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    STRUCTURE.

    1. CONDITIONALS.

    Teachers explanation.

    There are a number of structures in English that are called the

    conditionals which are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations. A

    "Condition" is a "situation or circumstance".

    For example: If a certain condition is true, then a particular result happens.

    There are four basic conditionals that we use in English.

    Zero Conditional

    First Conditional

    Second Conditional

    Third Conditional

    Students explanation:

    There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There aresome more conditionals that we do not use so often.

    First Conditional: real possibility

    We are talking about the future. We are thinking about a particular

    condition or situation in the future, and the result of this condition. There is

    a real possibility that this condition will happen. For example, it is morning.

    You are at home. You plan to play tennis this afternoon. But there are some

    clouds in the sky. Imagine that it rains. What will you do?

    IF condition result

    present simple WILL + base verb

    If it rains I will stay at home.

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    Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. It is not raining yet. But

    the sky is cloudy and you think that it could rain. We use the present simple

    tense to talk about the possible future condition. We use WILL + base verb

    to talk about the possible future result. The important thing about the first

    conditional is that there is a real possibility that the condition will happen.Here are some more examples (do you remember the two basic structures:[IF condition result] and [result IF condition]?):

    IF condition resultpresent simple WILL + base verb

    If I see Mary I will tell her.

    If Tara is free tomorrow he will invite her.

    If they do not pass their exam their teacher will be sad.

    If it rains tomorrow will you stay at home?

    If it rains tomorrow what will you do?

    result IF conditionWILL + base verb present simple

    I will tell Mary if I see her.

    He will invite Tara if she is free tomorrow.

    Their teacher will be sad if they do not pass their exam.

    Will you stay at home if it rains tomorrow?

    What will you do if it rains tomorrow?

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    Second Conditional: unreal possibility or dream

    The second conditional is like the first conditional. We are still thinkingabout the future. We are thinking about a particular condition in the future,

    and the result of this condition. But there is not a real possibility that thiscondition will happen. For example, you do not have a lottery ticket. Is itpossible to win? No! No lottery ticket, no win! But maybe you will buy a

    lottery ticket in the future. So you can think about winning in the future, like

    a dream. It's not very real, but it's still possible.

    IF condition resultpast simple WOULD + base verb

    If I won the lottery I would buy a car.

    Notice that we are thinking about a future condition. We use the past

    simple tense to talk about the future condition. We use WOULD + base verb

    to talk about the future result. The important thing about the second

    conditional is that there is an unreal possibility that the condition will happen.Here are some more examples:

    IF condition resultpast simple WOULD + base verb

    If I married Mary I would be happy.

    If Ram became rich she would marry him.

    If it snowed next July would you be surprised?

    If it snowed next July what would you do?

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    result IF conditionWOULD + base verb past simple

    I would be happy if I married Mary.

    She would marry Ram if he became rich.

    Would you be surprised if it snowed next July?

    What would you do if it snowed next July?

    Third Conditional: no possibility

    The first conditional and second conditionals talk about the future. With

    the third conditional we talk about the past. We talk about a condition in thepast that did not happen. That is why there is no possibility for thiscondition. The third conditional is also like a dream, but with no possibilityof the dream coming true.

    Last week you bought a lottery ticket. But you did not win. :-(

    condition resultPast Perfect WOULD HAVE + Past Participle

    If I had won the lottery I would have bought a car.

    Notice that we are thinking about an impossible past condition. You

    did not win the lottery. So the condition was not true, and that particular

    condition can never be true because it is finished. We use the past perfect

    tense to talk about the impossible past condition. We use WOULD HAVE +

    past participle to talk about the impossible past result. The important thing

    about the third conditional is that both the condition and result are

    impossible now.

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    Look at some more examples in the tables below:

    IF condition resultpast perfect WOULD HAVE + past participle

    If I had seen Mary I would have told her.

    If Tara had been free yesterday I would have invited her.

    If they had not passed their exam their teacher would have been sad.

    If it had rained yesterday would you have stayed at home?

    If it had rained yesterday what would you have done?

    result IF conditionWOULD HAVE + past participle past perfect

    I would have told Mary if I had seen her.

    I would have invited Tara if she had been free yesterday.

    Their teacher would have been sad if they had not passed their exam.

    Would you have stayed at home if it had rained yesterday?

    What would you have done if it had rained yesterday?

    Zero Conditional: certainty

    We use the so-called zero conditional when the result of the condition isalways true, like a scientific fact.

    Take some ice. Put it in a saucepan. Heat the saucepan. What happens? The

    ice melts (it becomes water). You would be surprised if it did not.

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    IF condition resultpresent simple present simple

    If you heat ice it melts.

    Notice that we are thinking about a result that is always true for this

    condition. The result of the condition is an absolute certainty. We are notthinking about the future or the past, or even the present. We are thinking

    about a simple fact. We use the present simple tense to talk about the

    condition. We also use the present simple tense to talk about the result. The

    important thing about the zero conditional is that the condition always hasthe same result.

    Look at some more examples in the tables below:

    IF condition resultpresent simple present simple

    If I miss the 8 o'clock bus I am late for work.

    If I am late for work my boss gets angry.

    If people don't eat they get hungry.

    If you heat ice does it melt?

    result IF conditionpresent simple present simple

    I am late for work if I miss the 8 o'clock bus.

    My boss gets angry if I am late for work.

    People get hungry if they don't eat.

    Does ice melt if you heat it?

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    Exercises:

    Complete the sentences.If you a coin, the machine working. (insert - start)

    the water if the temperature 100 degrees? (boil - reach)

    If a motorbike enough fuel, it . (not have - not run)

    If you this button, you the computer. (press- turn off)

    The mobile phone , if you its battery. (not work -

    not recharge)

    If you (not give) me an excuse, I (not be) your friend any

    more.

    I (accept) your excuse only if you (tell) me the truth.

    I (tell) you the truth only if you (not tell) anyone else.

    What (happen) if everybody (know) your secret?

    What (you/say) if I (not say) anything?

    If you (put) me under pressure, I (not say) anything.

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    2. WHISH

    Teachers explanation.

    The use of the verb wish indicates that the speaker wants reality to

    be different. As in unreal conditionals, the use of a past or past perfect

    tense verb indicates that the situation is impossible or unlikely. The use of

    hope, on the other hand, indicates that the speaker believes something is

    possible.

    Wish can also be used with would to express a desire that someone do

    something differently.

    Students explanation.

    You can use this structure when you would like things to be different

    from the way they actually are.

    Use the verb wish to refer to how you would like things to be in the

    present or to talk about how you would like things to be in the future.

    It can also be used to talk about the way things were in the past, but

    obviously the past can't be changed.

    Wishes about the present (and the future)If you want to talk about your present situation, you can use the

    structure

    wish + past simple or continuous.For example:

    I haven't got any money. I wish I had some money.I don't earn much money. I wish I earned a lot of money.We're all living in a small flat. I wish we weren't living in a small flat. I wishwe were living in a big flat.

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    The same form can be used to talk about someone else's situation.

    However, there is another structure that you use to talk about actions that

    take place in the present, but you want them to change in the future.

    This structure is used to talk about another person, and generally

    about things you don't like. The structure is:

    wish + would/could + infinitive.For example:

    Your friend is always borrowing money from you because he never seems

    to have his bank card with him. You could say to him:

    I wish you wouldn't keep borrowing money from me.

    I wish you would remember to go to the bank from time to time.Perhaps the same friend does lots of things that irritate you. Maybe he

    phones you early in the morning when you're still in bed. He might arrange

    to meet you and then turn up late. You could say to him:

    I wish you wouldn't phone me so early in the morning.I wish you would wait until later.I wish you would tell me when you're going to be late.

    Wishes about the future (and the present)When you talk about the future, you use the same structure as you use

    to talk about present states.

    For example:

    I have to go to the dentist tomorrow. I wish I didn't have to go to the dentisttomorrow.

    I'll have to do some extra work over the weekend. I wish I didn't have to doany extra work over the weekend.

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    My brother is coming to stay with me next week. I wish my brother wasn'tcoming next week.

    The future in these cases can't be changed (in theory), and so the

    situation is seen as unreal and has to be referred to using past tenses.

    Wishes about the past: regretsWhen you think about a situation in the past, naturally you can't do

    anything to change it. Therefore this is a way of expressing regret. The

    structure you use is:

    wish + past perfect.For example:

    You were too slow getting ready to go out. I wish you hadn't been so slowgetting ready.

    Now we've missed the train. I wish we hadn't missed the train.I promised our friends we'd arrive on time. I wish I hadn't promised we'darrive on time, because now they'll be waiting for us.

    Note!As mentioned above, the structure wish + would can't be used to talk

    about yourself. It is used to refer to actions, and you should be able to stop

    any action you're doing.

    Therefore when you talk about yourself, you're talking about states

    you have no control over (I'm poor, I wish I was rich) or other people's

    actions that you have no control over either (I haven't got any money. I wish

    you'd give me some).

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    If your wish might come true, you should use a different type of verb.

    For example:

    I hope it doesn't rain tomorrow.I'd like to go to the Caribbean for my holiday next year.I hope you get well soon.You don't need to repeat all the verbs all the time:

    My flat is cold. I wish it wasn't.You smoke. I wish you wouldn't.She told him! I wish she hadn't.

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    Exercises:

    find the correct answer.1 I don't have anything to smoke.

    I wish I had more time.

    I wish I had a cigarette.

    I wish I knew something about cars.

    I wish I understood it better.

    2 Simon has gone on holiday and I really need to speak to him.

    I wish I was better-looking.

    I wish they were smaller.

    I wish he was here.

    I wish I could as I love visiting Spain on holiday.

    3 Girls don't like me because I'm ugly!

    I wish I was twenty again.

    I wish I was better-looking.

    I wish I had a more powerful one

    I wish I could as I love visiting Spain on holiday.

    4 I don't have much time.I wish I had more time.

    I wish I wasn't working.

    I wish I knew something about cars.

    I wish I understood it better.

    5 My computer is old and slow.

    I wish I earned more money.

    I wish I had a more powerful one

    I wish I lived in a hotter country.

    I wish I finished earlier.

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    3. UNLESS.

    Teachers explanation.

    Unless means the same as if...not. Like if, it is followed by a present

    tense, a past tense or a past perfect (never by 'would'). It is used instead of

    if + not in conditional sentences of all types.

    Students explanation.

    'Unless' expresses the idea of 'if not'. 'Unless' is only used in the first

    conditional.

    Type 1: (Unless + present)

    a. You'll be sick unless you stop eating. (= You will be sick if you don't stop

    eating)

    b. I won't pay unless you provide the goods immediately. (= If you don't

    provide them I won't pay)

    c. You'll never understand English unless you study this grammar carefully.

    (= You'll never understand if you don't study...)

    Type 2: (Unless + past)

    a. Unless he was very ill, he would be at work.

    b. I wouldn't eat that food unless I was really hungry.

    c. She would be here by now unless she was stuck in the traffic.

    Type 3: (Unless + past perfect)

    a. The elephant wouldn't have seen the mouse unless she'd had perfect

    eyesight.

    b. I wouldn't have phoned him unless you'd suggested it.

    c. They would have shot her unless she'd given them the money.

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    Excercises:

    Fill the gaps with as soon as, if, and unless.1 We had a cup of tea _________________ we got home.

    2 _________________ you see Lionel, tell him about the party.

    3 _________________ Alfie saw Ruby, he knew they were going to be

    special friends.

    4 Please phone me _________________ you get in.

    5 I generally wash up before I go to bed _________________ I'm feeling too

    tired.

    6 _________________ it's raining, I do the washing on Tuesdays.

    7 _________________ it's raining, I won't do the washing.

    8 _________________ my English class is cancelled again, I'll go and see

    Lost in Translationat the cinema.

    9 We can rent a dvd this Friday _________________ of course you'd rather

    go out.

    10 She always checks her email _________________ she gets to the office.

    11 _________________ you go online, check the headlines, will you?

    12 _________________ my boss says no, I'm going to take Friday off.

    13 Buy me a paper, please, _________________ you go past a newsagent's.

    14 I don't normally buy magazines _________________ I'm going on a long

    journey.

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    4. MODALS.

    Teachers explanation.

    Modals are special verbs which behave very irregularly in English.

    Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are

    invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive"

    (the infinitive without "to").

    Can, Could, Be able toHave to, Must, Must not/Mustn'tShall versus Will

    Students explanation.

    Modal verbs are special verbs which behave very differently from

    normal verbs. Here are some important differences:

    1. Modal verbs do not take "-s" in the third person.For example:

    He can speak Chinese.She should be here by 9:00.

    2. You use "not" to make modal verbs negative, even in Simple Present andSimple Past.

    For example:

    He should not be late.They might not come to the party.

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    3. Many modal verbs cannot be used in the past tenses or the future tenses.For example:

    He will can go with us. Not CorrectShe musted study very hard. Not Correct

    Can

    Can is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use can to: talk about possibility and ability

    make requests

    ask for or give permission

    Structure of Can

    subject + can + main verb

    The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

    subject auxiliary verb main verb

    + I can play tennis.

    - Hecannot

    play tennis.

    can't

    ? Can you play tennis?

    Note! Can is invariable. There is only one form of can. The main verb isalways the bare infinitive.

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    Use of Can

    We use can to talk about what is possible, what we are able or free to do: She can drive a car.

    John can speak Spanish. I cannot hear you. (I can't hear you.) Can you hear me?Normally, we use can for the present. But it is possible to use can when

    we make present decisions about future ability.

    A. Can you help me with my homework? (present)B. Sorry. I'm busy today. But I can help you tomorrow. (future)

    Can: requests and orders

    We often use can in a question to ask somebody to do something. This isnot a real question - we do not really want to know if the person is able to

    do something, we want them to do it! The use of can in this way is informal(mainly between friends and family):

    Can you make a cup of coffee, please. Can you put the TV on. Can you come here a minute. Can you be quiet!

    Can: Permission

    We sometimes use canto ask or give permission for something:

    A. Can I smoke in this room?B. You can't smoke here, but you can smoke in the garden.

    Note! We also use could, may, might for permission. The use of can forpermission is informal.

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    Could

    Could is an auxiliary verb, a modal auxiliary verb. We use could to: talk about past possibility or ability

    make requests

    Structure of Could

    subject + could + main verb

    The main verb is always the bare infinitive (infinitive without "to").

    subject auxiliary verb main verb

    + My grandmother could swim.

    - Shecould not

    walk.

    couldn't

    ? Could your grandmother swim?

    Note! Could is invariable. There is only one form of could. The main verb isalways the bare infinitive.

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    Use of Could

    We use could to talk about what was possible in the past, what we were ableor free to do:

    I could swim when I was 5 years old. My grandmother could speak seven languages. When we arrived home, we could not open the door. (...couldn't open

    the door.)

    Could you understand what he was saying?

    We use could (positive) and couldn't (negative) for general ability in thepast. But when we talk about one special occasion in the past, we use beable to (positive) and couldn't (negative).For example:

    Past

    General Specific Occasion

    +My grandmother couldspeak Spanish.

    A man fell into the river yesterday. The

    police were able to save him.

    -My grandmother couldn'tspeak Spanish.

    A man fell into the river yesterday. The

    police couldn't save him.

    Could: Requests

    We often use could in a question to ask somebody to do something. The useof could in this way is fairly polite (formal):

    Could you tell me where the bank is, please? Could you send me a catalogue, please?

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    Be able to

    Although we look at be able to here, it is not a modal verb. It is simplythe verb be plus an adjective (able) followed by the infinitive. We look at beable to here because we sometimes use it instead of can and could.We use be able to:

    to talk about ability

    Structure of Be able to

    The structure of be able to is:subject + be + able + infinitive

    subjectbe

    main verbable

    adjective infinitive

    + I am able to drive.

    - Sheis not

    able to drive.isn't

    ? Are you able to drive?

    Notice that be able to is possible in all tenses, for example: I was able to drive... I will be able to drive... I have been able to drive...

    Notice too that be able to has an infinitive form: I would like to be able to speak Chinese.

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    Use of Be able to

    We use be able to to express ability. "Able" is an adjective meaning:

    having the power, skill or means to do something. If we say "I am able toswim", it is like saying "I can swim". We sometimes use "be able to" insteadof "can" or "could" for ability. "Be able to" is possible in all tensesbut

    "can" is possible only in the present and "could" is possible only in the past

    for ability. In addition, "can" and "could" have no infinitive form. So we use

    "be able to" when we want to use other tenses or the infinitive. I have beenable to swim since I was five. (present perfect)For example:

    You will be able to speak perfect English very soon. (future simple) I would like to be able to fly an airplane. (infinitive)

    Have toHave to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb haveas a

    main verb). We include have to here for convenience. Have to (objective obligation)

    We often use have to to say that something is obligatory,For example:

    Children have to go to school.

    Structure of Have to

    Have to is often grouped with modal auxiliary verbs for convenience, butin fact it is not a modal verb. It is not even an auxiliary verb. In the have tostructure, "have" is a main verb. The structure is:subject + auxiliary verb + have + infinitive

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    subject auxiliary verb main verb have infinitive (with to)

    + She has to work.

    - I do not have to see the doctor.

    ? Did you have to go to school?

    Use of Have to

    In general, have to expresses impersonal obligation. The subject of haveto is obliged or forced to act by a separate, external power (for example,the Law or school rules). Have to is objective.For example:

    In France, you have to drive on the right. In England, most schoolchildren have to wear a uniform. John has to wear a tie at work.

    In each of the above cases, the obligation is not the subject's opinion oridea. The obligation is imposed from outside.

    We can use have to in all tenses, and also with modal auxiliaries. Weconjugate it just like any other main verb.

    subjectauxiliaryverb

    main verbhave infinitive

    past simple I had to work yesterday.

    present simple I have to work today.

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    future simple I will have to work tomorrow.

    present

    continuousShe is having to wait.

    present perfect We have had tochange

    the time.

    modal (may) They may have to do it again.

    Must (subjective obligation)

    We often use must to say that something is essential or necessary.For example:

    I must go. Structure of Must

    Must is a modal auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structureis:

    subject + must + main verbThe main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").

    subject auxiliary must main verb

    I must go home.

    You must visit us.

    We must stop now.

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    Use of Must

    In general, must expresses personal obligation. Must expresses what thespeaker thinks is necessary. Must is subjective.For example:

    I must stop smoking. You must visit us soon. He must work harder.In each of the above cases, the "obligation" is the opinion or idea of the

    person speaking. In fact, it is not a real obligation. It is not imposed from

    outside.

    We can use must to talk about the present or the future.For example:

    I must go now. (present) I must call my mother tomorrow. (future)We cannot use must to talk about the past. We use have to to talk about

    the past.

    Must not, Mustn't (prohibition)

    We use must not to say that something is not permitted or allowed.For example:

    Passengers must not talk to the driver.

    Structure of Must not

    Must is an auxiliary verb. It is followed by a main verb. The structure formust not is:subject + must not + main verb

    http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-modals-have-to-must-not-1.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs-modals-have-to-must-not-1.htm
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    The main verb is the base verb (infinitive without "to").

    subject auxiliary must + not main verb

    I mustn't forget my keys.

    You mustn't disturb him.

    Students must not be late.

    Use of Must not

    Must not expresses prohibition - something that is not permitted, notallowed. The prohibition can be subjective (the speaker's opinion) orobjective (a real law or rule).

    For example:

    I mustn't eat so much sugar. (subjective) You mustn't watch so much television. (subjective) Students must not leave bicycles here. (objective) Policemen must not drink on duty. (objective)

    We can use must not to talk about the present or the future: Visitors must not smoke. (present) I mustn't forget Tara's birthday. (future)

    We cannot use must not to talk about the past. We use other structures totalk about the past.

    For example:

    We were not allowed to enter.

    I couldn't park outside the shop.

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    Shall versus Will

    People may sometimes tell you that there is no difference between shalland will, or even that today nobody uses shall (except in offers such as"Shall I call a taxi?"). This is not really true. The difference between shalland will is often hidden by the fact that we usually contract them inspeaking with 'll. But the difference does exist.The truth is that there are two conjugations for the verb will:1st Conjugation (objective, simple statement of fact)

    Person Verb Example Contraction

    Singular

    I shall I shall be in London tomorrow. I'll

    you willYou will see a large building on

    the left.You'll

    he, she,

    itwill He will be wearing blue. He'll

    Plural

    we shallWe shall not be there when you

    arrive.

    We shan't

    you willYou will find his office on the 7th

    floor.You'll

    they will They will arrive late. They'll

    2nd Conjugation (subjective, strong assertion, promise or command)Person Verb Example Contraction

    Singular

    I willI will do everything possible to

    help.I'll

    you shall You shall be sorry for this. You'll

    he, she, shall It shall be done. It'll

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    it

    Plural

    we will We will not interfere. We won't

    you shall You shall do as you're told. You'll

    they shallThey shall give one month's

    notice.They'll

    It is true that this difference is not universally recognized. However, let

    those who make assertions such as "People in the USA never use 'shall'"

    peruse a good US English dictionary, or many US legal documents which

    often contain phrases such as:

    Each party shall give one month's notice in writing in the event oftermination.

    Note that exactly the same rule applies in the case of should and would. It is

    perfectly normal, and somewhat more elegant, to write.

    For example:

    I should be grateful if you would kindly send me your latest catalogue.

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    Exercises:

    Write the correct modal for the following sentences. Sometimes negative

    forms are used.

    1.

    John goes to work at 7 o'clock. He to get up early.

    2. Mary has been playing the harp since she was five. She

    play very well.

    3. Joe has a toothache. He go to the dentist.

    4. Sam and Eva want to get married. First, they get a

    license.

    5. Tomorrow is Sunday and I work, so I can sleep in.

    6. My dog is getting fat. I feed him so much.

    7. You put your feet on the table!

    8. Peter run faster when he was younger.

    9.

    Before you apply for a job you have a SIN number.

    10.I dropped my keys in the dark and I find them.

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    5. MODALS IN PAST.

    Teachers explanation.

    The modal verbs form a special category of verbs. They verbs are

    usually used with the infinitive of another verb to express ability or

    possibility, obligation, permission The verb shall can also be seen as a

    modal verb. However, it is dealt with separately under future aspect and

    modal verb.

    Students explanation.

    Past modals come in two forms. The first type is the easiest andusually requires only a simple word change:

    I can drive.

    I could drive when I was 16.

    I have to go to California.

    I had to go to California.

    Lenny will pay tomorrow.

    Lenny said he would pay

    tomorrow.

    (present ability)

    (past ability)

    (present obligation)

    (past obligation)

    (future intention)

    (future reported from the

    past)

    Past modals with haveSome past modals can be formed by using have + the past

    participle of the main verb immediately after the modal. (should

    have, could have, would have, etc.)

    However, since modals express possibility, intention, obligation,

    etc., they do not always indicate a definite tense. Therefore,

    when using past modals with have, special meanings need to beconsidered.

    I should go to the funeral.

    I should have gone to the funeral.

    Lex might take Karen to the

    airport.

    Lex might have taken Karen to

    (I feel an obligation to go--

    later.)

    (I didn't go. Now I regret it.)

    (It's a future possibility.)

    (He may be on his way there

    http://www.eslgold.com/fyi/california.htmlhttp://www.eslgold.com/fyi/california.html
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    the airport.

    Lex could have taken Karen to

    the airport.

    Lex would have taken Karen to

    the airport.Otis didn't come to work

    yesterday.

    He had to take care of his

    children.

    His children must have been sick.

    now.)

    (Most likely he didn't.)

    (He didn't. He had an excuse.)

    (past fact)

    (past obligation)

    (conjecture about the past)

    Modal auxiliary verbs are used to moderate the main verb, that is toenhance or restrict the verb to a certain context.

    The most common modal auxiliaries in English are:

    cancould

    mayshould

    mightwill

    mustwould

    Notice the usage of modals in the following sentences:

    I pay my taxes. General declaration of fact. Paying

    taxes is something I normally do.

    I can pay my taxes. Expresses ability. I have the means

    (funds) to pay.

    I might pay my taxes. Expresses possibility, but not

    certainty. Maybe I will pay; maybe I

    won't.

    I will pay my taxes. Expresses future intent. I resolve todo it at some later time.

    I should pay my taxes.Expresses mild obligation. It is

    required, and I expect to comply.

    I could pay my taxes. Expresses possibility. If I have

    nothing else to do with the money, I

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    might pay taxes.

    I would pay my taxes. (In this case), expresses reservation.

    If I had the money (but I don't). . .

    I must pay my taxes. Expresses strong obligation. I amrequired and have to comply.

    Modals are followed by only the base form of the verb and are no used aloneunless there is a clear connection to a main verb.

    He must to finish his

    homework.

    He must finish his homework.

    Jack could heard the bell.

    Jack could hear the bell.

    Penny will going to the

    movie.

    Penny will go to the movie.

    WRONG

    RIGHT

    WRONG

    RIGHT

    WRONG

    RIGHT

    There are many ways to make requests in English. The most common

    involves using the imperative and modals.

    Using the Imperative

    The imperative is the simple form of the verb. The

    subject of an imperative sentence is understood as "you" although it is

    usually not spoken.

    Open the door.

    Will you help me?

    Pick up your toys.

    Please help me.

    (You) open the door.

    Yes, I will (help you).

    (You) pick up your toys.

    (You) please help me.

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    The imperative is often used by persons of authority when speaking to

    subordinates.

    Using Modals

    To show respect and politeness, most people use modalexpressions when making requests.

    For example:

    Will you...?

    Would you...?

    Would you please...?

    Could you (please)...?

    Could you possibly...?

    Would you kindly...?

    Would you mind (Ving )...?

    Would you be so kind as

    to...?

    Will you open the door for me?

    Would you open the door for me?

    Would you please open the door (for me)?

    Could you (please)...? Could you (please) open

    the door?

    Could you possibly open the door?

    Would you kindly open the door?

    Would you mind opening the door?

    Would you be so kind as to open the door?

    Common Problems with Modals

    1. Using "to" unnecessarily:

    Incorrect

    They going to meet us at the

    theater.

    He should to eat his dinner.

    I had better to go now.

    You must not to use that pencil.

    Correct

    They are going to meet us at the

    theater.

    He should eat his dinner.

    I had better go now.

    You must not use that pencil.

    2. Using anything but the base form after a modal:

    John could heard the bell.

    Penny will going to the movie.

    John could hear the bell.

    Penny will go to the movie.

    3. Using double modals:

    You should ought to speak

    English.

    She might can help me.

    You ought to speak English. /should

    speak

    She might be able to help me.

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    4. Omitting "be" in certain modal expressions:

    They going to meet us at the

    theater.

    Jack supposed to take his

    medicine.

    They are going to meet us at the

    theater.

    Jack is supposed to take his medicine.

    5. Using wrong word order in questions:

    How I can help you?

    Where I should go for the

    meeting?

    How can I help you?

    Where should I go for the meeting?

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    Exercises:

    Complete the sentences with a verb given in past modal form. Use shortforms if possible.For

    exampleA Why was she upset?

    B I don't know. She might have had some bad

    news.

    1 A James was at the party last night.B He (be)! He's in China.

    2You (be) pleased when you passed your

    driving test.3Anna wasn't at work today. She (have) the

    day off.

    4 A Where's Mike?B I'm not sure. He (go) home.

    5There was so much traffic, there (be) an

    accident.

    6 Janet (ring) you last night. Her phone isn'tworking.

    6. USED TO / STILL / ANYMORE.

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    Teachers explanation.

    We use used to do to talk about the past. It is not a tense but it is likea tense. It is a special expression. We use the expression used to do for thepast only.

    Used to has another meaning, it can be used as an adjective and weuse it to talk about things that have become familiar, and are no longer

    strange or new.

    Anymore is properly used in a statement about a change in a previouscondition or activity. It is often spelled as a two words, any more, but most

    authorities accept it as a compound word today.

    We use still in questions, affirmative and negative sentences toindicate that something is not finished and that we are perhaps surprised or

    concerned about this. Because it is emphatic, it often carries considerable

    word stress

    Students explanation.

    Used to

    We use 'used to' for something that happened regularly in the past but nolonger happens.

    For example:

    I used to smoke a packet a day but I stopped two years ago.Ben used to travel a lot in his job but now, since his promotion, he doesn't.I used to drive to work but now I take the bus.

    We also use it for something that was true but no longer is.

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    For example:

    There used to be a cinema in the town but now there isn't.She used to have really long hair but she's had it all cut off.I didn't use to like him but now I do.

    Still

    We use still to say that a situation or action is continuing. It hasn'tchanged or stopped:

    For example:

    It's 10 o'clock and Abdullah is still in bed. When I went to bed, Mohammed was still working. Do u still want to go to the party or have you changed your

    mind?

    Still usually goes in the middle of the sentence with the verb.Is it still raining?Yes, it's still raining. No chance of playing tennis today, I'm afraid.I still don't know whether Brendan will be coming to the engagement party.I've tried to reach him several times on the phone, but can't seem to get

    hold of him.

    Always, stillWe use always to say thatsomething happens all the time (or

    very often).

    I always go swimming on Mondayevenings.

    She has always wanted to visitFinland.

    We use always to say thatsomething happens all the time (in

    an annoying way).

    He is always forgetting things.He's always complaining.

    We use always to say thatsomething exists for ever.

    I'll always remember the first time Imet her.

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    Always is usually before the mainverb;

    after an auxiliary or modal verb;

    after the verb 'to be'.

    I always have...

    I can always...

    He is always...

    Still means 'continuing later thanexpected.'

    It expresses that someting started in

    the past and is the same now.

    She is still living with her parents.Why are you still talking about it?They still haven't mended my car(They haven't mended my car yet).

    Still usually comes before the mainverb.

    Still usually comes after the mainverb if the main verb is 'be'.

    I still like her.Does he still live in Cambridge?He is still here.I canstill run100 metres in lessthan 12 seconds.

    Anymore.

    "Anymore" is an adverb meaning "any longer" or "now," as in "I don't livethere anymore." It's often seen in negative contexts like that one.

    The phrase "any more" is most often used to talk about quantities of things.For example:

    Would you like any more dessert?

    I don't care for any more, thank you.

    Any more / any longer / no longer

    We use notanymore or not. Anylonger to say that a situation haschanged. Anymore and anylonger go at the end of a sentence:

    Sara doesn't work here any more ( or any longer ). She left lastmonth.

    ( not' Sara doesn't still work here' )We used to be good friends but we aren't any more ( or any

    longer ).You can also use no longer. No longer goes in the middle of the sentence:

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    Sara nolonger works here.Note that we do not normally use no more in this way:

    We are no longer friends. ( not' we are no more friends' )Compare still and not any more:

    Fatima still works here but Sara doesn't work here any more.

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    7. BE USED TO / GET USED TO.

    Teachers explanation.

    We use 'be used to' to say that a situation is not new or strange, or isno longer new or strange.

    For example:

    I've lived here for ten years now so I'm used to driving in the city.He's not used to working at night so he sometimes falls asleep.Are you used to the climate?

    We can modify 'be used to' with adverbs.

    For example:I'm very used to his strange behavior now.

    She's should be pretty used to living without electricity or running water by

    now.

    We use 'get used to' to say that an action or situation becomes less strangeor new.

    For example:

    It took them a long time to get used to their new boss.Have you got used to driving on the left yet?She is getting used to waking up early for her new job.

    Students explanation.

    Be used to

    Be used tois used to show previous experience and familiarity with acertain situation.

    For example:I am used to living abroad. - I have previous experience living abroad, soit's not difficult for me.

    Jane isn't used to living abroad. - She doesn't have much experience livingabroad, or if she does it is still difficult for her.

    Paul is used to learning languages. - Paul has learnt languages before, so

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    he's good at it.

    Carol has never studied a foreign language, so she's not used to it. - Caroldoesn't have previous experience learning a foreign language.

    Get used to

    Get used to is used for the process of acquiring experience and ability. Inthe beginning we are less experienced, then we get used to something -we go through a process of gaining experience.

    For example:

    I wasn't used to living abroad, but I got used to it. - I didn't have

    experience living abroad, but I grew in experience until I was happy living

    abroad.

    I didn't like bananas, but I got used to them. - In the beginning I didn't like

    bananas, but after a while I learnt to like them.

    To

    In the structure be / get used to, to is a preposition, not part of the to-infinitive.

    For example:

    I'm used to cooking for myself. OKI'm used to cook for myself. Incorrect - "to cook" is a to-infinitive andcan't be used here.

    Be used toBe used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this pattern used is anadjective and to is a preposition). I am used to getting up early in the

    morning. I don't mind it.

    He didn't complain about the noise

    nextdoor - he was used to it.If you areused to something, youhave often done or experienced it,so it's not strange, new or difficult

    for you.

    The opposite of be used to is be notused to. I am not used to the new system yet.

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    Get used toGet used to + noun phrase or verb-ing (in this pattern used is anadjective and to is a preposition).

    I got used to getting up early in themorning.

    After a while he didn't mind the

    noise in the office - he got used toit.

    If you getused to something, youbecome accustomed to it.

    It is the process of becoming used

    to something.

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    Exercises:

    Choose the correct answer.I'm not used to ____ up this early.

    get

    getting

    I used to ____ a lot.

    read

    reading

    You'll have to get used to ____ on the right when you live there.

    drive

    driving

    I didn't use to ____ it, but I do now.

    like

    liking

    I found it hard to get used to ____ in such a hot country.

    live

    living

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    8. INDIRECT SPEECH.

    Teachers explanation.

    When using indirect or reported speech, the form changes. Usually

    indirect speech is introduced by the verb said, as in I said, Bill said, or theysaid. Using the verb say in this tense, indicates that something was said inthe past. In these cases, the main verb in the reported sentence is put in the

    past. If the main verb is already in a past tense, then the tense changes to

    another past tense; it can almost be seen as moving even further into the

    past.

    If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the

    speakers exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech.

    Therefore, you need to learn how to transform direct speech into reported

    speech. The structure is a little different depending on whether you want to

    transform a statement, question or request.

    Students explanation.

    Indirect speech is speech which tells you what someone said, but

    does not use the person's actual words:

    For example:

    They said you didn't like it

    I asked him what his plans were

    Citizens complained about the smoke.

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    Verb tense changes also characterize other situations using indirect

    speech. With indirect speech, the use of that is optional.

    Direct Speech Indirect Speechsimple presentHe said, I go to school everyday.

    simple pastHe said (that) he went to school everyday.

    simple pastHe said, I went to school everyday.

    past perfectHe said (that) he had gone to schoolevery day.

    present perfectHe said, I have gone to schoolevery day.

    past perfectHe said (that) he had gone to schoolevery day.

    present progressiveHe said, I am going to schoolevery day.

    past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to schoolevery day.

    past progressiveHe said, I was going to schoolevery day.

    perfect progressiveHe said (that) he had been going toschool every day,

    future (will)He said, I will go to schoolevery day.

    would + verb nameHe said (that) he would go to schoolevery day.

    future (going to)He said, I am going to schoolevery day.

    present progressiveHe said (that) he is going to schoolevery day.

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    past progressiveHe said (that) he was going to schoolevery day

    Direct Speech Indirect Speechauxiliary + verb nameHe said, Do you go to schoolevery day?

    He said, Where do you go toschool?

    simple pastHe asked me if I went to school everyday.*

    He asked me where I went to school.

    imperativeHe said, Go to school everyday.

    infinitiveHe said to go to school every day.

    Note than when a Yes/No question is being asked in direct speech,

    then a construction with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked,then use the WH to introduce the clause. Also note that with indirect speech, these aexamples of embedded questions.

    The situation changes if instead of the common said another part of the very to say ithat case the verb tenses usually remain the same.

    Direct Speech Indirect Speech

    simple present + simple presentHe says, I go to school everyday.

    simple present + simple presentHe says (that) he goes to school everyday.

    present perfect + simple presentHe has said, I go to school

    present perfect + simple presentHe has said (that) he goes to school

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    every day. every day.

    past progressive + simple pastHe was saying, I went to schoolevery day.

    past progressive + simple pastHe was saying (that) he went to schoolevery day.

    past progressive + past perfectHe was saying (that) he had gone toschool every day.

    future + simple presentHe will say, I go to school everyday.

    future + simple presentHe will say (that) he goes to schoolevery day.

    Another situation is the one in which modal constructions are used.If the verb said isthen the form of the modal, or another modal that has a past meaning is used.

    Direct Speech Indirect SpeechcanHe said, I cango to school everyday.

    couldHe said (that) he couldgo to schoolevery day.

    mayHe said, I may go to schoolevery day.

    mightHe said (that) he might go to schoolevery day.

    mightHe said, I might go to schoolevery day.

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    mustHe said, I must go to schoolevery day.

    had toHe said (that) he had to go to schoolevery day.

    have toHe said, I have to go to schoolevery day.

    shouldHe said, I should go to schoolevery day.

    shouldHe said (that) he should go to schoolevery day.

    ought toHe said, I ought to go to schoolevery day.

    ought toHe said (that) he ought to go toschool every day.

    While not all of the possibilities have been listed here, there are enough to provide

    examples of the main rules governing the use of indirect or reported speech. For oth

    situations, try to extrapolate from the examples here, or better still, refer to a good

    grammar text or reference book.

    Some other verbs that can be used to introduce direct speech are: ask, report, tell,

    announce, suggest, and inquire. They are not used interchangeably.

    Exercises.

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    1. He told me: "We have been dancing all the time."

    He told me (that) .

    2. Mum asked me: "Have you seen my daughter?"

    Mum asked me .

    3. He asked me: "Who has cleaned the pool?"

    He asked me .

    4. Marilyn said: "I always eat cornflakes in the morning."

    Marilyn said (that) .

    5. He told her: "Give up smoking!"He told her .

    6. Father said: "Mum is tired now."

    Father said (that) .

    7. Phil asked me: "Were you at the party, too?"

    Phil asked me .

    8. He said: "I have been waiting for you for an hour."

    He said (that) .

    9. Ann asked Kate: "Did you really write this story?"

    Ann asked Kate .

    10.Tim asked: "Who has taken my ruler?"

    Tim asked .

    9. ENBEDDED QUESTIONS.

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    Teachers explanation.

    An embedded question is a question included in another question or

    statement. Embedded questions feel less abrupt, and so have a softening

    effect.

    For example:

    A: What time is it? (simple question)

    B: Sorry. I don't know the time. (simple statement)

    A: Do you know what time it is? (embedded question in a question)

    B: Sorry. I don't know what time it is. (embedded question in a statement)

    Embedded questions in statements and questions follow the same

    pattern. This is true for both wh-questions and yes/no embeddedquestions.

    main question/statement | interrogative | subject | verb |object/complementFor example:

    A: Do you know | what | time | it | is?

    B: I don't know | what | time | it | is.

    A: Do you know | if | it | is | 2:00?

    B: I don't know | if | it | is | 2:00.

    Notice the sentence structure following the interrogative (question

    word). Because embedded questions are noun clauses, they follow the

    structure of a statement and not a question. In other words, always use:

    subject + verb + object/complement.

    Do you know | what | time | is | it? (incorrect)

    I don't know | what | time | is | it. (incorrect)

    Students explanation.

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    Embedded questions are questions within another statement orquestion. They function as noun clauses and as such should generally follow

    statement, not question, order.

    For example:

    What time is it?I know what time is it.

    I know what time it is.

    Where did she go?

    I don't know where did she

    go.

    I don't know where she

    went.

    What does he do for a

    living?I wonder what does he do.

    I wonder what he does.

    Who is she?

    Can you tell me who is

    she?

    Can you tell me who she

    is?

    (question order)

    (Incorrect)

    (Statement order: S+ V)

    (Question)

    (Incorrect)

    (Correct)

    (Question)

    (Incorrect)

    (Correct)

    (Question)

    (Incorrect)

    (Correct)

    When using adjectives as complements, it is okay to use question

    order for embedded questions:For example:

    Who's hungry?

    I wonder who is hungry.

    (Question)

    (Okay)

    In some cases, depending on the focus of the sentence, question order

    may be used:

    Who is the doctor?

    I know who the doctor is.

    Who is a doctor?

    I know who is a doctor (and who is not).

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    An embedded question is a question that is included in another

    sentence.

    Question Embedded Question

    Who is yourteacher?

    Could you tell me who your teacher is?

    What time is it? Do you know what time it is?

    When is Jim going

    home?I don't know when Jim is going home.

    Note! the shift in the verb when you embed an information question:

    1. Who is your teacher?

    Could you tell me who your teacher is?

    2. What time is it?

    Do you know what time it is?

    3. When is Jim going home?

    I don't know when Jim is going home.

    Use normal sentence order, not question order, with embedded

    questions.

    Embedding yes/no questions

    Use if or whether to embed questions that are answered with

    yes or no.

    Question Embedded yes/no Question

    Are you hungry? I asked you if you were hungry.

    Do you want to stay at

    the party?

    Would you please ask Duane if he wants to stay

    at the party?

    Am I going?Stan doesn't know whether I'm going.

    Stan doesn't know whether I'm going or not.

    Were you in the Army?

    You didn't tell me whether you were in the

    Army.

    You didn't tell me whether you were in the

    Army or not.

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    Notice that if is usually used with only one alternative:

    I asked you if you were hungry.

    Would you please ask Duane if he wants to stay at

    the party?

    Whether usually provides for more than one alternative.

    Stan doesn't know whether I'm going.

    Stan doesn't know whether I'm going or not.

    You didn't tell me whether you were in the Army.

    You didn't tell me whether you were in the Army or

    not.

    The same is true in information questions:

    Question Embedded Question

    Do you want the red

    dress or the blue

    one?

    I don't know whether you want the red dress

    or the blue one.

    Does Reggie plan to

    stay in school or get ajob?

    Dad asked whether Reggie planned to stay in

    school or get a job.

    Using an infinitive in an embedded question

    English speakers often use an infinitive after the question word

    in an embedded question.

    Question Embedded Question

    How do you change the ink in the

    copier?

    I don't know how to change the

    ink in the copier.

    Should I call Mr. Abbey now or

    wait until later?

    I don't know whether to call Mr.

    Abbey now or wait until later.

    Where should we meet Carole in

    the morning?

    Ask Carole where to meet her in

    the morning.

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    Indirect Questions

    Indirect questions are like indirect speech. When a question is in

    the present tense, it is in the past when it is embedded in a sentence.

    If it is in the past, it must be in the past perfect when it is embedded

    in a sentence.

    Question Embedded Question

    Do you like your job? She asked me if I liked my job.

    Did you like your last

    job?She asked me if I had liked my last job.

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    Students explanation.

    Tag questions (or: question tags) are a grammatical structure in which

    a declarative statement or an imperative is turned into a question by adding

    an interrogative fragment (the "tag").

    Auxiliary

    The English tag question is made up of an auxiliary verb and a pronoun.

    The auxiliary has to agree with the tense, aspect and modality of the verb in

    the preceding sentence. If the verb was in the perfect tense, for example,

    the tag question uses has or have; if the verb was in a present progressive

    form, the tag is formed with am, are, is; and if the sentence has a modal

    verb, this is echoed in the tag.

    For example:

    He's read this book, hasn't he?

    He read this book, didn't he?

    He's reading this book, isn't he?

    He reads a lot of books, doesn't he?

    He'll read this book, won't he?

    He should read this book, shouldn't he?

    He can read this book, can't he?

    Negation

    English tag questions may contain a negation, but need not. When there

    is no special emphasis, the rule of thumb often applies that a positive

    sentence has a negative tag and vice versa.

    For example:

    She is French, isn't she?

    She's not French, is she?

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    These are sometimes called "balanced tag questions". However, it has

    been estimated that in normal conversation, as many as 40%-50%[1] of

    tags break this rule. "Unbalanced tag questions" (positive to positive or

    negative to negative) may be used for ironic or confrontational effects:

    Do listen, will you?

    Oh, I'm lazy, am I?

    Jack: I refuse to spend Sunday at your mother's house! Jill: Oh you do, do

    you? We'll see about that!

    Jack: I just won't go back! Jill: Oh you won't, won't you?

    Patterns of negation can show regional variations. In North East

    Scotland, for example, positive to positive is used when no special effect is

    desired:

    For example:

    This pizza's fine, is it? (standard English: This pizza's delicious, isn't it?)

    Note! the following variations in the negation when the auxiliary is the I

    form of the copula:

    England (and America, Australia, etc.): Clever, aren't I?

    Scotland/Northern Ireland: Clever, amn't I?

    nonstandard dialects: Clever, ain't I?

    Intonation

    English tags can have a rising or a falling intonation pattern. This is

    contrasted with Polish, French or German, for example, where all tags rise.

    As a rule, the English rising pattern is used when soliciting information or

    motivating an action, that is, when some sort of response is required. Since

    normal English yes/no questions have rising patterns (e.g. Are youcoming?), these tags make a grammatical statement into a real question:

    For example:

    You're coming, aren't you?

    Do listen, will you?

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    The falling pattern is used to underline a statement. The statement

    itself ends with a falling pattern, and the tag sounds like an echo,

    strengthening the pattern. Most English tag questions have this falling

    pattern.

    For example:

    He doesn't know what he's doing, does he?

    This is really boring, isn't it?

    Sometimes the rising tag goes with the positive to positive pattern to

    create a confrontational effect:

    For example:

    He was the best in the class, was he? (rising: the speaker is challenging this

    thesis, or perhaps expressing surprised interest)

    He was the best in the class, wasn't he? (falling: the speaker holds this

    opinion)

    Be careful, will you? (rising: expresses irritation)

    Take care, won't you? (falling: expresses concern)

    Sometimes the same words may have different patterns depending on

    the situation or implication.

    You don't remember my name, do you? (rising: expresses surprise)

    You don't remember my name, do you? (falling: expresses amusement or

    resignation)

    Your name's Mary, isn't it? (rising: expresses uncertainty)

    Your name's Mary, isn't it? (falling: expresses confidence)

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    Emphasis

    English tag questions are normally stressed on the verb, but the stress is

    on the pronoun if there is a change of person.

    For example:

    I don't like peas, do you?

    I like peas, don't you?

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    Exercises:

    1. You wanted that, .......... ?

    a) would you

    b) didn't you

    c) wouldn't you

    2. He saw that .......... ?

    a) is he

    b) won't he

    c) didn't he

    3. You know that's right .......... ?

    a) would you

    b) don't you

    c) didn't you

    4. He wil be coming .......... ?

    a) did he

    b) doesn't he

    c) won't he

    5. After all this time you'd think he'd have forgotten .......... ?

    a) didn't you

    b) wouldn't you

    c) don't you

    http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/http://donothing%28%29/
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    11. PASSIVE VOICE.

    Teachers explanation.

    A passive construction occurs when you make the object of an action

    into the subject of a sentence. That is, whoever or whatever is performing

    the action is not the grammatical subject of the sentence.

    Students explanation.

    Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not

    important or not known, however, who or what is performing the action.

    For example:

    My bike was stolen.

    In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen. I do

    not know, however, who did it.

    Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as the

    following example shows:

    For example:

    A mistake was made.

    In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not blame

    anyone

    Form of Passive

    Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregularverbs)

    http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/irregular-verbshttp://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/irregular-verbshttp://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/irregular-verbshttp://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/irregular-verbs
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    When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:

    the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive

    sentence

    the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)

    the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive

    sentence (or is dropped)

    Examples of Passive

    Tense Subject Verb Object

    SimplePresent

    Active: Ritawrites a letter.

    Passive: A letter is written by Rita.

    Simple Past Active: Rita wrote a letter.Passive: A letter was written by Rita.

    PresentPerfect

    Active: Rita has written a letter.

    Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.

    Future I Active: Rita will write a letter.Passive: A letter will be written by Rita.

    Hilfsverben Active: Rita can write a letter.Passive: A letter can be written by Rita.

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    Examples of Passive

    Tense Subject Verb Object

    PresentProgressive

    Active: Ritais writing a letter.

    Passive: A letter is being written by Rita.

    PastProgressive

    Active: Rita was writing a letter.

    Passive: A letter was being written by Rita.

    Past Perfect Active: Rita had written a letter.Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.

    Future II Active: Rita will have written a letter.Passive: A letter will have been

    written

    by Rita.

    Conditional I Active: Rita would write a letter.Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.

    ConditionalII

    Active: Rita would have written a letter.

    Passive: A letter would have been

    written

    by Rita.

    Passive Sentences with Two Objects

    Rewriting an active sentence with two objects in passive voice means

    that one of the two objects becomes the subject, the other one remains anobject. Which object to transform into a subject depends on what you want

    to put the focus on.

    http://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/passive
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    Subject Verb Object 1 Object 2

    Active: Ritawrote a letter to me.

    Passive: A letter was written to me by Rita.

    Passive: I was written a letter by Rita.

    .

    As you can see in the examples, adding by Rita does not sound very

    elegant. Thats why it is usually dropped.

    Personal and Impersonal Passive

    Personal Passive simply means that the object of the active sentence

    becomes the subject of the passive sentence. So every verb that needs an

    object (transitive verb) can form a personal passive.

    For example:

    They build houses. Houses are built.

    Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form a

    personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become the

    subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an intransitive verb in

    passive voice, you need an impersonal construction therefore this passive

    is called Impersonal Passive.

    For example:

    he says it is said

    Impersonal Passive is not as common in English as in some other

    languages (e.g. German, Latin). In English, Impersonal Passive is only

    possible with verbs of perception (e. g. say, think, know).

    For example:

    They say that women live longer than men. It is said that women live

    longer than men.

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    Although Impersonal Passive is possible here, Personal Passive is

    more common.

    For example:

    They say that women live longer than men.

    Women are said to livelonger than men.

    The subject of the subordinate clause (women) goes to the beginning

    of the sentence; the verb of perception is put into passive voice. The rest

    of the sentence is added using an infinitive construction with 'to' (certain

    auxiliary verbs and that are dropped).

    Sometimes the term Personal Passive is used in English lessons if the

    indirect object of an active sentence is to become the subject of the

    passive sentence

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    Exercises:

    Rewrite the sentences using Passive voice.Example:

    Peter writes a letter.

    _________________

    Answer:

    A letter is written. or

    A letter is written by Peter.

    1) Julia rescued three cats.

    .

    2) The students handed in the reports.

    .

    3) Maria crashed into the blue car.

    .

    4) Alex learned the poem.

    .

    5) Steven has forgotten the book.

    .6) The mechanic has not repaired the DVD recorder.

    .

    7) They play handball.

    .

    8) Sue puts the rucksack on the floor.

    .

    9) The girls had lost the match.

    .

    10) The teacher is not going to open the window.

    .

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    12. SUBJUNCTIVE.

    Teachers explanation.

    The subjunctive is a special kind of present tense, using an infinitive

    that has no s in the third person singular. It is often used when talking

    about something that somebody must do.

    The subjunctive is a formal construction. It is more commonly used in

    American English than in British English, and more often in the written form

    than in the spoken form. It was used much more frequently in old English,

    but many of these forms have now disappeared in modern English.

    Students explanation.

    The subjunctive is a special, relatively rare verb form in English.

    Structure of the Subjunctive

    The structure of the subjunctive is extremely simple. For all verbs

    except the past tense of be, the subjunctive is the same as the bareinfinitive (infinitive without "to"):

    be (past) be (present) all other verbs (past & present)

    I wereyou werehe, she, it werewe wereyou werethey were

    I beyou behe, she, it bewe beyou bethey be

    I workyou workhe, she, it workwe workyou workthey work

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    Use of the Subjunctive

    We use subjunctives mainly when talking about events that are not

    certain to happen. For example, we use the subjunctive when talking about

    events that somebody:

    wants to happen

    hopes will happen

    imagines happening

    For example:

    The President requests that you be present at the meeting.It is vital that you be present at the meeting.If you were at the meeting, the President would be happy.

    The subjunctive is typically used after two structures:

    the verbs: ask, command, demand, insist, propose, recommend,request, suggest + that

    the expressions: it is desirable, essential, important, necessary, vital+ that

    For example:

    The manager insists that the car park be locked at night.The board of directors recommended that he join the company.It is essential that we vote as soon as possible.It was necessary that every student submit his essay by the weekend.

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    Notice that in these structures the subjunctive is always the same. It does

    not matter whether the sentence is past or present.

    For example:

    Present: The President requests that they stop the occupation.Past: The President requested that they stop the occupation.Present: It is essential that she be present.Past: It was essential that she be present.

    Verbs used with the Subjunctive

    Other verbs that are commonly used with the subjunctive are: advise,

    ask, beg, decide, decree, desire, dictate, insist, intend, move, order,

    petition, propose, recommend, request, require, resolve, suggest, urge, and

    vote.

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    Exercises:

    Fill in the blanks below with the correct form of the verb in parentheses

    1. It's important that she (remember) to take her medicine twice a day.

    2. I suggest that Frank (read) the directions carefully before assembling the bicycle. He

    doesn't want the wheels to fall off while he

    is riding down a hill

    3. Mrs. Finkelstein demanded that the heater (repair) immediately. Her apartment was

    freezing.

    4. It's vital that the United States (focus) on improving its public education system.

    What we do now will affect our country for

    generations to come.

    5. The monk insisted that the tourists (enter) the temple until they had removed their

    shoes.

    6. I am not going to sit here and let her insult me. I demand that she immediately (apologize)

    for what she just said.

    7. Judy asked that we (attend) her graduation ceremony next week.

    8. Was it really necessary that (sit) I there watching you the entire time you were

    rehearsing for the play? It was really

    boring watching you repeat the scenes over and over again.

    9. It is important to remember that Janine (think) very differently from you. She may

    not agree to the changes you have made in

    the organization of the company.

    10. It's a little difficult to find the restaurant. I propose that we all (drive) together so

    that nobody gets lost along the way

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    13. CAUSATIVES.

    Teachers explanation.

    The causative is a common structure in English. It is used when one

    thing or person causes another thing or person to do something.

    The causative has the meaning of 'someone causes someone to do

    something.

    Students explanation.

    There are two basic causative structures. One is like an active, and

    the other is like a passive.

    These examples use the causative verb "have":

    I had John fix the car.

    (I arranged for the car to be fixed by John -- I caused him to fix it.)

    I had the car fixed.

    (I arranged for the car to be fixed by someone. We don't know who, so this is

    like a passive.)

    The active causative structure

    This is the basic structure of the active form, along with some more

    examples:

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    Subject Causative verb Agent Action verb Object

    Susan had her brother do her homework.

    The police had the suspect stop his car.

    We had the carpenter fix our window.

    The passive causative structure

    In the passive form, there is usually no agent. The action verb is in the

    past participle, and the object comes before it:

    Subject Causative verb Object Action verb

    We had our door fixed.

    Yukiko had her hair cut.

    Sanjay had the windows cleaned.

    Other causative verbs

    All the examples above use the causative verb "have". However, many

    other verbs can be used in causatives. In the active form, som of these

    verbs require the action verb to have "to" before it.

    For example:

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    Exercises:

    Use the following verbs in the appropriate tense to fill in the blanks:

    let make have get1. Sam really wanted a dog, but his parents wouldn't ______________ him

    have a pet.

    2. I can't believe she _____________ you look at her vacation pictures again

    last night. We have to look at those stupid pictures every time we go to her

    house.

    3. I don't know how you convince your children to clean up their rooms. I

    couldn't _____________________ my children to clean up their rooms if my lifedepended on it.

    4. Professor Yu _____________________ each of her students write an essay

    describing their future goals in life.

    5. Professor Yu _____________________ her students use a dictionary while

    they were taking the test.

    6. Debbie's husband hates the opera. But after days of nagging, she finally

    ______________ him to go see the new production of La Boheme.

    7. Sally ___________________ me take off my shoes before I went into her

    house. She said she wanted to keep the carpet clean.

    8. Rebecca Smith requested a copy of that expense report, so I ____________

    the courier take one over to her last week.

    9. Diane thinks television is a waste of time, so she won't ______________

    her children watch TV.

    10. Susie _____________________ her son take out the trash before he went

    to the park to play soccer.

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    14. INVERTED WORD ORDER.

    Teachers explanation.

    In Natural word order, the subject parts come before the verb, and

    the predicate parts come after the verb. In Inverted word order, a sentence

    must have a helping verb or other predicate words that modify the verb at

    the beginning of the sentence. The three most common ways to begin a

    sentence with predicate words are listed below. 1. Adverb 2. Helping Verb

    3. Prepositional Phrase

    Inverted word order

    If a clause begins with a negative adverb, inverted word order must

    usually be used, with the subject following the Simple Present or Simple

    Past of the verb to be, or the first auxiliary. In the case of the SimplePresent or Simple Past of any verb other than the verb to be, the auxiliaryto do must be used.

    Students explanation.

    Inversion is used in statements to give emphasis, especially when the

    statement begins with a negative word or idea:

    For example:

    Under no circumstances can your money be refunded.Only when I had been there for a year did I begin to feel at home.

    Not only did I lose all my clothes and jewellery, but my chequebook,passport and visa card went too.'

    Inversion is, of course, necessary after neither, nor and so:I don't like dried fruit.' 'Neither do I.Matthew's got chicken pox, so has his brother

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    Stucture of inverted word order.

    Simple form of

    negative adverb

    +

    verb to be or+ subject

    or adverb phrase first auxiliary

    Never before was I so eager to reach home.

    Little did wethink we would meet

    again.

    Seldom had they tasted such a delicacy.

    Following are other examples of this type of construction. The

    negative adverbs and adverb phrases are printed in bold type, and the

    subjects of the verbs are underlined.

    For example:

    Seldom was he at a loss for words.Scarcely had we left the house, when it began to rain.Not for many years was the true story known.No sooner did the bell ring than the children ran out of the school.

    In the first example, the subject he follows was, the Simple Past of theverb to be. In the succeeding examples, the subjects we, story and bellfollow the auxiliaries had, was and did, respectively.

    In this type of inverted construction, if there is used as an introductoryword, there follows the Simple Past or Simple Present of the verb to be, orthe first auxiliary.

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    For example:

    Seldom were there more than five ducks on the pond.Rarely had there been more swans on the lake than there were that day.

    In the first example, there follows were, the Simple Past of the verbto be. In the second example, there follows the auxiliary had, of the verbhad been.

    It should be noted that the expression so ... that can also be usedwith inverted word order.

    Forexample:

    So exhausted were we that we fell asleep at the table.In this example, the subject we follows the verb were.

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    15. GERUNDS AND INFINITIVES.

    Teachers explanation.

    Gerunds and infinitives are forms of verbs that act like nouns. Theycan follow adjectives and other verbs. Gerunds can also follow prepositions.

    A gerund (often known as an -ing word) is a noun formed from a verb

    by adding -ing. See also Nouns/Gerund. Not all words formed with -ing aregerunds.

    An infinitive is to + the verb.When a verb follows a verb it either takes the gerund or infinitive form.

    Some verbs can take either the gerund or the infinitive with no loss of

    meaning.

    For example:

    With the verb start - "It started to rain." or "It started raining." Bothsentences have the same meaning.

    Sometimes the use of the gerund or infinitive changes the meaning of

    the sentence.

    For example:

    With the verb remember - "I rememberedto domy homework". or "Iremembered doing my homework."

    In the first sentence (I remembered to do my homework), the person

    speaking remembered they had some homework first and then carried out

    the action and did it. In the second sentence (I remembered doing my

    homework.), the person speaking carried out the action (their homework)

    first and then remembered doing it.

    Other verbs only take one or the other, unfortunately there is no rule

    as to which form the verb takes. The same is true when the verb follows anadjective.

    http://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/gerundinftext.htm#gerprophttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/NOUNTEXT.htm#Gerundhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/NOUNTEXT.htm#Gerundhttp://www.learnenglish.de/grammar/gerundinftext.htm#gerprop
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    Students explanation.

    Here is a brief review of the differences between gerunds and

    infinitives.

    Gerunds are formed with ING: walking, talking, thinking, listeningInfinitives are formed with TO: to walk, to talk, to think, to listen

    Gerunds and infinitives can do several jobs:

    Both gerunds and infinitives can be the subject of a sentence:

    For example:

    Writing in English is difficult.

    To write in English is difficult.

    Both gerunds and infinitives can be the object of a verb:

    For example:

    I like writing in English.

    I like to write in English.

    But... Only gerunds can be the object of a preposition:

    We are talking about writing in English.

    It is often difficult to know when to use a gerund and when to use an

    infinitive. These guidelines may help you:

    Gerunds are often used when actions are real, concrete or completed:

    I stopped smoking.

    (The smoking was real and happened until I stopped.)

    Infinitives are often used when actions are unreal, abstract, or future::

    I stopped to smoke.

    (I was doing something else, and I stopped; the smoking had not happened

    yet.)

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    Verbs that are normally followed by the gerund

    acknowledge | admit | adore | anticipate | appreciate | avoid | celebrate |confess | contemplate

    delay | deny | describe | detest | discuss | dislike | dread | endure | enjoyfancy | finish | imagine | involve | keep | justify | mention | mind | miss |

    omit | postpone | practisequit | recall | recommend | regret | report | resent | resume | risk |

    suggest | tolerate | understandFor example:

    I adore reading your books.

    They anticipated winningthe election.

    I detest going to discos.We postponed making any decision in the meeting.I quit smoking.Do you recall seeing someone like that?

    Verbs which are normally followed by the infinitive

    afford | agree | appear | arrange | ask | attempt | care | choose | claim |come | consent

    dare | decide | demand | deserve | determine | elect | endeavour | expect| fail | get | guarentee

    hate | help | hesitate | hope | hurry | incline | intend | learn | long |manage | mean | need

    offer | plan | prepare | pretend | promise | refuse | resolve | say | seem |tend | threaten | want | wish

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    For example:

    I can't afford to goto the pub.He agreed to practice more.You should learn to express yourself.

    Verbs which can be followed by the gerund or infinitive

    Some verbs can be followed by the gerund or infintive

    With no change in meaning

    begin | continue | hate | like | love | neglect | prefer | start | tryFor example:

    He began to learn English when he was eight.He began learning English when he was eight.I hate to leave early.I hate leaving early.

    With a change in meaning

    forget | remember | stopFor example:

    I forgot to feed the cat. (The cat is hungry - he has not been fed)

    I forgot feeding the cat. (The cat is ok - I fed him and then forgot about it)

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    The gerund (-ing form) mustbe used when a verb comes after a

    preposition:

    against | at | after | by | on | instead of | talk about | tired of | withoutFor example:

    I am againstsmoking in public places.She is good atspeaking English.I went home after leaving the party.You can improve your English byusing the Internet.We need to keep on going.You should tell the truth lying all the time.

    Both gerunds and infinitives can be nouns, which means they can do

    just about anything that a noun can do. Although they name things, like

    other nouns, they normally name activities rather than people or objects.

    Here are five noun-uses of gerunds and infinitives (and one additional non-

    noun use, the adjective complement, that we throw in here, free of charge).

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    Exercises:

    Choose the correct form (infinitive with or without toor gerund).

    1.

    We go every week.

    2.

    Let it .

    3.

    He dreams of an actor.

    4.

    They enjoy .

    5.

    It is not easy good friends.

    6.

    My friend is afraid of

    7.

    Jane is good at .

    8.

    He wanted a new computer game.

    9.

    I am crazy about .

    10.

    You must to my party.

    Infinitive or Gerund? - Which is correct?1. When you come to the crossroads - stop there.

    Remember to stop at the crossroads.

    Remember stopping at the crossroads.

    Both possibilities are correct.

    2. Yesterday she read the first pages of her new book.

    She began to read her new book.

    She began reading her new book.

    Both possibilities are correct.

    3. I was talking to Marc. But when my boyfriend came in, I could not talk to Marc anymore.

    I stopped to talk to him.

    I stopped talking to him.

    Both possibilities are correct.4. We might go to England next year.

    We intend to spend our holiday in England.

    We intend spending our holiday in England.

    Both possibilities are correct.

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    16. TOO / SO / EITHER / NEITHER.

    Teachers explanation.

    Too is an adverb meaning "excessively" or "also."We use so and neither to indicate similarity between or among people.

    We use so with affirmative sentences and neither with negative sentences.Either is an English pronoun, adjective, and conjunction, meaning one, or theother, of two choices.

    Students explanation.

    "Too" is used in expressions like "too chubby" and "too expensive". (Itgives the idea of "in excess" or "more than it should be".)

    Occasionally, there is some confusion over the words "too" and "to".

    The word "too" has two uses. "Too" can be used to express the idea of "in

    excess" or "more than it should be".

    For example:

    My Labrador eats too much and is too chubby.(eats more than it should and is chubbier than it should be)

    Karen cannot reach Southampton in an hour; it is too far.(in excess of what she can achieve in a hour)

    I need to talk to you. Do not leave it too late.("to talk" - infinitive verb; explained in Section 1 / "to you" -

    preposition; explained

    I tried to catch you, but I was too slow."Too" is used in expressions like "I can do it too".

    (It means the same as "as well" or "also".)

    http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronounhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjectivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_%28number%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_%28number%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_%28number%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otherhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_%28number%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_conjunctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adjectivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronounhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language
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    Using "too" to mean "as well" or "also" is extremely common

    For example:

    I have been there too.(I have been there as well. / I have also been there.)

    [picture]

    We use so and neither to indicate similarity between or among people.We use so with affirmative sentences and neither with negative sentences.For example:

    I have a red car, so does Jane.Tom likes red wine, so do I.Lisa cant speak French, neither does Carl.Anna wont come tomorrow, neither will John and Frank.

    A frequent difficulty in English usage concerns the permissibility of

    using either to refer to more than one alternative. Generally, either refers toexactly two alternatives.

    For example:

    Has either of you two seen Harry?She can