SPORT PSYCHOLOGYSPORT PSYCHOLOGY

Exercise PsychologyExercise Psychology

ISSUES IN EXERCISE & SPORTISSUES IN EXERCISE & SPORT

Dangers of Exercise/SportDangers of Exercise/SportOvertraining leading Overtraining leading to burnoutto burnoutEspecially in young Especially in young playersplayersDistorted body imageDistorted body imageLeading to eating Leading to eating disordersdisordersDrug problemsDrug problems““Doping”Doping”

Björn Björn BorgBorg

Jennifer Jennifer CapriatiCapriati

Ben Ben JohnsonJohnson

Stages of BurnoutStages of Burnout1.1. OVERTRAINING is when athletes train OVERTRAINING is when athletes train

beyond the point that brings them beyond the point that brings them benefits. benefits.

2.2. STALENESS. When there is a lack of STALENESS. When there is a lack of improvement despite overtraining.improvement despite overtraining.

3.3. BURNOUT - a syndrome of BURNOUT - a syndrome of physical/emotional exhaustion; the sport physical/emotional exhaustion; the sport is devalued (the athlete stops caring is devalued (the athlete stops caring about it) and performance drops about it) and performance drops

4.4. WITHDRAWAL from the sport, either WITHDRAWAL from the sport, either through stress, injury or demotivationthrough stress, injury or demotivation

Self-Determination & BurnoutSelf-Determination & BurnoutDeci & Ryan (2000)Deci & Ryan (2000)Intrinsic motivation:Intrinsic motivation: doing the sport for doing the sport for the love of it (ideal!)the love of it (ideal!)Integrated Regulation:Integrated Regulation: motivated by motivated by pride/self-esteem in winningpride/self-esteem in winningIdentified Regulation:Identified Regulation: trophies, applause trophies, applauseIntrojected Regulation:Introjected Regulation: team spirit, team spirit, approval – beginning of STALENESSapproval – beginning of STALENESSExternal Regulation:External Regulation: prize money, fear of prize money, fear of punishment - STALENESSpunishment - STALENESSAmotivation:Amotivation: don’t care – BURNOUT don’t care – BURNOUT

Darren Treasure’s research - 1Darren Treasure’s research - 144 elite level swimmers44 elite level swimmers(top college training programmes in (top college training programmes in America)America)Situational Motivation Scale (SiMS)Situational Motivation Scale (SiMS)Measuring intrinsic motivation, identified Measuring intrinsic motivation, identified regulation, external regulation and regulation, external regulation and amotivationamotivationSwimmers all reported quite high levels Swimmers all reported quite high levels of self-determined (intrinsic) motivationof self-determined (intrinsic) motivationSwings to extrinsic end of the scale Swings to extrinsic end of the scale occurred with symptoms of overtrainingoccurred with symptoms of overtraining

Darren Treasure’s research - 2Darren Treasure’s research - 2Unstructured interviewsUnstructured interviews5 thriving swimmers5 thriving swimmersGreat “joy” when training and competingGreat “joy” when training and competingSwimming added an important dimension to their Swimming added an important dimension to their lifelifeFelt in control Felt in control INTRINSIC MOTIVATION. INTRINSIC MOTIVATION. 5 burned-out swimmers5 burned-out swimmersSwimming to keep their college scholarship moneySwimming to keep their college scholarship moneyPressure to follow successful family membersPressure to follow successful family membersWanting to finish their swimming career by matching Wanting to finish their swimming career by matching a best-ever performancea best-ever performanceExpectations from coaches or parentsExpectations from coaches or parents EXTERNAL REGULATIONEXTERNAL REGULATION

Evaluating Lemyre, Treasure & Evaluating Lemyre, Treasure & Roberts (2006)Roberts (2006)

Are college-level swimmers Are college-level swimmers representative of all sports?representative of all sports?

Strong demand characteristics in Strong demand characteristics in using tests like the SiMSusing tests like the SiMS

Which comes first, burnout or Which comes first, burnout or extrinsic motivation?extrinsic motivation?

Useful – British Olympic team uses Useful – British Olympic team uses PoMS to spot burnout out in altered PoMS to spot burnout out in altered mood statesmood states

What is Body Image?What is Body Image?""the picture of our body which the picture of our body which we form in our own mindwe form in our own mind“ - “ - Paul Schilder (1935)Paul Schilder (1935)NotNot how our body how our body actually actually lookslooksA mismatch between a person's A mismatch between a person's body image and their actual or body image and their actual or ideal appearanceideal appearanceA 2007 report by the American A 2007 report by the American Psychological Association (APA) Psychological Association (APA) found that anxiety about body found that anxiety about body image is more commonimage is more common sexualised images of women sexualised images of women found in the mediafound in the media

Measuring Body Image - 1Measuring Body Image - 1Body image Body image scalesscalesChoose you Choose you current body current body shapeshapeAlso your ideal, Also your ideal, most attractive most attractive and opposite-sex and opposite-sex attractiveattractiveMeasure Measure difference difference between current between current & ideal& ideal

This respondent shows a This respondent shows a lot of body anxiety, with a lot of body anxiety, with a big difference between big difference between CURRENT and IDEAL body CURRENT and IDEAL body shapesshapes

Measuring Body Image - 2Measuring Body Image - 2Social Physique Anxiety Social Physique Anxiety Scale (SPAS) – Elizabeth HartScale (SPAS) – Elizabeth Hart

12 statements with 5-point 12 statements with 5-point Likert-style responsesLikert-style responses

Eg “When in a bathing suit I Eg “When in a bathing suit I often feel nervous about the often feel nervous about the shape of my body”shape of my body”

Score from 12 (no anxiety) Score from 12 (no anxiety) to 60 (very anxious)to 60 (very anxious)

How How characteristic characteristic of you?of you?

1.1. Not at allNot at all2.2. SlightlySlightly3.3. ModeratelyModerately4.4. VeryVery5.5. Extremely Extremely

characteristiccharacteristic

Evaluating measures of Body Evaluating measures of Body ImageImage

Body Image scalesBody Image scalesImages are crude, Images are crude, don’t match the don’t match the respondent’s respondent’s perceptionsperceptionsGap between current Gap between current & ideal not valid & ideal not valid measure of anxietymeasure of anxietySocially desirable Socially desirable answers (test is answers (test is TRANSPARENT)TRANSPARENT)Cultural differences in Cultural differences in ideal body shapes?ideal body shapes?

SPAS questionnaireSPAS questionnaireLeading questions (but Leading questions (but some are REVERSE some are REVERSE CODED)CODED)TransparentTransparentLikert gives range of Likert gives range of responses (not responses (not reductionist)reductionist)Tendency to sit in the Tendency to sit in the middle middle (“moderately”)?(“moderately”)?

Drug Abuse in SportDrug Abuse in SportErgogenic (“performance enhancing”) Ergogenic (“performance enhancing”) drugsdrugs““Doping”Doping”Unfair advantageUnfair advantage in competitions in competitionsHealth risksHealth risks associated with drugs associated with drugsAthletes can be banned from Athletes can be banned from competitionscompetitionsBen Johnson won 100m in 1988 Ben Johnson won 100m in 1988 OlympicsOlympicsFailed a drug test – stripped of medalFailed a drug test – stripped of medalArnold Schwarzenegger admitted to Arnold Schwarzenegger admitted to using steroids during his bodybuilding using steroids during his bodybuilding careercareer

Anabolic Steroids (AAS)Anabolic Steroids (AAS)Most popular ergogenic drugMost popular ergogenic drugDuplicates effects of Duplicates effects of testosteronetestosteroneBuilds body mass and muscle Builds body mass and muscle strengthstrengthMedical uses: wasting diseases Medical uses: wasting diseases (eg AIDS), bone growth, appetite(eg AIDS), bone growth, appetiteSide effects: liver & heart Side effects: liver & heart problems, acne, addictive, men problems, acne, addictive, men can grow breasts!can grow breasts!

The Placebo EffectThe Placebo Effect

Henry BeecherHenry Beecher ( (19551955))

A placebo is a sham or inert A placebo is a sham or inert medication medication does nothing, but does nothing, but the patient the patient believesbelieves it will have an it will have an effecteffect

Also called EXPECTANCY EFFECTAlso called EXPECTANCY EFFECT

How much of steroids is placebo How much of steroids is placebo effect?effect?

Costis Maganaris’ Research - 1Costis Maganaris’ Research - 111 national-level weight-lifters11 national-level weight-liftersDiet and training was carefully Diet and training was carefully controlled to rule out any controlled to rule out any confounding variablesconfounding variablesBaseline measures:Baseline measures:

1.1. bench pressbench press2.2. dead liftdead lift3.3. squatsquat

Given two tablets that were Given two tablets that were supposed to be the fast-acting supposed to be the fast-acting AASAASThey were really sugar pillsThey were really sugar pills

Costis Maganaris’ Research - 2Costis Maganaris’ Research - 2Lifters recorded better performance & Lifters recorded better performance & vigourvigourAll performed better on the three tests All performed better on the three tests than their baseline scoresthan their baseline scoresDivided into group of 6 and a control Divided into group of 6 and a control group of 5group of 5Experimental group given 2 more pillsExperimental group given 2 more pillsControl group told the truth about the Control group told the truth about the pillspillsControl group’s performance on 3 tests Control group’s performance on 3 tests dropped back down againdropped back down again

Maganaris’ resultsMaganaris’ results(mean, compared to baseline)(mean, compared to baseline)

Bench Bench presspress

11

Bench Bench presspress

22

Deadlift Deadlift 11

Deadlift Deadlift 22

Squat Squat 11

Squat Squat 22

PlacebPlacebo o GroupGroup

(both (both tests)tests)

+9.5+9.5

+9.2+9.2

+11.1+11.1

+10.9+10.9

+12+12

+11.7+11.7

Control Control GroupGroup

(2(2ndnd test)test)

+4.5+4.5 -1.5-1.5 +0+0

Ethics of Maganaris Ethics of Maganaris et al.et al. (2000) (2000)

Ethics: deception, involving players Ethics: deception, involving players in illegal activity (if it was real)in illegal activity (if it was real)

1.1. Players prompted study by asking Players prompted study by asking coaches about AAScoaches about AAS

2.2. Debriefed afterwardsDebriefed afterwards

3.3. Benefits for anti-drug awarenessBenefits for anti-drug awareness

4.4. Players went on to reach Players went on to reach international level WITHOUT drugsinternational level WITHOUT drugs

Evaluating Maganaris Evaluating Maganaris et al.et al. (2000) (2000)

Were athletes REALLY naïve about Were athletes REALLY naïve about steroids?steroids?(Research suggests AAS users are (Research suggests AAS users are well informed about effects, etc)well informed about effects, etc)Being offered steroids by coach = Being offered steroids by coach = unusualunusualHawthorne Effect (feeling special)Hawthorne Effect (feeling special)Useful: shows performance boost Useful: shows performance boost WITHOUT needing drugsWITHOUT needing drugs

Single vs Double BlindSingle vs Double BlindSINGLE-BLIND testSINGLE-BLIND test

Participants won't know whether they are Participants won't know whether they are getting the real treatment or the placebo getting the real treatment or the placebo treatmenttreatment

DOUBLE-BLIND testDOUBLE-BLIND test

People giving out the treatment won't People giving out the treatment won't know if its genuine (eg coaches not told know if its genuine (eg coaches not told if lifters are aware of real nature of pills)if lifters are aware of real nature of pills)

Study more valid if double-blindStudy more valid if double-blind