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Works Cited   Primary Sources  Allen, L. C. "The Negro Health Problem." American Journal of Public Health 5.3 (1915):

194-203. Print.  

Allen talks about the problem of the African-American "diseases" in the community and states that the main reason for these diseases is a lack of knowledge. He further states that the reason for the high African-American prevalence of syphilis is "ignorance and contagion." We used this in our "Progressive Movement" tab.  

The American Social Hygiene Association. Social Hygiene. Vol. 2. New York: American Social Hygiene Association, 1916. Print.

 This book deals with the Progressive Movement's ideologies and speaks to the reader regarding the views of people attempting to enhance the living conditions of 19th and 20th century America. It specifically mentions the higher prevalence of syphilis in the African American community.

Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 140 (1925). Print.

Robert R. Moton wrote this article in 1925 detailing the need for a National Negro Health Week to help African-Americans become healthier and less impoverished. His Negro Health Week was one of many movements to make the African-American population healthier and less susceptible to diseases. This can be found in the "Progressive Movement" section of our website.  

Autopsies. 1940. Tuskegee Syphilis Study Administrative Records, compiled 1929 - 1972. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health Services and Mental Health Administration. Center for Disease Control. Venereal Disease Branch (1970 - 1973), Atlanta. 650718. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.archives.gov/description/650718>.

 The National Archives provided this primary document, which discusses the medical procedure regarding postmortem examination of Tuskegee Syphilis Study patients. This source details how doctors recorded the autopsy information in order to obtain results for the study.  

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Belmont Report. Bethesda: The Commission, 1978. National Archives. Web. 19 Nov.

2013. <http://archive.org/search.php?query=mediatype%3Atexts%20AND%20 collection%3Anihlibrary%20AND%20subject%3A%22Human%20Experimentation%22>.  This is a scanned copy of the original Belmont Report provided by the National Archives. We used this in our “Informed Consent” tab in the form of a PDF supplement.  

The Belmont Report: Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research. N.p.: n.p., 1979. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. <http://www.fda.gov/ohrms/dockets/ac/05/briefing/2005-4178b_09_02_Belmont%20Report.pdf>.

 The Belmont Report was written by the National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, at the urging of the National Research Act of 1974, in order to outline moral human subject research procedure. It discusses the basic guidelines for biomedical studies. This source is referred to in the “Informed Consent” tab.  

Bettman, and Corbis. Penicillin is demonstrated to be an effective treatment for syphilis and gonorrhea. Nature. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.nature.com/news/human-experiments-first-do-harm-1.9980>. This photograph depicts a pharmacist posting on his store window an advertisement for penicillin, which became a viable treatment for syphilis in the 1940s. We utilized this picture in the "Penicillin" section of our "New Directions" page.  

Blood Test by Mr. William Bouie and Unidentified Woman. 1932. National Archives. Atlanta. The Minority Health & Health Equity Archive. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://health-equity.pitt.edu/346/>.

 Though this image is located in the Minority Health & Health Equity Archive at the University of Pittsburgh, the original location of the photograph is the National Archives at Atlanta, Georgia. The picture depicts an African-American woman receiving a blood test during the early stages of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. It can be seen in the “The Study is Born” tab.  

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Brown, Roscoe C. "The National Negro Health Week Movement." The Journal of Negro

Education 6.3 (1937): 553-64. Print.  

Brown, a health education specialist in the U.S. Public Health Service, wrote this article to discuss the National Negro Health Week Movement. We used a quote from the source by Dr. Robert Moton, President of the Tuskegee Institute from 1915, who led the movement and brought it to success.  

Butler, Broadus, et al. Final Report of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ad Hoc Advisory Panel. Washington: US Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, 1973. Print.  This is the final report from the Ad Hoc Advisory Panel. We specifically used part 1-B of the document, which challenges the ethics of the study, especially once penicillin became a viable cure for syphilis. The report mentions the different syphilis treatments used in the study and ultimately concludes that the experiment should have been terminated after penicillin became more available. This source is implemented in the “Terminations” section.

Byers, J. Wellington. "Diseases of the Southern Negro." Medical and Surgical Reporter

(1888): 734. Print. In his article, Byers, a physician, argues that African-Americans are anatomically inferior than Caucasians. His beliefs run parallel to those of Social Darwinism at the time. The article was also published in a medical journal. We referred to this document in “Racial Inequality.”  

Certificate for Participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. 1958. Tuskegee Syphilis Study Administrative Records, compiled 1929 - 1972. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health Services and Mental Health Administration. Center for Disease Control. Venereal Disease Branch (1970 - 1973), Atlanta. 649413. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.archives.gov/description/649413>.

 Upon the Tuskegee study's twenty-fifth anniversary, the Public Health Service issued twenty-five dollar certificates to participants of the study. This was done to ensure that study subjects, largely consisting of poor Southern sharecroppers, would feel financially bound to the study. A photograph of the certificate can be viewed in our “New Directions” page.  

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"Chicago Will Control Syphilis You May Have Your Blood Test Free and Confidentially at one of the Following Stations : Chicago Board of Health, Herman N. Bundesen, Pres." Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3b49555/>.

 This is a poster created by the Chicago Board of Health to advertise and warn the public of the dangers of syphilis. It shows that syphilis was of major importance to both the government as well as the general population at the time. This image is found in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" tab of our website.  

Clark, Taliaferro. Letter to J. N. Baker. 29 Aug. 1932. TS. National Archives. Macon County. Record Group 90, Box 239, Box 1.

 Taliaferro Clark in this letter states that the potential study provides an "unparalleled opportunity" if conducted in Macon County. Clark encourages Baker to follow him in his pursuit to have the study allowed by the Public Health Service, marking the start of the experiment. The document also provides one with useful documentation regarding when the study was thought of and discussed among the doctors of the time. We used this source in “The Study Begins” tab.  

Clinton, William J. "Remarks by the President in Apology for Study Done in Tuskegee." Office of Press Secretary. The East Room. 16 May 1996. Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. By Susan Reverby. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 2000. 574-77. Print.

 Clinton made this speech at a ceremony in the White House honoring victims of the study. The transcript came from a comprehensive reference book compiling primary sources that related to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, Tuskegee Truths. This document is located in the “Clinton Apology” section.  

Colored People, Bad Blood, Free Blood Test, Free Treatment. ca. 1930s. Photograph. Images from History of Medicine. National Lib. of Medicine.

 The National Library of Medicine provides this photograph, which depicts an African-American woman holding a flyer advertising free treatment for "bad blood." Patients in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study were told they had "bad blood," not syphilis. The photograph can be found in “The Study is Born.”

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Communicable Disease Center. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. N.p., 1970. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.cdc.gov/about/history/timeline.htm>. The CDC website uses this image of the Communicable Disease Center in a timeline of its history and contributions to health and medicine. The website page discusses notable events in its past from 1946 to 2013. This image of the CDC was taken a year after they held an ethics panel to review the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. We implemented this source in the “Termination” page.  

Cumming, H. S. Letter to R. R. Moton. 20 Sept. 1932. TS. Tuskegee University Archives. Tuskegee Univ., Tuskegee. Box 180, Folio 1516.  This letter from United States Public Health Service (USPHS) Surgeon General Cumming to Dr. Moton, president of the Tuskegee Institute during the time of the syphilis study, gives a government approval of the study. We used a quote from this document to convey the desire for doctors to conduct syphilis research in Macon County. This source is referred to on the “The Study is Born” page.

“D.W. Griffith’s Immortal Masterpiece ‘The Birth of a Nation’ First Time in Sound!” December 1936. Poster. Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress (038.00.00) This image shows an advertisement for the 1930s movie "The Birth of a Nation," known for its glorification of the Ku Klux Klan and discriminatory implications. It is proof of the racial prejudice that prevailed the first half of the 1900s. We implemented this source in our “Racial Inequality” section.  

Dibble, Eugene H., Jr. Letter to R. R. Moton. 17 Sept. 1932. TS. Tuskegee University Archives. Tuskegee Univ., Tuskegee. Box 180, Folio 1516.

 This is one of many correspondences between the doctors of the time when deliberating on how the study should be conducted. In this letter, Dibble outlines the detailed steps required in assembling and examining the human subjects for the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. It can be found on the “The Study is Born” page.  

Dickson, Harris. "Is the Black Race Doomed?" Bismarck Daily Tribune [Bismarck] 3 Jan. 1911: 6. Library of Congress. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042242/1911-01-03/ed-1/seq-6/>.

 The Bismarck Daily Tribune printed this article in 1911, describing the Caucasian sentiment that the African-American population was doomed to suffer through the ages, due to a lack of poor sanitary conditions as well as a "predisposition" toward poor hygiene. The article was used in our website to illustrate the widespread notion that venereal diseases were more prevalent in African Americans. This can be found in the "Racial Inequalities" tab of our website.

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"Draft Report, 10/08/1949." 8 Oct. 1949. MS.  

This is one of many study publications reported by the Tuskegee Syphilis Study doctors without the consent or knowledge of the patients themselves. This provided a useful way for us to see how the main purpose of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study was for the good of scientific research. We used this source on our “Study Publications” page.  

Dr. Eugene Dibble. N.d. Photograph. Tuskegee University Archives. Tuskegee University Lib., Tuskegee.

 Dr. Eugene H. Dibble was the chief of Tuskegee Institute's John A. Andrew Hospital. He forged the collaboration between the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and his hospital as the study was being established. This image is a black-and-white portrait of Dibble.  

"Dr. John R. Heller." Faces of Tuskegee. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <https://www.msu.edu/course/hm/546/tuskegee.htm#Dr. John R. Heller>.

 Dr. Heller, director of the PHS Venereal Disease Division in 1943, continued to deny treatment to study patients after penicillin became widely used as an efficacious medicine for syphilis. The website that provides this portrait of Heller contains summaries of the key figures involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The images, however, originate from the Tuskegee University Archives.  

"Dr. Robert Russa Moton." Tuskegee University. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/legacy_of_leadership/robert_r_moton.aspx>.

 Dr. Moton succeeded Booker T. Washington's position as president of the Tuskegee Institute and was involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study during its establishment. This website includes a portrait of Dr. Moton from the early 1900s. We used this source in our “Progressive Movement” section.  

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DuVal, Merlin K. "Memorandum Terminating the Tuskegee Syphilis Study." Memo to Center for Disease Control. 16 Nov. 1972. Tuskegee Syphilis Study Administrative Records, compiled 1929 - 1972. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health Services and Mental Health Administration. Center for Disease Control. Venereal Disease Branch (1970 - 1973), Atlanta. 650716. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.archives.gov/description/650716>.

 In this memorandum from the Assistant Secretary of Health, DuVal, with the urging of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ad Hoc Advisory Panel, orders the Center for Disease Control to terminate the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. DuVal states that surviving participants of the study must be given treatment for syphilis. This source can be found in our “Termination” page.  

English, W. T. "The Negro Problem from the Physician's Point of View." Atlanta Journal - Record of Medicine 5th ser. (1903): 461. Print.

 English claims that African-Americans have "imperfections" throughout their physical body in this medical journal article. It defends the racist belief during the early 1900s that Caucasians are anatomically superior to African-Americans. This source is used in the “Racial Inequality” section.  

"Face the Facts and Help to Control Syphilis Reported Cases 100,000 under 19 Yrs. of

Age ... 13,000 between 11 and 15." Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3f05306/>.

 This is a poster created by the Works Progress Administration to advertise and warn the public of the dangers of syphilis, illustrating the significance of syphilis as a dangerous venereal disease to both the government and general population. The image is found in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" tab of our website.  

Gray, Fred. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Montgomery: Black Belt, 1998. Print.  

Fred D. Gray not only cites a variety of primary sources on what happened before Pollard v. U.SA., but also gives his insider account of what he thought happened within the study itself. Most of the content of the book revolves around Pollard v. U.S., as Gray's role in the study revolved primarily in preparing the case. We used this source in our “Pollard v U.S.” section.  

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Hazen, H. H. "Syphilis in the American Negro." Journal of the American Medical Association 63.6 (1914): 463-66. Print.

 This journal exemplifies the racial sentiment of many doctors in the time period. In the document, doctors persuade that African-Americans have many kinds of ailments and illnesses that put them "below" the white man in the social order. We implemented this source in the “Racial Inequality” tab.  

Heller, J. R., et al. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: A Comparative Study of Treated and Untreated Cases." Journal of the American Medical Association 107.11 (1936): 856-60. Print.

 This is one of many study publications published by the doctors of the study without the consent or knowledge of the patients themselves. This provided a useful way to allow us to explore a scientific approach to the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. We refer to this source in the section “Study Publications.”  

Heller, Jean. Personal interview. 26 Dec. 2013.  

Jean Heller, the woman who broke the story to the Associated Press in 1973, gave us the opportunity to have an interview with her on December 26, 2013. She talked about how she broke the study, what she thought the rights and responsibilities of the patients and government were. It was very insightful to us to hear firsthand on the study itself. Portions of her interview are quoted throughout various parts of our website.  

Hugh Smith Cumming (1869-1948). N.d. Science Service, Records, 1920s-1970s. Smithsonian Instit., Washington, D. C. SIA Acc. 90-105. Smithsonian Institution Archives. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_296591>. Cumming headed the United States Public Health Service during the Tuskegee Syphilis Study's inception. It This black-and-white portrait is provided by the Smithsonian Institution Archives.  

"Inside the National Archives: Southeast Region." National Archives. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2013. <http://www.archives.gov/atlanta/exhibit/6.php>.

 This collection of images includes sixteen photographs taken by the Public Health Service during the Tuskegee Study. We used several pictures from the collection throughout our website.  

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Jones, Peter P. Booker T. Washington. 1910. Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. Lib. of Cong., Washington, D. C. Ds.04383. Library of Congress. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2013649123/>.

 A leader in the Progressive movement, Booker T. Washington pioneered the efforts to improve medical programs in African-American communities. This photograph is a portrait of Washington. It can be found in the “Progressive Movement” tab.  

Julius Rosenwald. ca. 1920s. Sears Archives. Sears Archives. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.searsarchives.com/people/questions/detail/rosenwald_julius.htm>.

 Provided by Sears Archives, this image is a portrait of Julius Rosenwald. During the Progressive Movement, the Julius Rosenwald Fund granted monetary support for surveys on the prevalence of syphilis in six counties, including Macon County. We used this photograph in the “Progressive Movement” section.  

"Julius Rosenwald and Booker T. Washington." Philanthropy Roundtable. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.philanthropyroundtable.org/almanac/great_men_and_women/hall_ of_fame/julius_rosenwald>.  In this photograph, Julius Rosenwald and Booker T. Washington, both significant reformers of the Progressive Movement, walk side by side. The website that provides this image is a philanthropic society devoted to education and the encouragement of charitable reform. Washington's advocacy of medical programs in the African-American community and the Rosenwald fund both instituted social reforms in the United States. We implement this source in the “Progressive Movement” section.  

"Map of Rosenwald Schools throughout the South." Philanthropy Roundtable. N.p., n.d.

Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.philanthropyroundtable.org/almanac/great_men_and_women/hall_of_fame/julius_rosenwald>.

 The Julius Rosenwald Fund built schools throughout the United States and donated large sums of money toward improving education during the early 1900s. This map shows the areas in which the Rosenwald Fund created schools. It can be located in the “Progressive Movement” section.  

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Matas, Rudolph. "The Surgical Peculiarities of the American Negro." American Surgical Association 4 (1896): 1-123. Print.  This journal, reprinted from the American Surgical Association, examines the "differences" in the African-American male and gives a white doctor's perspective of the medical racial divide between blacks and whites. The source is one of many we used to examine the perspectives of doctors at the time. It gave us valuable insight into the biased opinions of medical professionals at the time. This source is referred to in our “Racial Inequality” page.

McGuire, Hunter, and G. Frank Lydston. Sexual Crimes among the Southern Negroes.

Louisville: Renz & Henry, 1893. Print.  

"Sexual Crimes among the Southern Negroes" is in the style of an open correspondence between two doctors. The two physicians discuss the many "ailments" the African-American had and lament the "destitution" of the Negro race. This proved extremely useful to us, as we developed a good understanding of the racist sentiments of white doctors and their feelings towards the black man in terms of syphilis. We used this source in our "Racial Inequality" page.  

McHatton, Henry. "The Sexual Status of the Negro, Past and Present." N.d. MS. Daniel Murray Pamphlet Collection. Lib. of Congr., Washington, D. C.

 The Library of Congress provides this pamphlet, which was published in the 1900s. In it, Henry McHatton discusses his belief that the African-American population is ignorant to medicine and disease, and this makes it difficult to treat them effectively. We implemented this source in the “Racial Inequality” section.

Moore, Joseph Earle. Letter to Taliaferro Clark. 28 Sept. 1932. TS. National Archives

Washington National Records Center.  

This is a letter written in 1932 from Moore to Clark, both of whom were prominent doctors involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Moore details the need for a study such as Tuskegee, providing the reader with insight of the views of doctors at the time. The quote we used in our website was "syphilis in the negro is in many respects almost a different disease from syphilis in the white". It is used in the “The Study is Born” page.  

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- - -. Letter to Taliaferro Clark. 28 Sept. 1932. TS. Record Group 90 (1918-1936). National Archives, Atlanta. Box 239, Folder 1.

 Moore sent this letter to Clark discussing the physical examination procedure to select patients for the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. At the time of the letter's address, Moore was a doctor at the Venereal Disease Clinic in John Hopkins University Medical School, while Clark was the Assistant Surgeon General of the USPHS. We implement this document in the “The Study is Born” section.  

National Research Act. Pub. L. 93-348. 88 Stat. 12 July 1974. Print.

This is a copy of the National Research Act, which set standards for new biomedical and ethical procedures in medicine in the United States. We used this to gain a better understanding of the impact of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. A copy of this was put in Scribd and attached to our document in embed code to help readers learn more about the act and see its original writing. It can be found in the “Kennedy Hearings” page.  

"Negro Skull, Caucasian Skull." ERBzine. Bill Hillman, n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.erbzine.com/mag29/2989.html>.

 This is a picture showing the differences scientists found in the general anatomies of Caucasians and African Americans. By portraying African Americans as more apelike than Caucasians, people justified these as reasons for racial inferiority in the United States. This image can be found in the "Racial Inequality" tab of our website.

O.C. Wenger to Raymond Vonderlehr, July 21,1933,. NA.  "The Oslo Study." Faces of

Tuskegee. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <https://www.msu.edu/course/hm/546/tuskegee.htm>.

 A sample of the Oslo study is shown in this image. The Oslo Study of Untreated Syphilis recorded the disease's development in Caucasians. The website that provides this image contains artifacts and short summaries of people and ideas involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. This can be found in the “Syphilis and the Need for Treatment” section.  

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Photograph of Participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. N.d. Tuskegee Syphilis Study Administrative Records, compiled 1929 - 1972. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health Services and Mental Health Administration. Center for Disease Control. Venereal Disease Branch (1970 - 1973), Atlanta. 956124. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.archives.gov/description/956124>.

 The National Archives provide this photograph from the later end of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The image depicts study participants, all of whom were poor sharecroppers, picking cotton on plantations in Macon County. We used this picture in the “Macon County” tab.

Photograph of Participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. N.d. Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Administrative Records, compiled 1929 - 1972. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health Services and Mental Health Administration. Center for Disease Control. Venereal Disease Branch (1970 - 1973), Atlanta. 824600. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.archives.gov/description/824600>.

 This photograph shows six African-American men, all inhabitants of the town Davisville, who participated in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. We utilized this image in the "New Directions" page.  

Photograph of Participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. N.d. Tuskegee Syphilis Study Administrative Records, compiled 1929 - 1972. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health Services and Mental Health Administration. Center for Disease Control. Venereal Disease Branch (1970 - 1973), Atlanta. 824601. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.archives.gov/description/824601>.

 Nurse Rivers, along with two other USPHS physicians, help a study patient into a car in this photograph. During the experiment, study patients were given free transportation to the nearby John A. Andrew Memorial Hospital for physical examinations and supplies of treatment, though ineffective. This image is located in the “New Directions” page.  

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Photograph of Participants in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. N.d. Tuskegee Syphilis Study Administrative Records, compiled 1929 - 1972. Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. Public Health Service. Health Services and Mental Health Administration. Center for Disease Control. Venereal Disease Branch (1970 - 1973), Atlanta. The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.archives.gov/description/956091>.

 The National Archives includes this photograph in its archives. It depicts a USPHS doctor injecting a needle into a study participant in order to obtain a blood sample. Participants were unaware that they were not being effectively treated for syphilis. We utilize this image in the “New Directions” section.  

A picture of Peter Buxtun testifying before Congress during the Kennedy hearings, 1973. University of California, Irvine Department of History. U of California Irvine, n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://faculty.humanities.uci.edu/bjbecker/PlaguesandPeople/lecture10.html>.

 Appearing before Congress, Peter Buxton, the whistleblower of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, discusses the experiment. This photograph was taken during his testimony and can be found in the "Kennedy Hearings" tab of our website.

The President-Elect. Dr. Vernal G. Cave. Nov. 1973. Photograph. American Medical

Assn.  

This is a picture of Vernal G. Cave, just as he was about to be named the President of the American Medical Association, and directly after he testified in the Kennedy Hearings. This can be found in the "Kennedy Hearings" tab of our website.  

"The Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues continues the nearly forty-year history of groups established by the president or Congress to provide expert advice on topics related to bioethics." Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethics Issues. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://bioethics.gov/history>.

 Shown in this photograph is the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues. Groups like these provide a lasting legacy of the bioethics reforms instituted after the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The photo is placed in the "Informed Consent" tab of our website.  

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Protection of Human Subjects. 45 C.F.R. 2009. U.S. Department of Health & Human Services. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. <http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/humansubjects/guidance/45cfr46.html#46.101>.  This U.S. regulation enforces the protection of human subjects in biomedical research. It also discusses the functions of institutional review boards. We quoted this source in our “Institutional Review Boards” section.  

Protection of Human Subjects. 45 C.F.R. Sec. 101-124. 2009. Print.  

We used this source to identify one of the most significant consequences of the Tuskegee experiments - the creation of institutional review boards. This document is an official title from the Code of Federal Regulations, detailing how IRBs are made and gives an official governmental definition of informed consent. To aid readers and to better explain the concept of informed consent, we used HTML code to convert the document into a PDF version on our website. It is located in the “Institutional Review Boards” tab.  

"Report on Charge I." Tuskegee Report. Comp. Ronald H. Brown and Vernal Cave, Dr. Proc. of Tuskegee Syphilis Study Ad Hoc Advisory Panel, 24 Apr. 1973. N.p.: n.p., n.d. LSU Law Center Program. Web. 3 Oct. 2013. <http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/reports/tuskegee/report1.pdf>. This report, written a year after the Tuskegee study ended, provides a thorough examination on the unethical conduct in the experiment. It also includes a brief history on syphilis during the early 1930s. We used this in the “Termination” section.  

Rivers, Eunice, et al. "Twenty Years of Followup Experience in a Long-Range Medical Study." Public Health Reports 68.4 (1953): 391-95. Print.

 This is the first of many study publications published by the Tuskegee Study without the knowledge of the participants. We included this in a Scribd format that can be found on the “Study Publications” page.

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Ross, Sonya. "Victims of Test Get Apology." Tuscaloosa News [Tuscaloosa] 17 May 1997: n. pag. Google News Archive. Web. 24 Feb. 2014. <http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1817&dat=19970517&id=WDsdAAAAIBAJ&sjid=BaYEAAAAIBAJ&pg=3855,2866060>.

 This is an article written by Sonya Ross of the Associated Press describing President Clinton's apology to the survivors of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. It mainly discusses the content of Clinton’s apology and gives a brief overview of the events that happened in the White House that day. It can be found in the "Clinton's Apology" section of our website.  

Senator Edward Kennedy. Boston.com. Boston.com, n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2009/02/17/chapter_3_chappaquiddick/>.

 Senator Edward Kennedy was the chair of the hearings investigating the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. This photograph shows Kennedy during the same general time that the hearings took place. This picture is used in the "Kennedy Hearings” tab of our website.

Sen. Edward M. Kennedy, D-Mass., presents the Robert F. Kennedy Journalism Award

for the best newspaper coverage to Jean Heller, of the Associated Press Special Assignment Team, Thursday in Washington. Miss Heller won the honor for her series on the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. N.d. Photograph. Cleveland Plain Dealer Archives. The Plain Dealer Lib., Cleveland.

 The Cleveland Plain Dealer Archives provided this photograph of Jean Heller receiving a journalism award from Senator Edward Kennedy for her work on exposing the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. This image can be found on our "Termination" page.  

Shafer, J. K., Lida J. Usilton, and Geraldine A. Gleeson. "Untreated Syphilis in the Male Negro: A Prospective Study of the Effect on Life Expectancy." Public Health Reports 69.7 (1954): 684-90. Print.

 This is one of many study publications published by the doctors of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study without the consent or knowledge of the patients themselves. This provided a useful way for us to see the study from the perspective of the Tuskegee scientists. The report can be found on the “Study Publications” page.

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"Study Publications." Faces of Tuskegee. Ed. H. Brody. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Nov. 2013. <https://www.msu.edu/course/hm/546/tuskegee.htm>.

 This website includes numerous portraits of significant figures involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. We utilized several images from this collection of photographs. Pictures from this source can be found in various parts of the website.  

Swift Specific Company. "Bad Blood Tells." Paducah Sun [Paducah] 9 Apr. 1902: n. pag. Library of Congress. Web. 21 Feb. 2014. <http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85052117/1902-04-09/ed-1/seq-7/#date1=1836&index=0&rows=20&words=bad+blood+symptoms&searchType=basic&sequence=0&state=&date2=1922&proxtext=bad+blood+symptoms&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=1>.

 This article provides a useful tool of reference regarding the public opinion on "bad blood," describing its multiple diverse symptoms. The document shows that the term "bad blood" was used to describe a variety of ailments, from the common cold to syphilis. The doctors of the Tuskegee experiment told patients that they were being treated for “bad blood,” not syphilis, giving them the sense that their illness was not severe. This source is used in the “Macon County” section.  

"Syphilis False Shame and Fear May Destroy Your Future : Have Your Blood Tested." Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3b48848/>.  This is a poster created by the Works Progress Administration to advertise the public of the dangers of syphilis. It shows the significance of the issue of syphilis to the government and general public during the 1900s. The image is found in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" tab of our website.

The Syphilis Men. 1 Mar. 1932. Washington, D. C. 101412184. Images from the History

of Medicine (IHM). Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/luna/servlet/detail/NLMNLM~1~1~101412184~171691:-Taliaferro-Clark-?qvq=w4s:/what/Portraits;lc:NLMNLM~1~1&mi=23600& trs=25653>. Dr. Taliaferro Clark headed the USPHS Venereal Disease Division in the 1930s and is credited with founding the Tuskegee Syphilis Study in 1932. He originally intended for the study to go on for six months, but once he retired, his successor, Dr. Raymond Vonderlehr extended the study. This image is a black-and-white portrait of Dr. Clark that can be found in the “The Study is Born” page.  

 

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"Tuskegee Ad Hoc Committee Meeting - Minutes, February 6, 1969." Tuskegee Ad Hoc Committee Meeting. Ed. Tuskegee Files - Center for Disease Control. Atlanta: TF-CDC, 19669. N. pag. Print.

 This provides a detailed account of the meeting between CDC members in 1965, when the Tuskegee Study was gaining notoriety in the scientific community. Doctors at this meeting made the decision to continue the study regardless of the ethical or moral implications involved. This document is referred to in the “Termination” section.  

Tuskegee Study Photographs. N.d. Records of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National Archives, Atlanta. Inside the National Archives: Southeast Region. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.archives.gov/atlanta/exhibit/6.php>.

 The National Archives at Atlanta provides this photograph taken during the Tuskegee study. It depicts USPHS physicians taking blood tests of prospective patients at local church meetings in the Macon County area. It is located on the “New Directions” page.

Tuskegee Syphilis Study Pictures. 1932. National Archives. Atlanta. The Minority Health

& Health Equity Archive. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://health-equity.pitt.edu/344/>.  

The Minority Health & Health Equity Archive at the University of Pittsburgh website provides this image, despite its origin from the National Archives at Atlanta. The photograph shows doctors collecting blood samples for the USPHS study. We utilize it in the “The Study is Born” section.  

Tuskegee University. Presidential Apology - USPHS Syphilis Study at Tuskegee. YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l1A-YP24QwA>.

 This is a video of the apology delivered by President Clinton to the survivors of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. We used a segment of this clip in our "Clinton's Apology" page.

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Uncured Syphilis May Strike Years Later. See Your Doctor - or Local Health Officer. ca. 1930s. Images from the History of Medicine (NLM). U.S. National Lib. of Medicine. 101446355. History of Medicine. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://ihm.nlm.nih.gov/images/A20812>.

 Viewers are warned of the deadly symptoms of syphilis in this poster. It depicts a silhouette of a man diseased with syphilis falling down. This image was used during the 1930s, when the need for syphilis treatment became urgent. It can be found in the “Syphilis and the Need for Treatment” section.

United States. Cong. House. Public Health Service. Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service of the United States for the Fiscal Year 1938. 76th Cong., 1st sess. Washington: GPO, 1938. Print.  In this document, the Surgeon General makes statements detailing the need for African American treatment for venereal diseases in rural areas. It mentions the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and shows that the federal government approved of the study, despite its bioethical violations. We incorporated this source into our own analysis of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, which is dispersed throughout the website.  

- - -. - - -. Senate. Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. Hearings on the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Testimony of Henry Simmons. Washington: GPO, 1973. 1187-207. Print.

 This testimony is reported by Henry Simmons, a doctor who appeared before Kennedy in the Hearings on Human Experimentation. He asserts that the Tuskegee Study was not necessary for the advancement of syphilitic treatment and research in the United States. We utilize this source on our “Kennedy Hearings” page.  

- - -. - - -. Senate. Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public

Welfare. Hearings on the Quality of Health Care, Human Experimentation, 1973 -Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Testimony of Peter Buxton. Washington: GPO, n.d. 1223-33. Print.

 This is the official statement of Peter Buxtun, who details his discovery of the study. Buxtun also mentions how he contacted the Associated Press journalist Jean Heller to expose the study. A segment of his testimony can be found in the “Kennedy Hearings” tab of our website.  

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- - -. - - -. Senate. Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. Hearings on the Quality of Health Care - Human Experimentation, 1973 - Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Testimony of Vernal G. Cave. Washington: GPO, 1973. 1233-40. Print.

 Vernal Cave testified to the subcommittee that the study did not contribute to a substantial degree to the field of medicine, stating that the Oslo Study had already given a concise summary of the effects of syphilis. We utilize a part of his testimony on the “Kennedy Hearings” page.

- - -. - - -. Senate. Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public

Welfare. Hearings on the Quality of Health Care - Human Experimentation, 1973. Testimony of Charles Pollard. Washington: GPO, 1973. 1036-40. Print.

 The statements of Charlie Pollard offer valuable insight into the patients’ perspective of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. He mentions that he and other participants of the study did not know that they had syphilis. A fragment of his testimony is quoted on the “New Directions” page.  

- - -. - - -. Senate. Subcommittee on Health of the Committee on Labor and Public Welfare. Hearings on the Quality of Health Care - Human Experimentation, 1973. Testimony of Lester Scott. Washington: GPO, 1973. 1040-42. Print.

 Like Charlie Pollard, the testimony of Lester Scott mentions his lack of knowledge of the study, further stating that he and other patients thought they were only being treated for "bad blood". We utilized his quote in our own analysis of the bioethical violations involved in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study.  

- - -. Public Health Service. Annual Report of the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service of the United States for the Fiscal Year 1932. 72nd Cong., 2nd sess. Washington: GPO, 1932. Print.

 This report discusses the need for syphilis and venereal disease treatment in Macon County, emphasizing the lack of treatment. It is incorporated in our general investigation of the study.  

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- - -. - - -. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury Transmitting a Report Prepared by the Surgeon General of the Public Health Service on the Extent and Circumstances of Cooperation by the Public Health Service with State and Local Authorities in the Conduct of Rural Health Work in the Drought-Stricken Areas under the Terms of the Appropriation for the Period February 6, 1931, to November 30, 1931. 72nd Cong., 1st sess. Washington: GPO, 1932. Print.

 The Secretary of the Treasury underlines the need for financial aid in Macon County and outlines the steps needed (financial aid for the county) in his letter. He also mentions that Macon County has a high prevalence of venereal diseases. We use this in our general analysis of the nationwide crusade for syphilis research.  

- - -. United States Census, 1930. Washington: GPO, n.d. Print.  

The United States Census from 1930 provides statistical data on the distribution of races in Macon County, Alabama during that time. The USPHS chose Macon County as the destination for their study partially due to the high percentage of African-Americans in the region. A scanned excerpt from the census is located in the “Macon County” page.

"University to Mark 100th Anniversary of John A. Andrew Hospital." Tuskegee

University. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.tuskegee.edu/Articles/university_to_mark_100th_anniversary_of_john_a_andrew_hospital.aspx>.

 Tuskegee University provides this image of the John A. Andrew Hospital in the 1900s. The John A. Andrew Hospital at the Tuskegee Institute aided in providing a facility for the Tuskegee Syphilis Study blood tests. This picture can be found in the “Macon County” section.  

Vedder, Edward B. "The Prevalence and Prevention of Syphilis." Social Hygiene 2 (1916): 375-81. Print.

In this article, Vedder stresses the dangers of syphilis, especially due to the fact

that it is extremely contagious. We utilize a quote from this document in the “New Directions” page.

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Wenger, Oliver C. "Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male." Bound Book II. Comp. Tuskegee University Archives. Proc. of Hot Springs Seminar, 18 Sept. 1950, Hot Springs. Tuskegee: Tuskegee Univ., 1950. N. pag. Print. Vol. 2 of HEW Doxument Reports.

 This document includes excerpts of a speech given by Oliver Wenger, director of the PHS Venereal Disease Clinic in Hot Springs, Arkansas. Many references are made to the patients of the study, as Wenger was involved in the early development of the study. A quote from this source is located on the “Progressive Movement” page.  

"We've Fought in the Open - Bubonic Plague, Yellow Fever, Tuberculosis--Now Venereal Diseases." Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3g04257/>.

 This is a poster created by the United States government in World War I to advertise the public of the dangers of syphilis, showing the disease’s importance to both the government and general population due to its deadly symptoms and easy transmission. The image is found in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" section of our website.

"When You Go Home - 'Carry On' the Army's Fight against Venereal Diseases." Library

of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/96502797/>.

 In this poster, the U.S. government uses an analogy to equate the fight in World War I to that of venereal diseases. The image is found in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" tab of our website.  

"Whom Have You Exposed to Syphilis Tell Your Physician : They Should Be Examined : They May Need Treatment." Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 21 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/98516759/>.

 This is a poster, created by the Works Progress Administration, advises the public to be aware of venereal diseases like syphilis. The image is found in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" tab of our website.  

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"The Work Projects Administration Is Cooperating in the National Campaign to Stamp out Syphilis! Please Let Us Have Your Help!" Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3f05407/>.

 In this poster, the government advocates for the elimination of venereal diseases and campaign against syphilis. The image is found in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" section of our website.  

"You Kept Fit and Defeated the Hun - Now Set a High Standard, a Clean America! Stamp out Venereal Diseases." Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/00652170/>.

 The government uses the recent World War I victory to motivate the public to join the national crusade against venereal diseases. Posters such as this played a role in instigating the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The image is located in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" tab.  

"Your Family Needs Protection against Syphilis Your Wife Or Husband and Children Should Be Examined and Treated If Necessary." Library of Congress. Lib. of Cong., n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/cph.3g04725/>.

 The Chicago Board of Health distributed this poster, warning citizens of the threat of syphilis. We utilize this image in a slideshow in the "Syphilis and the Need for Treatment" section of our website.  

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Secondary Sources  "About the USPHS Syphilis Study." Tuskegee University. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2013.

<http://www.tuskegee.edu/about_us/centers_of_excellence/bioethics_center/about_the_usphs_syphilis_study.aspx>.

 The following website provides a concise overview of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study from the enrollment of the participants in the study to the legacy committee formed in 1996. It provided with a general idea of the sequence of events in the study and we mainly used it to map out the contents of the “Forty-Year Experiment” tab.  

Allan M. Brandt. 1978. Racism and Research: The Case of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. The Hastings Center Report 8(6): 21-29.

 Allan Brandt, Professor of History in Medicine at Harvard University, gives a historical overview of the Tuskegee Study after the study was ended and provides some analytical information. This source was both useful to us when beginning studying and researching our topic as well as in providing some general information regarding the study itself which we used in our Forty Year Experiment tab.  

American Jewish University IRB Logo. Nevada Insitute of Veterans' Services. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.veterans.nv.gov/191.html>.

 This is a photo of the American Jewish University's IRB logo, one of many universities that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in a slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.  

Center for Disease Control. "Spinal Tap." Paul Rucker. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://paulrucker.com/activism/tuskegee_experiment>.

 Through pictures, statistics, and other multimedia materials, Paul Rucker discusses the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment in this website. The image that we used from this source shows the dangerous procedure of the spinal tap, which was used on Tuskegee patients in 1933. It can be under the “The Study is Born” page of our website.

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Fletcher, John C. "A Case Study in Historical Relativism: The Tuskegee (Public Health Service) Syphilis Study." Tuskegee's Truths. Comp. Susan M. Reverby. Chapel Hill: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 2000. 276-98. Print.

 John C. Fletcher, a former bioethics professor in the University of Virginia, asks questions regarding the ethical and moral implications of the study. In this excerpt, he ponders if the government had an ethical and moral right to do what they did to the patients, and finally assesses the ethical and moral implications of the study in today's world. Through this reading we created our own analysis about the relation between responsibility of the government and the rights of the patients.  

Fybmaryland. The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment and Medical Ethics. YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9Rg75zEVB1g>.

 University of Maryland Associate Professor of Philosophy, Dr. Sam Kerstein, explains the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment and how it influenced medical ethics, specifically the treatment of patients. We used the video to better understand the impact the study held in modern day. It specifically helped us in situating the legacy of the experiment in the field of medical ethics and influenced our analysis found in the “Legacy” tab.

 Grady, Christine. Personal interview. 21 Feb. 2014.  

We conducted an interview with Christine Grady, a member of the Presidential Commission on Bioethics established by President Obama and an expert on bioethics. She graciously explained how the Tuskegee Experiment has established new reforms in the field of bioethics and talked more on how Internal Review Boards have impacted medical research in the United States. Portions of the interview can be found throughout the website, and a transcript can be found in the Supplements section of our website.

   "The Hastings Center." Hastings Center. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014.

<http://www.thehastingscenter.org/Media/LogosPhotos.aspx>.  

This is a photo of the Hastings Institute's IRB logo, one of many organizations that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.  

 

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Institutional Review Board of the New York State Psychiatric Institute. Institutional Review Board of the New York State Psychiatric Institute. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <https://irb.nyspi.org/IRBDNN/>.

 This is a photo of the State of New York's Psychiatric Institute IRB logo, one of many institutions that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.

Johnson, Theodore R. "Echoes of Tuskegee: The Socioeconomic Cycle of Heart

Disease." The Atlantic 28 Feb. 2013: n. pag. The Atlantic. Web. 19 Nov. 2013. <http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/02/echoes-of-tuskegee-the-socioeconomic-cycle-of-heart-disease/273431/>.

 This news article discusses Clinton's apology and the impacts of the Tuskegee study in the modern day. It also delves into some of the racist aspects of the study. It provided us an understanding of the importance of the study and led us to make the “Clinton’s Apology” tab.  

Jones, James. Bad Blood: The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment. 2nd ed. New York: Free, 1993. Print.

 Bad Blood by James H. Jones provides a good summary of the study from its birth to its termination, with special emphasis on the study itself. Much of the information we had regarding the progressive movement as well as Social Darwinism was included in this book, as well as much of the information we later used when discussing the precursor to the experiment. It was among the most influential sources we used and is utilized throughout the whole website.  

Jones, James H. The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment: A Tragedy of Race and Medicine. Medical Ethics and Human Subject Research in the Shadow of the Holocaust. University of Arkansas, Little Rock. 24 Apr. 2012. Youtube. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WUExxTIFaLE>.

 In this video, Dr. James H. Jones speaks about the Tuskegee Syphilis Study from its initiation to termination. His lecture focuses on the study’s origins, and the ethics involved in the study. Video and audio clips in from the lecture can be found throughout the site.    

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Kansas Department of Health and Environment IRB. Kansas Department of Health and Environment. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.kdheks.gov/health/irb.htm>.

 This is a photo of the Kanas Department of Health and Education's IRB logo, one of many governmental organizations that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.

 LaMorte, Wayne. "Institutional Review Boards and the Belmont Principles." Intervention

Studies: Clinical Trials. Boston University School of Public Health, n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://sph.bu.edu/otlt/MPH-Modules/EP/EP713_ResearchEthics/EP713_ResearchEthics3.html>.

 This source is incorporated from a research ethics course at Boston University. The specific webpage regarding the Tuskegee study discusses its consequences, including the Belmont Report and Health and Human Services Policy for Protection f Human Research Subjects. It gave us initial ideas for our “Legacy” tab.    

Lehrer, Jim. "An Apology 65 Years Late." 16 May 1997. PBS. MacNeil/Lehrer Productions, n.d. Web. 23 Dec. 2013. <http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/health/jan-june97/tuskegee_5-16.html>.

This is a radio special produced and broadcasted by the national public radio that

aims to explain the Tuskegee Syphilis Study to broad audiences, and was written in the wake of President Clinton’s apology. The source influenced the “Clinton’s Apology” tab of our website.

   Miss Evers' Boys Part 6. YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014.

<http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7KjbxqJtZI4>.  

This is a clip from the movie Miss Evers' Boys, a 1997 award-winning HBO documentary. Although parts of the movie are factually inaccurate, certain parts of the movie enhanced our understanding of how the patients interacted with the doctors. A particularly striking scene is found when the doctors perform spinal taps on the patients, and shows the pain that some of them experienced when they had the procedure performed on them without anesthesia. A clip of this can be found in the “The Study is Born” tab of our website.  

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"Ninety-four-year-old Herman Shaw embraces President Bill Clinton after receiving a public apology for being victimized in the Tuskegee Syphilis Study." Long Island Newsday. Long Island Newsday, n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.newsday.com/opinion/oped/maxwell-apologies-can-t-heal-all-wounds-1.3678321>.

 This is a picture of one of the survivors and attendees of the Tuskegee Study (Herman Shaw) embracing the President after he gave his address. This can be found in the "Clinton's Apology" tab of our website.    

Northwestern University Office of Undergraduate Research. Researching with Human Subjects (IRB). YouTube. YouTube, 25 Oct. 2013. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CBLKWPv7Wz4>.

 In this video, professor Karl Rosengren of Northwestern University, provides a concise and easy to understand overview and explanation of the IRB process. He also displays the effects new standards of research have had on research institutions today. A 45 second clip of this may be found in our website under the "Institutional Review Board" tab.

Office of Human Research Administration (OHRA). Office of Human Research Administration (OHRA). N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.hsph.harvard.edu/ohra/>.

 This is a photo of Harvard University's IRB logo, one of many universities that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.  

"Office of Research Integrity and Assurance - Cornell University." Office of Research Integrity and Assurance - Cornell Universit. Office of Research Integrity and Assurance - Cornell Universit, n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.irb.cornell.edu/training/citi/>.

 This is a photo of Cornell University's IRB logo, one of many universities that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.

   

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"Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues." University of Miami. U of Miami, n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.miami.edu/index.php/ethics/programs/international/presidential_commission/>.

 This site provided us with useful information regarding one of the commissions established by the government to investigate ethical issues in the medical community. It helped us achieve a better understanding of how the study has impacted the field of bioethics today.

"Princeton University Research Integrity and Assurance." Princeton University Research Integrity and Assurance. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.princeton.edu/ria/>.

 This is a photo of Princeton University's IRB logo, one of many universities that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.  

ReAfrakANizeMySoul. The Deadly Deception. YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmVTmhYa52A>.

 This video is a one-hour documentary on the Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments, and includes interviews and testimonials from the survivors themselves, who describe the trials and tribulations they had to go through during their tenure as patients. One of the most striking testimonials is from Charlie Pollard, who states that the doctors in the study only told them that they would be treated for "bad blood". The statement of Charlie Pollard and various other clips from the documentary can be found throughout the whole website, mostly in the “Forty-year Experiment” tab.    

Report on Tuskegee Syphilis Study, 1969 - 1969. Atlanta: National Archives, 1969. Print.  

This is one of many study publications published by the doctors of the study without the consent or knowledge of the patients themselves. This provided a useful way for us to look at how study publications were made by the study and let us see what exactly the doctors of the experiment were publishing. It provided us with an altering perspective from the typical view.    

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Reverby, Susan. Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and Its Legacy. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 2009. Print.

 Dr. Reverby first recalls the historical events in the study and then develops further into the lasting effects of the study in this book. It provided us with a good general overview of the whole study and its impact    

- - -, ed. Examining Tuskegee: The Infamous Syphilis Study and Its Legacy by Susan M. Reverby. N.p., 30 June 2008. Web. 6 Apr. 2014. <http://examiningtuskegee.com>.

 This website provided us with multiple photographs with citations, as well as an author's perspective into the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Susan Reverby is a historian who has dedicated her life to finding out more about the Tuskegee Study, and her book, Tuskegee Truths, proved to be immensely useful to us in our research. We also has the immense pleasure of interviewing her on April 6, 2014, in order to understand more about her research process when creating her book. Parts of this website and photographs taken from this website can be seen throughout our website.

- - -. Personal interview. 6 Apr. 2014.  

We had the great pleasure of conducting an interview with Susan Reverby, author of the book Tuskegee Truths, which was immensely useful to us when conducting our initial research. We primarily talked to her about her research process, what different viewpoints she found, what rights and responsibilities were involved in the study, and her experiences in Macon County. A copy of the audio transcript of this interview can be found in the "Interviews" page of the "Supplements" tab of our website.

 - - -. Tuskegee's Truths: Rethinking the Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Chapel Hill: U of North

Carolina P, 2000. Print.  

Susan Reverby has collected numerous essays written by historians, letters between doctors, news articles, and primary documents relating to the study in this book. It provides an unbiased approach to understanding the Tuskegee Syphilis Study, using statistics, quotes, and an equal balance of contrasting professional opinions. It has influenced every part of the site and was the source we found to be most useful.    

30

Rosenkrantz, Barbara. "Non Random Events." Yale Review 72 (1983): 284-96. Print.  

This article examines the legal and ethical implications of the study, and questions if the study was ethically obligated rather than observe untreated syphilis. Rosenkrantz also offers a detailed history of the study itself which we used to gain a better understanding of various events that occurred throughout the course of the study.  

Rucker, Paul. "Tuskegee Experiment." Paul Rucker. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013. <http://paulrucker.com/activism/tuskegee_experiment>.

 Though this website is a secondary source, it has an extensive bibliography and implements numerous primary sources, including audio clips, documents, and pictures from the Tuskegee experiment. The site also gives a short examination of many aspects of the study using historical and factual data. It was mainly used however to guide us to various other sources.

Samols, Dave. Personal interview. 11 Mar. 2014.

Dave Samols is a researcher at Case Western Reserve University and chairman of the CWRU Biosafety Committee. In his interview we gained insight into the "hoops" that researchers have to go through in order to comply with IRB standards and regulations today. His interview also provided us with a greater understanding of current medical practices in an easy to understand format.

 "Schoolhouse: Rosenwald Schools in the South." By NPR Staff. All Things Considered.

NPR. 11 Mar. 2012. National Public Radio. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.npr.org/2012/03/11/148066822/-schoolhouse-the-story-of-rosenwald-schools-in-the-segregated-south>.

 This is an audio recording by National Public Radio regarding Julius Rosenwald's involvement in African-American betterment, and his relationship with Booker T. Washington. We used this to gain a better understanding of Julius Rosenwald's involvement in the betterment of African-American health. It can be found in the “Progressive Movement” tab of our website    

"Seal of Touro University." Touro University California. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://research.tu.edu/irb/>.

 This is a photo of Touro University's IRB logo, one of many universities that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.  

31

Shuster, Evelyne. "Fifty Years Later: The Significance of the Nuremberg Code." New England Journal of Medicine 337 (1997): 1436-40. The New England Journal of Medicine. Web. 12 Apr. 2014. <http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/ 10.1056/NEJM199711133372006>. In this article, Shuster discusses the bioethics regulations established by the Nuremberg Code. Despite the fact that the code was not officially written into US law, it showed that the Tuskegee Syphilis Study was in violation of an international consensus regarding human subject research. We refer to this article in the "New Directions" section.

Sparks, Joel. "Timeline of Laws Related to the Protection of Human Subjects." National

Institute of Health: Office of History. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Oct. 2013. <http://history.nih.gov/about/timelines_laws_human.html#1974>.

 In this website, a detailed timeline of all legal milestones in regards to human experimentation is laid out. This source was published on the history section of the government website, National Institutes of Health. It gave us an idea of the impact Tuskegee had left on modern day bioethics, especially in dealing with human experimentation.

The Tuskegee Experiment. Yale University. New Haven. Apr. 2010. YouTube. YouTube, n.d. Web. 22 Feb. 2014. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3KL7lcWMkz0>.

 This video is a lecture to students at Yale University providing a general overview of the Tuskegee Experiment. We used this source in the beginning of our research to help gain a better understanding of the experiment and its repercussions in the modern world. Video clips from the lecture can be found throughout our website.

 "The Tuskegee Syphilis Study: The Real Story and beyond." Fred Gray. N.p., n.d. Web.

7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.fredgray.net/books.html>.  

This is a photograph of the book Fred Gray published on the Tuskegee Study. It is found on Fred Gray's official website, along with other pictures and summaries of books he wrote. The image can be found in the "Pollard v. US" tab of our website.

 

"The Tuskegee Timeline." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC, n.d. Web. 3 Oct. 2013. <http://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm>.

 This source was sponsored by the US Center for Disease Control and Prevention. It provides a short timeline of Tuskegee-related events from 1895 to 2009. We utilized it when first starting the project to provide a chronological layout for our website.

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 "University of Washington IRB." UW Medicine. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014.

<http://depts.washington.edu/anesth/research/irb/index.shtml>.  

This is a photo of the University of Washington's IRB logo, one of many universities that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.  

UPenn IRB. University of Pennsylvania. N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.upenn.edu/regulatoryaffairs/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3&Itemid=8>.

 This is a photo of the University of Pennsylvania's IRB logo, one of many universities that use the IRB when making research decisions. It can be found in the slideshow in the "Institutional Review Board" section of our website.  

Uschan, Michael. Forty Years of Medical Racism: The Tuskegee Experiments. New York: Thomson Gale, 2006. Print.

 This book, a relatively easy read provides a concise summary of the entire storyline of the experiment. The book was helpful in obtaining a general idea of the Study before delving into more complex historical analysis. Portions of the book were used when starting our research, and many captions of pictures we used were found in this book. We also used this book to develop a better understanding of the study as a whole.  

Yoon, Carol Kaesuk. E-mail interview. 29 Dec. 2013.  

We conducted this interview with Carol Yoon, a science writer for the New York Times, who graciously gave us insight into her dealings with the survivors of the experiment as well as her views as to the rights and responsibilities of the study itself. We thank her for her insight, which can be found throughout the website. A full transcript of the interview can be found in the "Interview" tab of the Supplements section of our website.    

Youngner, Stuart. E-mail interview. 7 Jan. 2014.  

Dr. Stuart J. Youngner, Chairman of the Department of Bioethics at Case Western Reserve University, gave us valuable insight as to the implications of Tuskegee in today's world. He detailed how the study has impacted the field of bioethics and has influenced how doctors handle their work in today's age. A transcript of this email interview can be found in the “Interview” tab of the Supplements section of our website.  

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Zinmeister, Karl. "Julius Rosenwald." Philanthropy Roundtable. Philanthropy

Roundtable, n.d. Web. 7 Jan. 2014. <http://www.philanthropyroundtable.org/almanac/great_men_and_women/hall_of_fame/julius_rosenwald>.

 The following is an article about Julius Rosenwald. We were fascinated to learn more about the philanthropist who is said to have been the catalyst the Tuskegee Study, and found this article about his life to be extremely helpful in our pursuit. We also used this site to find two pictures relating to Rosenwald that we subsequently used in our website; one of Rosenwald himself and another of the schools he built in his pursuit to make a better America. It was interesting to note that most of the schools he did make were in the Deep South. All of this information can be found under the “Progressive Movement” tab of our website.