a set of conceptual

tools with associated intellectual skills and strategies useful for making reasonable

decisions about what to do and what to believe” (p. 42).

The Western roots of critical thinking lie in ancient Greece and the Socratic

method, while its Eastern strands can be traced to the Buddhist Kālāma Sutta

(Thera, 1994). Both methods advocate sound logical reasoning and dialectic

principles for inquiries in the quest for truth, wisdom and knowledge.

Critical thinking crucially includes identifying and challenging assumptions,

recognizing the importance of context, imagining and exploring alternatives and

practicing a healthy, reflective skepticism (Brookfield, 1987). It is increasingly

seen as a core component of formal education worldwide, with its importance

growing as students progress from high school to university to graduate study.

There is broad consensus that critical thinking is a crucial skill in the workplace

(Paul, 1993; Pink, 2005; Association of American Colleges and Universities, 2006;

Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2008).

Benefits of Learning about Critical Thinking

In an age dominated by technology, information changes with such alacrity

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that an effective method of analysis (“principled reflexive judgment,” Facione,

2007, p. 19) is required to make sense of it all. The democratization effected by the

“worldwide web” has been a double edged sword; access to information is easier

than ever, yet there is now an overabundance of data, requiring each piece of

information to be evaluated individually. Clearly, students who learn how to assess

information properly will gain an empowering advantage in every aspect of their

lives, from conducting academic research to making the right career choices to

purchasing consumer products.

A simple “Google Alert” for the phrase “critical thinking,” (the writer

receives a total of five to ten per day) will quickly demonstrate the preponderance

of articles, courses and conferences addressing the subject presently dominating

the academic zeitgeist. Schools and universities worldwide have recognized that

there are profound advantages to be gained by teaching critical thinking to their

students.

For American educators, instruction in critical thinking has been a focus for

decades. In 1933 educational reformer John Dewey identified “learning to think”

as a primary purpose of education (Halpern, 2003, p.8). By the 1980s there was an

increased emphasis on pedagogy designed to foster critical thinking (Facione,

1990). This focus has continued, and American higher education has continued to

emphasize the discipline. The Association of American Colleges and Universities

(AACU) promotes “inquiry, critical and creative thinking” as a key skill to be

fostered by higher education (AACU, “Liberal Education Outcomes,” 2005).

Critical thinking is, or should be, a central component of a liberal arts education.

Facione argues that it “leads us away from naïve acceptance of authority, above

self-defeating relativism, and beyond ambiguous contextualism.” Such skills are

essential if a democratic society is to function properly, with every generation

requiring better critical thinking skills than its predecessor due to a bigger and

more complex base of knowledge (Halpern, 2003).

Not only does critical thinking enable students to question and evaluate core

assumptions, but since it is now practiced worldwide, the study of critical thinking

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brings students into line with global academic standards. When they are able to

view issues and concepts from different perspectives, avoiding bias and prejudice,

learners are better able to engage in constructive communication and acquire a

mature mindset which will benefit them in the workplace and in life generally.

These skills are particularly useful to those planning to embark upon study abroad

programs since, “International students need to be explicitly taught the forms of

expression of critical thinking and inquiry which are expected within their

particular context and discipline” (Higher Education Academy, 2013). Furthermore,

since critical thinking teaches transferable skills, it is beneficial to graduates

participating in the global economy.

Numerous studies prove conclusively that people better at “fluid reasoning”

― an aspect of critical thinking ― “outperform others in producing creative ideas”

(Nusbaum & Silvia, 2011). Furthermore, adults with high scores on critical thinking

tests report “fewer negative life outcomes associated with poor decision making”

(deBruin, Parker, & Fischhoff, 2007).

A twenty-year Vanderbilt University study (Park, Lubinski, & Benbow, 2008)

saw cognitive ability predict the number of patents produced by science, engineering,

technology, and mathematics graduates. Studies of cognitive ability demonstrated

that the top 25% of students would go on to produce four times more patents than

those in the lowest 25%. Not only does this underline the fact that critical thinking

plays a crucial role in innovation, it emphasizes its key role solving the scientific and

technological challenges facing the world in the 21st century.

In the workplace, study after study emphasizes the importance of critical

thinking skills. A 2009 Canadian study of nurse educators found that those with

high critical thinking scores were more likely to incorporate dispositions such as

inquisitiveness, confidence and research knowledge into their work (Profetto-

McGrath, Bulmer Smith, Hugo, Patel, & Dussault, 2009). Not only would this help

medical personnel reach the desired professional standards; those personnel

would also make important contributions to patient and systems outcomes.

Crucially, people with high scores in critical thinking assessment are also

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less likely to show biases common in thinking. Such biases are related to “important

real-world decisions in domains such as personal finance, employment, health, and

public policy (West, Toplak, & Stanovich, 2008). Thus it is easy to see how the

acquisition of critical thinking skills enables students to become empowered,

productive citizens in a free and democratic society.

Critical Thinking in Japan

There has been a perception among both Japanese and foreign educators in

Japan that Japanese students have been poorly instructed, if at all, in critical

thinking skills. Kawato has noted that “Japanese universities have yet to sufficiently

recognize the importance of critical thinking” (n.d.), while McVeigh states that,

Japanese students “are not well trained in writing critically, arguing coherently, or

expressing their views with conviction or verve....they have trouble with specific

forms of knowledge manipulation and production that some people, with different

schooling experiences, might take for granted” (McVeigh, 2002, p.13). This

sentiment continues to hold sway, and despite the fact that Japanese children lead

the world in numeracy and literacy scores, the dominant view criticises Japan’s

state education system for “quashing original thought among pupils in favour of

rote learning, and for placing an emphasis on theory rather than practical skills”

(McCurry, 2013).

In response, many of Japan’s political, business and educational leaders have

called for Japan’s education system to begin producing graduates who possess the

analytical skills which will help them to compete in the new information age, and

these demands have been echoed in the nation’s media (Japan Times, 2011,

Kawato, n.d.). The Japanese government replied with a 2002 White Paper initiated

by its Education Ministry requiring that students acquire “the ability to think,

judge, express, etc., to solve problems, and to continue learning with self-

motivation” (MEXT 2002).

As a result, there seems to be at least a tacit recognition that the teaching of

critical thinking skills be part and parcel of Japan’s educational policy. Japan’s

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Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology has underlined

this in its Basic Act on Education, calling for students to be taught “to think

logically as well as critically” (MEXT, 2008).

Although it is difficult to ascertain exactly how many of Japan’s universities

offer courses in critical thinking, the subject seems to be gaining a modest toehold

in faculties around the country. In addition, an increasing number of academic

papers devoted to critical thinking in the Japanese context (Stapleton, 2002, Day,

2003, Rear, 2008, McKinley & Thompson, 2011) support the view that the subject

is slowly beginning to make its presence felt in Japanese higher education.

Student Profile

The course offered by the writer (“Critical Thinking 101”) has been

incorporated into two university programs. The first was taught to four classes of

third and fourth-year students as part of an Academic English writing course, since

critical thinking helps students learn not only how to think but also how to write;

West (2003) correctly notes that “pairing a critical thinking course with another

curriculum reinforces the lessons by allowing students to immediately apply what

they have learned.”

Classes were small in size, generally containing between twelve and sixteen

students, who came from various Faculties including Sports Science, Computer

Science and Engineering. Class members were generally studious and highly-

motivated in terms of language learning, the vast majority exhibiting above-

average English ability and in many cases approaching fluency. A good number

were ‘returnee’ students who had recently re-entered Japan after residing in

English-speaking countries for many years. As a result they were fluent in English

and had been highly assimilated into Western societies. Since many were planning

to return to the west in order to take up graduate studies, they felt that improving

their academic writing and critical thinking skills would stand them in good stead

in their future academic pursuits.

In the second case the course was offered to a class of twenty-five third-year

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students who had returned from a one-year study abroad program as undergraduates

in their university’s Faculty of Global Communications. Members of this faculty

tend to exhibit a high level of motivation and ability in English and a healthy

curiosity in Western study methods. Most have a strong desire to use their English

skills in their future employment or to work abroad (for instance in NPOs or

multinational companies such as banks and airlines).

Some Teaching Materials

The course includes a wide variety of materials and formats, including

vocabulary, readings, videos, independent research, presentations, games, quizzes

and field activities. Topics addressed during the course include science,

pseudoscience, society, spirituality and paranormality. The final test takes the

form of an essay which conforms to academic writing conventions expected in

western colleges and universities.

The guiding philosophy of “Critical Thinking 101” is that it contain authentic

comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982). Since the core concepts of critical thinking

are ― if not terrifically complex ― quite challenging, this course has been offered

mainly to students of high-intermediate level or above. Having said that, as Rear

(2010) notes, a systematic approach can certainly help foster critical thinking skills

among students with relatively low linguistic abilities, and the writer has seen

success among pre-intermediate to intermediate learners with high levels of

motivation.

(i) Vocabulary

It is essential that students immediately be acquainted with key vocabulary

which appears throughout the course. Students receive a list of core terminology,

consolidated through quizzes, games and repetition in all types of course materials.

It would be unimaginable to study critical thinking without constantly encountering

terms such as, “assumption,” “claim,” “challenge,” and so forth (Appendix 1).

The first class also features a questionnaire in which students express their

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attitudes to issues which could be examined through critical thinking (Appendix

2). These include medicine, religion, society and topics specific to Japanese culture.

This promotes a healthy debate as class members compare opinions at the start of

the course. In the final class students retake the questionnaire and review their

attitudes in the light of their exposure to critical thinking.

(ii) Reading: Six Criteria of Critical Thinking

The course’s key philosophy is based upon the six criteria of critical thing

reading as outlined in James Lett’s A Field Guide to Critical Thinking (1990).

Designed to help students learn how to think rather than what to think, the guide

introduces the six basic criteria of “the scientific method.” These criteria are:

1. Falsifiability: For a claim to have credibility, one must be able to conceive of

evidence that would prove the claim false. In other words, it must be

testable.

2. Logic: Argument offered in support of a claim must be sound, its conclusion

following inexorably from its premise. If this does not occur, the argument

is logically invalid.

3. Comprehensiveness: One should never consider only evidence which supports a

claim. Rather, the evidence offered should be exhaustive, with all of the

available data being considered.

4. Honesty: One must be completely honest about one’s results.

5. Replicability: If evidence for a claim rests upon an experimental result, then

other investigators must be able to repeat the test and achieve the same

results.

6. Sufficiency: Evidence offered in support of a claim must be sufficient to support

it, with three crucial stipulations:

a. the burden of proof for any claim rests on the claimant

b. extraordinary claims demand extraordinary evidence

c. evidence based purely upon authority and/or testimony is inadequate for

any claim.

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It is crucial for students to become familiar with these key concepts, since

virtually all of the course topics will be examined through this prism. Therefore a

good deal of time is spent introducing, discussing, consolidating and practicing the

use of the criteria. They are represented by a useful mnemonic which students can

easily memorize: “FeLCHeRS.”

(iii) Critical Thinking Check List and Presentation

In order for students to practice using the criteria of the scientific method,

they are equipped with a critical thinking check list (Appendix 3) based on

“FeLCHeRS”. This useful tool provides students with a framework methodology

they can use to research and assess any claim. The check list includes a glossary

of useful language terms (e.g. “The claim is (not ) falsifiable because…, “The

evidence is (not) replicable because…”) which students generally find invaluable

during oral feedback since they generally require consolidation of potentially

confusing noun/adjective structures such as falsifiability/falsifiable or logic/logical.

The check list methodology is practiced through various assigned tasks.

Firstly, students assess a pair of claims during class time in groups, then report

their findings back to the class. In order to demonstrate the criteria of critical

thinking at work, a scientific claim is usually compared against a pseudoscientific

claim, for instance a. Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection and b. the well-known

claim that an American couple were abducted in a space craft piloted by alien

beings. How far the claims satisfy the criteria of the scientific method is examined

in class discussion.

To follow up, students choose their own individual claims for homework,

researching and assessing them by using their check list, and later present their

findings to class members in groups. Group members then have the opportunity to

discuss one another’s findings, further consolidating their knowledge of the

criteria. Topics chosen reflect the diverse interests of students: religious faith,

taxation, terrorism, education, health, cultural memes and food safety to name but

a few.

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The “FeLCHeRS” criteria are referred to repeatedly during the course as various

topics are addressed through the prism of critical thinking. They include

pseudoscientific tropes such as the claim that blood types influence personality (a

belief which has been used to justify discriminatory practices in Japan and other

countries), the reasons why many people believe in dubious conspiracy theories,

and the subjectivity of eyewitness testimony in criminal justice cases, an issue

which is particularly pertinent in Japan, a nation with a criminal conviction rate of

99% (Oi, 2013).

Analysis of Student Feedback

The overall student evaluation of “Critical Thinking 101” (see Appendix 4)

has been very positive. In a sampling of 94 students, a significant minority (29%)

were to some degree aware of critical thinking prior to study, though an

overwhelming majority (69%) were not. Since an even larger number (88%) had

never studied critical thinking, the course seems to provide value in terms of

bringing critical thinking to the attention of learners.

All students seemed able to cope with the level of difficulty of the course,

inspiring confidence that comprehensible input had largely been achieved. In

addition, students enjoyed learning about critical thinking either “a lot “ (88%) or

an “average” amount (12%).

There was unanimous agreement among students that it was either “very

important” (85%) or “important” (15%) for students to learn about critical thinking,

with virtually identical numbers feeling that most students should take courses in

critical thinking. Not only that, the overwhelming number of students (91%) felt

that the course had helped them to think more effectively.

Written responses to the question “What was the most important thing you

learned in this class?” revealed that students had taken on board the “nuts and

bolts” mechanics of critical thinking which had been presented in class:

The most important thing I learned was the 6 criteria of critical thinking

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(FeLCHeRS).

Extraordinary claims need extraordinary evidence.

The course had also encouraged students to question various aspects of their

experiences:

...we need to realize how...we usually do not see or think about things critically in

daily life.

It is necessary for everyone to consider or examine each of the issues...they face by

themselves.

It had also promoted autonomy and self-reflection:

The phrase, ‘Everything you know is wrong.’ was very impressive. After I learned

that, I started asking myself, “Am I sure about this?” before believing

something.

We should not believe things without any evidence and rethink the meaning of

what we already know.

It also helped them to see critical thinking as a core component of formal

global education with which they should become familiar if they were to compete

on the global stage:

I was disappointed when I took academic classes for the first time in...(my study

abroad program)...because every American student had strong opinions and

knowledge about the class. Taking classes in critical thinking makes students

have more interest.

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Recognizing critical thinking as an empowering, transferrable skill, students

noted that they could incorporate it into other areas of study or life in general.

Today, because of globalization and the internet, we are surrounded by too

much information and cannot always easily choose which one is trustworthy.

But due to your class, I can analyze information and beliefs.

...critical thinking helped me to look at my other classes in a different way..

I think critical thinking will be useful after I graduate.

As to whether students felt “culturally or academically compromised” (Eggeg

& Kutieleh, 2004, p. 78) by this course of study, recent class members were asked

to comment on whether they felt pressured to accept the cultural assumptions of

their instructor. The response was a unanimous rejection of notions of “cultural

imperialism," and an acceptance of critical thinking as a universally valid academic

discipline:

I don't think you forced us to study your ideas and critical thinking since you

always asked us about our thoughts, and we did have an opportunity to take a

look at the syllabus before taking this class.

Personally I enjoy learning something new, and in this case it was critical

thinking because it helps me to expand my horizons.

The way of critical thinking might be western...but today it is noted by Japanese

educators and even the Ministry of Education because of its utility. I think it is

a good way of thinking regardless of whether it is a western or Asian cultural

idea.

There are many books about logical thinking or critical thinking in the business

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section...and…job hunting section…in Japanese book stores. Even though now

it's not common in Japan, I think sooner or later it will be very important to

acquire critical thinking skills in Japan because of globalization.

Caveats

Notwithstanding the benefits of studying critical thinking outlined above,

there are certain caveats which instructors should bear in mind when considering

teaching these skills in a Japanese classroom.

(i) Cultural Imperialism?

It has been suggested that the teaching of critical thinking skills in Asian

colleges and universities amounts to little more than Western professors imposing

their cultural values upon students. Some critics (Atkinson, 1997, Yoshino, 2004)

have vehemently opposed teaching critical thinking skills in non-Western contexts,

describing it as an elitist social practice with no universal basis and denying any

evidence of critical thinking skills being transferable. In short, they denounce it as

a form of cultural imperialism.

Such pre-globalization assertions now seem dubious now that critical thinking

has become firmly established as a cornerstone of global education (Dorman,

1992). Having said that, it is important that students be made aware of the historical

and cultural assumptions informing the methodology. By considering the social,

cultural and individual backgrounds of their students, professors can endeavor to

avoid such “cultural imperialism,” thus helping learners to choose which cultural

practices they wish to take on board. Working in an Australian university context,

Biggs (2003) places the socio-cultural perspectives of learners front and center in

order to avoid what he calls “conceptual imperialism”.

As mentioned above, Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

and Technology has explicitly called for a greater emphasis on the teaching of

critical thinking skills in classrooms. However, the teaching of critical thinking,

with its emphasis on “reasoned nonconformity” (Rear, 2008, p. 2) presents Japan's

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administrators with a dilemma. While independent thought undoubtedly fosters

fresh ideas and innovation, it also presents a threat to systems of authority in its

implied rejection of established ways of thinking.

While globalization has led to an increased demand for “a new kind of

graduate...independent...unbound by conventional thinking” (Rear, 2008, p.2),

Japan’s authorities have shown concern that burgeoning individualism among

young people may threaten the nation’s social order. The response to this

perceived cultural threat has been a re-emphasis on patriotic and moral education,

intended to consolidate traditional values (Japan Times, 2005). This reactionary

stance stands in direct opposition to the core values of critical thinking: challenging

assumptions and modes of thought, demanding openness and transparency. Thus

it will likely remain true that “perceptions of Japan as homogeneous continue to

have a key role in structuring...national identity and social reality for many

Japanese” (Burgess, 2004).

Be that as it may, the global reality is that, “the ideological maintenance of

(national) identities is usually unable to keep up with the pace of (historical)

change” (Burgess, 2004). In the present global context, “critical thinking is a vital

part of teaching students how to think” (Egege and Kutieleh, p. 83). Mason (2008)

notes that strong critical thinkers should be able “to see different world views in

perspective...(and) dialogue with others who...have different world views and

cultural backgrounds" (p. 3).

There are in any case reasons to doubt the stereotypical image of Asian

students who are contentedly bound by their cultural constructs. In a 2000 study,

Littlewood surveyed 2,307 students from eight Asian nations. Respondents were

asked to evaluate (i) how far a teacher’s authority should be questioned, (ii) how

far students should discover facts for themselves rather than being ‘spoon-fed’ and

(iii) whether teacher or student should be responsible for evaluating how much

had been learnt (Littlewood, 2000, p. 32). The overall message was that “Asian

students do not...wish to be spoon-fed with facts...They want to explore knowledge

themselves and find their own answers" (p. 34).

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In Japan, a study conducted by Stapleton (2002, cited by Day, 2003) surveyed

70 university students on aspects of critical thinking. Results indicated that

students were not afraid to express opinions which contradicted their teachers. In

addition, Stapleton found that the students had obtained a firm grasp of the

elements of critical thinking.

For each situation in which Japanese students seem culturally unique, there

is another where they seem hardly different from European or other students.

Those who elect to study in Western countries are by definition curious about

Western educational styles and modes of thinking. The writer has worked with a

good number of outgoing, risk-taking, critically-thinking Japanese learners, and “it

must be acknowledged that within any one cultural group there is variation in

behavior” (Mungubhai, p.24).

Though a relatively small (albeit growing) number of Japanese students have

studied critical thinking, data indicates that students are most receptive to studying

these concepts. There have been shifts in perceptions of identity taking place above

and below the surface of modern Japan, and it is conceivable that they will

contribute to an atmosphere of change in the coming years, perhaps supporting

Yamanaka’s assertion (2002, cited by Burgess, 2004) that, "Japan stands at the

crossroads of becoming a multicultural...multi-ethnic society."

(ii) Teacher as Authority Figure

The notion of instructors imposing assumptions upon students raises another

caveat for professors to consider. While it is the responsibility of the instructor to

introduce learners to the core concepts of critical thinking, helping them absorb

and put them into practice, he or she should also encourage students to be vigilant

toward the professor’s role as authority figure. This underlines one of the core

concepts of critical thinking: that an appeal to authority is often applied fallaciously.

It also highlights the fact that the academic process can only benefit from

transparency.

The writer emphasizes this from the start by advising students not to accept

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his assertions without question. Rather, they should be prepared to query, check,

find out for themselves. By resisting the urge to exercise power by hiding behind

authority, “wielding the threat of grades,” (Palmer, 1997, p. 16), the professor

makes students more receptive to using the concepts at hand, (Ellis, 1994), and

helps them become better critical thinkers.

Despite the instructor relaxing his authoritarian stance, he is not handing

everything over to the whim of the students. Rather, he must guide learners

through core concepts while allowing them the freedom to, in the most extreme

scenario, challenge the methodology itself.

(iii) Realistic Goals

It is essential that instructors teaching critical thinking skills to ESL students

be realistic about the goals that can be achieved. It is true that, through carefully

considered teaching methodology, key concepts can be acquired and practiced.

Nevertheless it is no exaggeration to say that it takes a concentrated period of

study and practice, often over many years, to fully acquire critical thinking skills.

Clearly, it is unrealistic to expect students to magically be transformed into first-

rate critical thinkers over a fifteen-week university term.

In many instances the critical thinking content will in any case be subordinate

to a larger goal: acquiring skills in the second language. When the critical thinking

content is added, not only are students endeavoring to understand and practice

new and challenging skills, they are doing so in a language which is not their

mother tongue. Professors should not underestimate this challenge, and bear it in

mind when grading by placing more emphasis on participation, effort and general

understanding of the concepts involved rather than anticipating that each student

will miraculously become transformed into an accomplished critical thinker during

the course of a term.

(iv) Liberal Bias

Related to the issue of professorial authority is the charge, often leveled by

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conservatives, that the teaching of critical thinking contains a liberal bias. This, in

Rizzola’s words (2013) produces graduates who “have been inundated with liberal

opinions.”

As mentioned above, there are compelling arguments that since critical

thinking necessarily involves challenging established assumptions and paradigms

it becomes, almost by definition, a liberal pursuit. This is particularly true if one

takes the view that conservatism wishes to protect what it believes it has and that,

by contrast, liberals seek progressive solutions to the challenges of the new

millennium.

This is a wide-ranging debate which is outside the scope of this paper.

However it is certainly an issue which instructors intending to teach critical

thinking should bear in mind.

(v) Personal Self-Reflection

“Critical Thinking 101” is a new course which the writer has been offering

students for only two years. While a good foundation has been laid, it is recognised

that certain flaws need to be addressed and continuing development necessary for

the course to achieve its full potential.

Two areas in particular stand out as being in need of improvement. The first

is that greater emphasis should be placed on encouraging students to reflect on the

validity of this admittedly western version of critical thinking in an Asian/Japanese

context. If critical thinking requires that we question assumptions, then the

particular version of critical thinking we are advocating should itself come under

scrutiny, and students should feel free to advocate non-western modes of thought

as a viable alternative. This aspect will be addressed with greater vigour in future

courses.

Secondly, the writer feels that although the readings, videos and research

presentations included in the course are effective pedagogical tools, more practical

‘hands on’ class activities would help improve the syllabus. For instance, students

could, in future, learn how to set up ‘double-blind’ experiments to test various

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theories and assumptions, practically applying the scientific method in order to

consolidate the core concepts of critical thinking. With these improvements in

mind, the writer is excited about the pedagogical challenges which lie ahead.

Concluding Remarks

This paper has outlined but one approach to incorporating critical thinking

lessons in a Japanese university context, together with some pertinent philosophical

issues. The benefits of learning critical thinking skills are numerous, with

applications in academia, the workplace and private life. Since critical thinking is

now a cornerstone of global education programs, it is essential that all Japanese

students, particularly those wishing to study abroad, be familiarized with its basic

concepts.

Course feedback indicates that Japanese students have a very positive

response to studying critical thinking. Though a significant minority had heard of

critical thinking prior to the course, reflecting, perhaps, its growing prominence in

global education, the vast majority were unfamiliar with the core concepts and had

never studied them before. By the end of the course, most had obtained a much

clearer understanding of these ideas. They said that studying critical thinking had

helped them to question assumptions, practice greater autonomy and engage in

productive self-reflection. They also recognized the transferability of critical

thinking skills in non-academic contexts.

Though the concepts of critical thinking were challenging to students, this

conformed to their expectations of what a 21st-century university course should

offer. They recognized that professors should be endeavoring to challenge their

students and introduce them to new skills which they could either embrace or

reject. They felt intellectually stimulated and rejected any notion of critical thinking

being a culturally imposed methodology. Many of them realized that critical

thinking is an ongoing process which continues beyond academia as a lifelong

pursuit. The experiences of the writer strongly suggest that, once students have

grasped the basics of critical thinking, they accept it enthusiastically as an

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intellectually valid tool which will stand them in good stead, not only as students,

but as empowered, productive citizens in a free and democratic society.

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Appendix 1

Critical Thinking - Useful Vocabulary

Match the words with their meanings

1. an assumption a. someone who does not believe in god

2. a claim b. facts/information showing something is true (1)

3. to challenge c. something which science cannot explain

4. a skeptic d. being born again

5. to debunk e. something you think is true without proof

6. paranormal f. a theory which pretends to be scientific

7. proof g. belief without evidence

8. evidence h. a statement or opinion

9. psychic i. to show that an idea or belief is false

10. reincarnation j. facts/information showing something is true (2)

11. faith k. to test/refuse to accept

12. secular l. a person who questions or doubts

13. an atheist m. having mysterious powers, such as the ability to speak to the dead

14. pseudoscience n. non-religious

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Appendix 2: Questionnaire

What do you think about these beliefs?

Tick ( ✓ ) the answer which best matches your opinion.

Then compare and discuss with your classmates.

Belief Strongly agree

Agree Not sure Disagree Strongly disagree

Aliens could have visited Earth from outer space.

Astrology can predict your future.

Your blood type can show your personality.

There is life after death.

Spiritualists can contact dead people.

A god exists who is concerned about the lives of human beings.

The American government has “covered up” the truth about certain events. (For example, the World Trade Center attacks.)

“Alternative” medicine like homeopathy is as good as conventional medicine.

When a crime happens, eyewitness testimony is very trustworthy.

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Appendix 3: Critical Thinking Check List and Example

Critical Thinking Check List

The claim is (not) falsifiable because…The evidence is (not) replicable because…

The evidence is (not) comprehensive because…

The claim is (not) logical because…The evidence is (not) sufficient because...

The claimants are (not) honest because…

Theory or Claim

Falsifiability

Logic

Comprehensiveness

Honesty

Replicability

Sufficiency

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Critical Thinking Check List (Example 1)

The claim is (not) falsifiable because… The evidence is (not) comprehensive because…

The evidence is (not) replicable because…

The claim is (not) logical because… The claimants are (not) honest because…

The evidence is (not) sufficient because...

Theory or Claim Darwin’s Theory of Evolution(Random genetic mutations cause biological populations to adapt to their environment. The offspring of those populations which adapt more successfully will have a greater chance of survival.)

Falsifiability Yes. The theory could be falsified if, for example, a genuine fossil were found in the wrong geological layer. That’s never happened.Claimants can support their claims with a LOT of tests and data.

Logic Yes. The more data we have, the more evolution is proven. The data is logical in the way it supports evolution. Darwin’s theory a lso enables scient is ts to predict cer ta in evolutionary events.

Comprehensiveness Yes. Data from many fields supports the theory: biology, chemistry, physics, anthropology, genetics etc.

Honesty Yes. Scientists have open discussions in publications and conferences. When there is dishonestly, scientists usually find it.

Replicability Yes. Experiments on carbon-dating, DNA-testing and many more can be replicated.

Sufficiency YesClaimants (mainly scientists) can support their claims with a LOT of data. And new discoveries are being made all the time.

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Critical Thinking Check List (Example 2)

The claim is (not) falsifiable because… The evidence is (not) comprehensive because…

The evidence is (not) replicable because…

The claim is (not) logical because… The claimants are (not) honest because…

The evidence is (not) sufficient because...

Theory or Claim Aliens (“UFOs”) have visited Planet Earth.

Falsifiability No. You can’t disprove a negative. (For example when people say, “You can’t prove they don’t exist!” No one can do that.)

Logic No. No logical proof for alien spacecraft. But many logical explanationsfor why people think they see UFOs, such as the influence of popular culture and copycat reports.

Comprehensiveness No. There’s a lot of data, but it’s not reliable.

Honesty Yes and no. Some people report honestly (but mistakenly). Others may be ‘copycat’ reports or fakers.

Replicability No. Evidence is usually from eye-witnesses, so difficult to repeat. Research shows that eye-witness evidence is not always trustworthy.

Sufficiency No. Evidence is doubtful/fake. There is no extraordinary evidence to support extraordinary claims.

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Appendix 4

Student Questionnaire

The course in question was taught to five groups of Doshisha University

undergraduates during: Spring and Fall 2012 (4 groups) and Spring term 2013 (1

group). A total of 94 students completed the course. At the end of the course

students completed an anonymous questionnaire. Results were as follows.

Critical Thinking Questionnaire

1. Had you heard of critical thinking before this class?

Yes 29%

No 69%

2. Had you learned about critical thinking before this class?

Yes 12%

No 88%

3. How was the level of this class?

Challenging but OK 71%

Just right 29%

Too difficult 0%

4. How much did you enjoy learning about critical thinking?

A lot 88%

Average 12%

Not much 0%

5. How important is it for students to learn about critical thinking?

Very important 85%

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Important 15%

Not important 0%

6. Do you think most students should take courses in critical thinking?

Yes 82%

No 6%

Not sure 12%

7. Do you think this course helped you to think more effectively?

Yes 91%

No 3%

Maybe 6%

8. Please comment. What was the most important thing you learned in this class?

(See main text for examples.)

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Dale J. Ward

Keywords: critical thinking global education empowerment

Abstract

Practice in critical thinking familiarizes learners with the rhetorical conventions of

a discipline which is fast becoming a cornerstone of global education. This is

especially significant at a time when record numbers of students are studying

abroad.

This paper begins with a definition of critical thinking. It goes on to outline benefits

obtained from the study of skills which empower students with the ability to

question and evaluate a variety of assumptions. The paper suggests ways

instructors may incorporate critical thinking skills into L2 classes, outlining the

philosophy of a course (“Critical Thinking 101”) the writer teaches at a university

in Japan.

The paper also presents the results of student feedback on the course in question.

Finally it will address certain caveats, including the charge that teaching critical

thinking skills in a Japanese context somehow constitutes a form of cultural

imperialism.

現在グローバル教育に主に焦点が集まっている。批判的思考を学ぶ事で、

そのトピックの詳細に生徒を慣れさせる。より多くの学生が留学している状

況で、これは特に重要である。

この論文は批判的思考の定義から始まる。これは、学生が様々な仮定に対

して疑問を持ち、評価するよう促す方法を学ぶ利点について述べている。ま

た、指導者が言語の授業に批判的思考を取り入れ、著者が日本の大学レベル

で教えるコース（「批判的思考 101」）の哲学を述べている。

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日本語の文脈で批判的思考を教えることは、「カルチュラル　インペリア

リズム」（例えば、欧米思考をアジアの人に強いること）という非難を含む

という、特定の危険性についても話し合うことになる。最終的に、上で述べ

られたコースについて、学生からのフィードバックの結果を提示する。

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