STEP 1 Workpiece Materials Web

11/82COPYRIGHT 2008, Seco Tools AB WorkpieceWorkpiece materialsmaterials

Duplex SS 42CrMo4 Ca-treated 316L

22/82COPYRIGHT 2008, Seco Tools AB

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Carbon steel -Free cutting steel

Carbon steelAlloysteel

TitaniumAlloys

Specialhigh temp

alloys

Cobalt basedalloys

Nickel basedalloys

AusteniticSS

Chemical, petrochemical, medical, gas and paper industry

General construction steel

Energy production, aviation and space travel

WorkpieceWorkpiece materialmaterial


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Non-alloy steel and cast steelLow-alloy steel and cast steelHigh-alloy steeland cast steelSS and cast steel (fer/mar)

Stainless steel (austenitic)

Grey cast ironDuctile cast ironNodular cast iron (ferritic/perlitic)

Non-ferrous metalsAluminium and aluminium alloys

Super alloysTitanium and titanium based alloys

Hard cast ironHardened steel

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Mechanical properties

Materialstructure

Self-hardening

Inclusions

Thermal conductivity

Chemicalcomposition

Workpieceorigination

WorkpieceWorkpiece materialmaterial


Surface integrity

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Environment

Tool wearChip formation f

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Cutting forces

MachinabilityMachinability


Machining method

Machinability

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Mechanical properties

Workpieceraw material

Materialstructure

Workhardening

Inclusions

Thermal conductivity

Chemicalcomposition

Workpiece material

Machine

Clamping Cooling

Human factor

Toolholders

Cutting geometryCutting conditions

Cutting material



Material to be machinedsteel SS GCI etc.

The processroughing - 1/2 rough - finishing

The correct insertThe correct insert

Carbide grade

Cutting speedVc

Cutting depthap

Feedf

Geometry



The The cuttingcutting processprocess


The cutting force can be divided into: Axial force component Radial force component Tangential force component

The tangential force determines the cutting force.

The combination of tangential and radial force is the main cause of any vibration and workpiece deformation.

Tangential force

Radial forceAxial force

The The cuttingcutting processprocessCutting forces



0 1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000

kc11 (N/mm)

Steel

Stainless steel

Cast iron

Non-ferrous materials

Superalloys

Hard materials

Fc = Kc11 * b * h 1-mc

Kc11 = specific cutting forceb = chip width

h = chip thickness

(Typical example )

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Low carbon steel and aluminium, Group 16.

Soft Continuous chips, difficult to

machine. Decrease ductility to increase

machinability.

Materials with high ductility

Materials with low ductility

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Gray cast iron, Gr.12. Hard Discontinuous chips. Increase ductility to increase

machinability.

WorkpieceWorkpiece materialsmaterials

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diameter(proportional to penetration)

High hardness materials

Tool steel, Group 6 Hardened Steel, Group 7 Superalloys, Group 21 Cast iron, Group 15

Low hardness materials

Aluminum, Group 16 Low carbon steel, Group 1

Materials that work harden

Stainless steel, Groups 8, 9, 10 & 11 Superalloys, Groups 20, 21




Long chips (Ductility (%))

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) Difficultto machine

Easyto machine

Ni Ni alloyalloy superalloysuperalloyTi Ti alloyalloy

Hardened

Hardenedsteelsteel

High High alloy

alloy steelsteel

UnalloyedUnalloyed steelsteelAluminiumAluminium

StainlessStainless steel

steelDuctileDuctile ironiron

CastCast iron

iron

CastCast alualu alloyalloy

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Temperature

Heat conductivity of tool material and workpiece material.

Cutting speed.

Geometry of cutting edge.

This temperature (gradient) Largely determines the wear

factor and tool life.


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Copper, Group 18

Aluminium, Group 16

Low carbon steel, Group 1

Titanium, Group 22

Superalloys, Groups 20, 21

Materials with high thermal conductivity

Materials with low thermal conductivity

ThermalThermal conductivityconductivity

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- Surface finish: Rt,Ra- Residual tension: Pressure or tensile forces- Self-hardening: Retention of austenite/hard martensite- Heat affected zone (HAZ): Lower hardness

Surface integrity is the general term used to describe the properties and the condition of a machined workpiece with regard to the surface and sub- surface.

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Compression

Tension

SurfaceSurface integrityintegrity

(Typical example )

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Self- hardening

ToolWorkpiece material

Self- hardening

Tool

Work- piecematerial


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Crack

Great influence on fatigue properties

Crack

Tension Compression

Influencing factors are the cutting speed, cutting edge wear, cutting edge angle and cutting method (radial turning or classical), the cutting depth, the feed and the nose radius.

SurfaceSurface stressesstresses

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Depth from surface

SurfaceSurface stressesstresses

(Typical example )

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Material Machinability Rating9S20 cold rolled steel 100

Ductile cast iron 35

Stainless steel 440 50

Aluminium 2024-T 150

9S20 is assigned a rating of 100 and other materials are compared to this standard.

MachinabilityMachinability ratingrating

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Non-alloy steeland cast steel. < 600 N/mm2Low-alloy steel and cast steel < 900 N/mm2High-alloy steeland cast steel > 900 N/mm2Stainless steel and cast steel (fer/mar) < 750 N/mm2

Stainless steel (austenitic) > 750 N/mm2

Grey cast ironDuctile cast ironNodular cast iron (ferritic/perlitic)

Non-Ferrous metalsAluminium and aluminium based alloys

SuperalloysTitanium and titanium based alloys

Hard cast iron > 60 ShoreHardened steel > 45 HRC

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Stainless steel

Steel

Grey cast iron

Aluminium & alloys

Super alloys and titanium

Machinability


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Workpiece materials applications cutting materials

Areas of application for the various cutting materials1. Influence on cutting conditions.2. Influence on properties of cutting materials.

Cutting material

Class colour

Sub- groups

P01

P10

P20

P40

P50

Material to be machined

Steel, steel castings

Steel, steel castings

Steel, steel castingsMalleable cast iron with long chips

Steel, steel castings with sand inclusion and cavities

Steel, steel castingsMalleable cast iron with long chips

Steel, steel castings of medium or low tensile strength, with sand inclusion and cavities

Application

Finish turning and boring; high cutting speeds, small chip section, accuracy of dimensions and fine finish vibration-free operation.

Turning, copying, threading and milling, high cutting speeds, small or medium chip sections.

Turning, copying, milling, medium cutting speeds and chip sections

Turning, milling, planing, medium or low cutting speeds, medium or large chip sections, and machining in unfavorable conditions.

Turning, planing, slotting, low cutting speeds, large chip section with the possibility of large cutting angles for machining in unfavorable conditions.

For operations demanding very tough carbide; turning, planing, slotting, low cutting speeds, large chip sections with the possibility of large cutting angles for machining in unfavorable conditions.

PSteel

Change in properties

Cuttting conditions

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P30


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(Typical example )MN 2006 Turning page 31

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Mild and alloy steels1 to 6

Rule of thumb: Within a family of workpiece material groups, machining difficulty increases as the group number increases.

Titanium alloys22

Superalloys /High temperature alloys20 to 21

Non-ferrous alloys16 to 19

Cast irons11 to 15

Stainless steels8 to 11

Hardened Steel7

Family NameGroup Number


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Groups 1 through 7 0.028 to 2.0% carbon Small amounts of other

metals Nickel Chromium Manganese

Mild and Alloy SteelsMild and Alloy Steels

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Properties Carbon content < 0.28% Tough, cheap, and impact resistant Easily worked Soft and gummy

Machining 50 to 100% machinability rating Stringy, continuous chips Watch for BUE Easy to machine at high cutting speeds High speed: MTCVD (AL2O3) Med. speed: CVD (TiC, TiN) Low speed: PVD (TiCN)

Uses Hub caps, stampings, wheels

Group 1: Mild and Alloy SteelsGroup 1: Mild and Alloy Steels

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Properties Carbon content: 0.28 to 0.50% Harder and stronger Tough, cheap, and impact resistant Easily worked, soft and gummy

Machining 45 to 65% machinability rating Stringy, continuous chips Watch for BUE Moderately difficult to machine High speed: MTCVD (AL2O3) Med. speed: CVD (TiC, TiN) Low speed: PVD (TiCN)

Uses I-beams, auto frames, axle housings

Group 3: Ordinary Carbon SteelsGroup 3: Ordinary Carbon Steels

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Properties Carbon content: 0.50 to 2.0% Small amounts of nickel, molybdenum, chromium, and/or

vanadium. Very high hardness. Tougher and stronger.

Machining 35 to 65% machinability rating. Difficult to machine. Watch insert flank wear. Reduce cutting speed. High speed: MTCVD (AL2O3) Medium speed: CVD (TiC, TiN) Low speed: PVD (TiCN) If RC > 45, use CBN

Uses Tool steel, springs, bearings, dies, punches

Group 6: Tool SteelsGroup 6: Tool Steels

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Stainless SteelsStainless Steels

Groups 8 through 11. At least 10.5% chromium. Less than 1.2% carbon. Properties which increase from

Group 8 to 9 to 10 to 11. Corrosion resistance. Hardness. Temperature resistance.

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Chromium Oxygen

Alloyed steel with maximum 1.2% carbon and at least 10.5% chromium.

Cr2 O3


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Stainless steel structures

The microstructure and alloy elements are the determining factors. They determine properties such as heat resistance,

corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance.And also the machinability!!

AusteniticFerritic Martensitic Duplex


Ferritic stainess steel (400 series, e.g. 405, 430, 442) (low carbon steel + Cr).

Martensitic stainless steel (400 series, e.g. 403, 416, 422) (ferritic stainless steel + C).

Precipitation hardened stainless steel (PH-steel, e.g. 15-5PH, 17-4PH, PH13-8Mo))(martensitic stainless steel + Cu, Al, Nb).

Austenitic stainless steel (300 series, e.g. 301, 304, 316) (ferritic stainless steel + Ni).

Duplex stainless steel (200 series)(austenitic stainless steel - Ni + Mn, N).

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Ferritic SS Martensitic SS Austensitic SS Duplex SS PH SS

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Influence of material structure


(Typical example )

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Machinability

Mo Cr N Ni C Ti Mn S Ca Pb

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Build up edge problems. Hard, very homogenous surfaces (scales). Poor surface finish. Burring. Poor chip formation and difficult chip removal.

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The PRE factor is a criterion for the corrosion resistance

The resistance of the stainless steel to pitting is indicated by the PRE factor (Pitting Resistance Equivalent).

The PRE factor determines heavily the machinability

PRE factor = % Cr + 3.3 x % Mo + 30 x % NPRE factor = % Cr + % Ni (when no Mo or N)


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AusteniticDuplexMartensitic - austeniticMartensitic

PRE value

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Reference cutting speed- 30 minutes tool life- b/h = 10- flat insert- untreated cutting edge- uncoated P20


(Typical example )

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The heat which needs to be removed in the chip and the workpiece is concentrated in the insert in stainless steel.(plastic deformation)

Low thermal conductivity


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Self-hardening (surface hardening)

If the tension in the stainless steel exceeds the elongationlimit, stainless steel will show self-hardening.

This is the case in the shearing zone.

This is made worse through formation of Cr2 O3 (quickly and always).

Distance from the surface

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(Typical example )

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Temperature / cutting speed

Cutting Build up edge

Oxidation

Diffusion

FrictionTotalTechnically optimum

CuttingCutting speed speed zoneszones

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Cutting speed

11 22 33

Cutting build up edge

60 m/min 100 m/min


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Cutting speed zone 1

Use TiN or TiCN coated (PVD) tough inserts or uncoated tough inserts (P25-P40, K20).

Use cooling to keep the temperature down.

Use small chip sections (sharp inserts).

High tool life is possible.

Long finishing times Low productivity and high costs.

Reliability questionable.

Low productivity zone 40 - 60 (m/min)


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Build up edge wear zone 60 - 100 (m/min)

ChipChip

Burs on chipBurs on chip

Build up edgeBuild up edgeBurs on Burs on workpieceworkpiece

Great build up edge in this area.Avoid cutting speed zone 2.



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Use tough coated inserts (P25C) or wear resistant uncoated inserts (P15) or cermet.

Use inserts with big positive rake (approx. 200).

Aim for large chip sections (f > 0.15 (mm/t), ap > 1 (mm)).

Do not use cooling except if there could be problems with chip removal.

Roughing High productivity zone 100 - 300 (m/min)



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Cutting speeds approx. 25% higher than in roughing.

Use cermet, P15 (uncoated), PVD coated micrograin grades.

Feed f = 0.05 - 0.15 (mm/t) and ap > 0.5 (mm).

If f < 0.05 (mm/t) en ap < 0.5 (mm) use uncoated K20.

Use abundant coolant to keep the temperature low.

In contour milling with small radial cutting depths, apply a cutting depth factor and do not use coolant.

Finishing High productivity zone 120 - 350 [m/min]



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Machining in stainless steel requires five times as many cutting edges as the same process in classical steel.

Be careful with other problems such as interrupted cuts and casting scales.

Also pay attention to: Austenitic structure Duplex structure Nitrogen reinforced structure Precipitation hardened SS Pre-processing

Avoid false economies


Turning (previous)Insert wear

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Chip formation

BurringSticky chipping

Build up edge (wear)

StainlessStainless steelsteel turningturning

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AISI 304AISI 304 Ck 45Ck 45

AISI 304 Ca

Chip formation


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Machine

Select maximum stability and capacity.

Avoid worn machines for accurate work.


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Toolholder

Select the largest possible shank section.

Select a strong insert clamping system.

Minimize the projection length.Select sound seating.


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Working method

Select varying cutting depths for heavy and lengthy roughing processes.

Roughing with entering angle of 75 or 45.Then finish with 90.


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Working method

For heavy roughing, use variable cutting depths.


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Rough workpiece

First chamfer if possible. In burnished pieces, always begin by removing burnished residue.


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Inserts

Select strong inserts with sharp geometries (entering angle).

Select large nose radius.

Select internal positive single sided inserts and external double sided negative inserts.


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Cutting conditions

Use large cutting depths.

Use large feeds.

Change inserts regularly (not too much wear).


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1. Smooth cutting process is important (smooth cutting geometry, large rake angle, sharp yet reinforced cutting edges (small T phase/honing)).

2. Good chip removal.

3. Cutting under the hard surface layer.

4. Use down-milling.

5. Limit heat development

1. cooling (at the right place).

2. thick chip (0.08 mm min hm ) to gain sufficient mass for maximum heat removal.

6. Average chip thickness (very important)

1. cutter positioning (10% D on exit side of workpiece).

2. feed = > T - phase/honing.

7. Cutting depth at least 1 mm and no finishing passes (unless absolutely essential) (friction).

8. Maximum carbide mass (to remove heat).

Some advice

StainlessStainless steelsteel millingmilling

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Some advice feed and cutting depth

average chip thickness (hm) is very important and critical for tool life (verify with cutting edge geometry - M/ME).

Inco / SS (+ feed / + tool life) (titanium, if short tool life, reduce feed).

if inserts with T-phase are used, the feed must be greater than this phase.

avoid feed = 0 (helical interpolation milling instead of drilling).

small cutting depths shorten the tool life.

minimum cutting depth 1 mm.

the smaller the cutting depth, the higher the cutting speed required (correct cutting temperature) (cutting speed factor in contour milling).


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Some advice cutting speed High cutting speed method

15 to 20 minutes tool life. Low cutting speed method

45 to 60 minutes tool life. High pressure cooling >50 bar

Higher cutting speed. Low tool life - 45 to 100 minutes.

Use high cutting speed if possible.

Most stainless steels are easily machined, except PH-SS and cooling is not necessarymost of the time.

Good chip evacuation (removal of chips from the workpiece).

1. Low cutting speed (low temperature) Vc = 30 - 60 m/min.2. Build-up in cutting edge zone.3. High cutting speed (high temperature) Vc = 100 - 300 m/min.

High cutting speed method Low cutting speed method


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Group 8: Stainless SteelsGroup 8: Stainless Steels

Properties Little or no alloying elements other than carbon and chromium.

Good corrosion and temperature resistance.

Machining 40 to 65% machinability rating. Easy to machine. Soft, continuous chips. Watch for BUE (built-up edge). Use positive rake tools. Cobalt enriched zone. MTCVD coatings.

Uses Cookware, surgical tools, pump components.

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Group 9: Stainless SteelsGroup 9: Stainless Steels

Properties May contain nickel, molybdenum, sulphur, and vanadium.

Increased hardness. Increased corrosion and temperature resistance.

Machining 30 to 45% machinability rating. More difficult to machine. Stringy, brittle chips. Watch for notching at DOC line. Use positive rake tools Cobalt enriched zone. MTCVD coating.

Uses Piping pumps, process equipment.

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Group 10 and 11: Stainless SteelsGroup 10 and 11: Stainless Steels

Properties May contain nitrogen and titanium. Excellent corrosion and temperature resistance. Very high hardness.

Machining 25 to 70% machinability rating. Very difficult to machine. Watch for surface work hardening. Flank wear and edge chipping are typical failure

modes. Use positive rake tools. Cobalt enriched zone. MTCVD coatings. CBN and ceramics.

Uses Piping, pumps, process equipment in demanding conditions.

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Cast IronsCast Irons

Groups 12 through 15 Greater than 2.0% carbon Tend to be abrasive to

machine May also contain:

Magnesium Silicon Sulphur Phosphorus

Brake drums

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Group 12: Cast IronsGroup 12: Cast Irons

Properties Carbon in form of flakes. Abrasive Low to medium hardness. Strong and cheap to produce.

Machining 40 to 70% machinability rating. Moderately difficult to machine. Discontinuous chips. Machine at high cutting speeds. High speeds: AL2O3. Medium speeds: CVD (TiC, TiCN, AL2O3). Low speeds: PVD (TiAIN) and CVD (TiC).

Uses Engine blocks, inexpensive castings.

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Groups 13 & 14: Cast IronsGroups 13 & 14: Cast Irons

Properties Cerium and magnesium cause carbon to form spheroids. Harder and more abrasive. More ductile, less brittle.

Machining Discontinuous chips. High speed: AL2O3; CBN; ceramic (SiN). Medium speed: CVD (TiC, TiCN, AL2O3). Low speed: PVD (TiAIN) and CVD (TiC).

Uses Crankshafts, structural parts, pulleys, brakes.

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Group 15: Cast IronsGroup 15: Cast IronsProperties Silicon causes carbon to form spheroids.

Called ductile cast iron. Excellent tensile strength. Good wear resistance. Cheaper and lighter than steel.

Machining 35 to 60% machinability rating. High cutting forces. Analogous to interrupted-cut. Discontinuous chips. Negative rake for strength. High speed: AL2O3; CBN; ceramic (SiN). Medium speed: CVD (TiC, TiCN, AL2O3). Low speed: PVD (TiAIN) and CVD (TiC).

Uses Gears, truck springs, turbo-compressor housings, crankshafts.

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Aluminium piston

NonNon--Ferrous AlloysFerrous Alloys

Groups 16 through 19. Less than 50% iron. Most metals are soft

(except for tungsten carbide).

Machinability varies over a wide range.

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Low density. High strength. Good thermal conductivity. Good corrosion resistance.

1xxx 99% Al 2xxx + Cu 3xxx + Mn 4xxx + Si 5xxx + Mg 6xxx + Mg, Si 7xxx + Zn 8xxx + Other elements

AluminiumAluminium

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General Carbide grade or PCD. Polished rake surface. Positive rake angle. Coarse pitch cutter. Large chip evacuation grooves.

Cutting speed 600 to 2000 (max) m/min with carbide inserts. 1500 - 6000 m/min with PCD inserts.

Feed 0.15 to 0.50 mm/rev.

AluminiumAluminiumSome advice

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Build-up of cutting edge Adjust cutting speed / use coolant / very positive geometry.

Chip control and evacuation Open pitch cutter when milling. Wash chips away with coolant.

Burring Use micro-sharp cutting edges.

Abrasive wear Carbide grade or PCD.

Finishing With coolant, not for roughing.

Close pitch cutters For large table feed, but needs power.

AluminiumAluminiumSome advice

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Group 16: Aluminum (

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Group 17: Aluminum (>16% Group 17: Aluminum (>16% SiSi))

Properties Alloyed to enhance strength. Good wear resistance. Increased hardness. Very abrasive. Group 17 includes aluminum-bronze, cupro-nickel,

and magnesium-bronze.

Machining 60 to 180% machinability rating. Non-free machining. Machine at slower cutting speeds.

Uses Engine blocks.

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Group 18: Difficult NonGroup 18: Difficult Non--FerrousFerrous

Properties Group 18 includes difficult to machine alloys of copper, babbit, and bronze.

Good strength. Good corrosion resistance. High ductility and toughness. Very abrasive.

Machining 60 to 180% machinability rating. Watch for BUE. Tends to tear.

Uses Bushings, bearings, valve seats.

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Group 19: Super Hard AlloysGroup 19: Super Hard Alloys

Properties Group 19 includes tungsten carbide. Very high hardness. Very high strength. Abrasive

Machining 5 to 15% machinability rating. Machine at very slow cutting speeds.

Uses Dies, punches, and wear parts.

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SuperalloysSuperalloys/High Temperature Alloys/High Temperature Alloys

Groups 20 through 21. Good corrosion resistance. High strength. Maintain properties at

elevated temperatures.

Very difficult to machine.

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Nickel, iron and cobalt alloys, the most important propertiesbeing: Exceptional strength. Corrosion resistance at high temperatures.


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.Superalloys

Inconel 600WaspoloyRen N4

MAR-M-247Inconel 718Inconel 706Hastelloy X

Nickel based

Nickel-iron based MAR-M 509X40

Haynes 188FSX-414

Cobalt based

A-286Discaloy

Haynes 556

Iron based


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Titanium AlloysTitanium Alloys

Titanium

Alpha alloy Alpha-Beta alloy Beta alloy

HCP BCCMix

High strength/weight ratio. High strength/creep resistance up to 500C. Excellent corrosion resistance.

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Machinability of superalloys

More heat generation upon machining (structure) and low thermal conductivity. This means higher cutting temperatures.

Increasing strength at higher temperatures (basic property) (cutting temperature). This means higher cutting forces.

Difficult chip control (greater toughness). Carbide precipitates (due to heat treatment). Work-hardening (hard layer).

Machinability of titanium alloys

Low thermal conductivity. This means higher cutting temperatures. Small Youngs modulus (workpiece deformation, tolerances, vibrations). Chemically very reactive (oxidation) (ignition and combustion during machining).

SuperalloysSuperalloys and Titanium Alloysand Titanium Alloys

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General recommendations

Machine in softest possible state. Positive rakes. Sharp cutting edges. Strong basic geometry (nose radius). Stable working conditions. Avoid workpiece deformation. Use small entering angles. Single-pass cutting or varying cutting depth.

SuperalloysSuperalloys and Titanium Alloysand Titanium Alloys

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Group 20: Group 20: SuperalloysSuperalloys

Properties Hardness < 35RC. Group 20 includes nickel, cobalt, and iron alloys. Very high hardness. Very abrasive.

Machining 9 to 45% machinability rating. Machine at very slow cutting speeds. Work hardens rapidly. Notching at DOC line. High cutting forces and temperatures. Watch for BUE.

Uses Prosthetics, heat exchangers, aviation, maritime, plumbing.

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Group 21: Group 21: SuperalloysSuperalloys

Properties Hardness > 35RC. Group 21 includes nickel, cobalt, iron alloys,

Inconel600, HastelloyX, Monel400. Extremely high hardness. Very abrasive. Similar issues as Group 20 but to a greater degree.

Machining 9 to 15% machinability rating. Machine at extremely slow cutting speeds. Work hardens rapidly. Notching at DOC line. High cutting forces and temperatures. Watch for BUE.

Uses Jet engines.

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Properties Group 22 includes titanium, niobium, tantalum, molybdenum, and tungsten.

High temperature resistance. Poor oxidation resistance in air. High thermal conductivity. Flex readily. Sometimes flammable. May react with tool materials. Low coefficient of thermal expansion.

Machining 5 to 30% machinability rating. Machine at very low cutting speeds. Watch for BUE.

Uses Aircraft frames, nuclear plants.

Group 22: Refractory MetalsGroup 22: Refractory Metals

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82/82COPYRIGHT 2008, Seco Tools AB Questions?Questions?

Workpiece materialsSlide Number 2Slide Number 3Slide Number 4Slide Number 5Slide Number 6Slide Number 7Slide Number 8Slide Number 9Slide Number 10Slide Number 11Slide Number 12Slide Number 13Slide Number 14Slide Number 15Slide Number 16Slide Number 17Slide Number 18Slide Number 19Slide Number 20Slide Number 21Slide Number 22Workpiece materials applications cutting materialsSlide Number 24Slide Number 25Mild and Alloy SteelsGroup 1: Mild and Alloy SteelsGroup 3: Ordinary Carbon SteelsGroup 6: Tool SteelsStainless SteelsStainless SteelsSlide Number 32Slide Number 33Slide Number 34Stainless SteelsSlide Number 36Slide Number 37Slide Number 38Slide Number 39Slide Number 40Slide Number 41Slide Number 42Slide Number 43Slide Number 44Slide Number 45Slide Number 46Slide Number 47Slide Number 48Slide Number 50Slide Number 51Slide Number 52Slide Number 53Slide Number 54Slide Number 55Slide Number 56Slide Number 57Group 8: Stainless SteelsGroup 9: Stainless SteelsGroup 10 and 11: Stainless SteelsCast IronsGroup 12: Cast IronsGroups 13 & 14: Cast IronsGroup 15: Cast IronsNon-Ferrous AlloysAluminiumAluminiumAluminiumGroup 16: Aluminum (16% Si)Group 18: Difficult Non-FerrousGroup 19: Super Hard AlloysSuperalloys/High Temperature AlloysSuperalloys/High Temperature AlloysSuperalloys/High Temperature AlloysTitanium AlloysSuperalloys and Titanium AlloysSuperalloys and Titanium AlloysGroup 20: SuperalloysGroup 21: SuperalloysGroup 22: Refractory MetalsQuestions?

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STEP 1 Workpiece Materials Web