Speech n Language

PHAN YANJUN, LINGESWARI A/P KRISHNA A4 SPEECH AND LANGUAGE ASSIGNMENT 1

ASSIGNMENT COVER SHEETINTERNATIONAL DEGREE PROGRAMME

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Module Name: SPEECH AND LANGUAGE STUDIES Module Code: 4FHE1049

Student Name: PHAN YANJUN LINGESWARI A/P KRISHNA

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All types of languages are equal from a linguistic point of view. They all have

sound and sound systems. Language consists of words, words meanings and grammar.

All languages are dynamic and no language is superior to another. Language can be

defined as any means of conveying or communicating ideas specifically human speech.

It also can be say as expression of ideas by the voice, sounds, expressive of thought

where it articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth. Language also refers to the

expression of ideas by writing or any other instrumentality.

According to Vygotsky (1962) language plays two critical roles in cognitive

development. Firstly, it is the main means by which adults transmit info to children and

language itself becomes a very powerful tool of intellectual adaptation. Vygotsky sees

“private speech” as a means for children to plan activities and strategies and therefore

aid their development. Language is an accelerator to thinking or understanding.

Vygotsky believed that language develops from social interactions, for communication

purposes. Later language ability becomes internalized as thought and “inner speech”.

Thought is the result of language.

Language as conceived by Chomsky is “a set of sentences, each finite in length and

constructed out of a finite set of elements” (Chomsky 1957). As he further claims, this

holds true for all natural language since they have a finite number of phonemes. Thus, a

grammar of a language should be thought as a device of some sort for producing the

sentences of the language under analysis. Such a linguistic analysis of a language

should attempt to sort out the grammatical sentences from the ungrammatical ones and

study the structures of the grammatical sentences.

According to Aronoff. M (2007), language sets people apart from all other creatures.

Every known human society has had a language and though some nonhumans may be

able to communicate with one another in fairly complex ways. None of their

communication system begins to approach language in its ability to convey information.

The transmission of complex and varied information is the examples of integral parts of

the everyday lives. Communication system shares many of the design features of

human language such as ability to communicate about events. However, it is extremely

difficult to conceive of a human society without using language.

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Human language involves both receptive and productive use. Receptive language

use occurs during the comprehension or understanding words and sentences.

Productive language use involves idea generation and the articulation of words in

speech. Both reception and production utilize the components of language. There are a

number of language components that are universal and there are some features that

maybe unique to some languages.

First component of language is phonology. Phonology is first stage of learning

language. Phonology can be defined as the study of how sounds are organized and

used in natural languages. The phonological system of a language includes an

inventory of sounds and their features and rules which specify how sounds interact with

each other. Phonology is the basis for further work in morphology, syntax, discourse

and orthography design. Phonology can be analyzes the sound patterns of a particular

language by determining which phonetic sounds are significant and explaining how

these sounds are interpreted by the native speaker. Different models of phonology

contribute to our knowledge of phonological process. In classical phonemics, phonemes

and their possible combinations are central. While in standard generative phonology,

distinctive features are central. A stream of speech is portrayed as linear sequence of

discrete sound-segments. Each segment is composed of simultaneously occurring

features. Besides that, in non-linear models of phonology, a stream of speech is

represented as multidimensional, not simply as a linear sequence of sound segments.

The second part of language is morphology. Morphology is the study of word

structure and word formation. Words, though impossible to define in absolute terms, can

be thought of as the units that are combined to form sentences in a language such as

English. The smallest meaningful part of a word is called a morpheme. Words that have

only one morpheme are also called monomorphemic words. Take ‘big’ for example. On

the other hand, words with more than one morpheme are called polymorphemic words

as ‘meaningless’. Morpheme can be divided into two which are known as free

morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morpheme is a morpheme that by itself can

function as a word in a language such as ‘boy’. While bound morphemes is a

morpheme that cannot stand by itself to form a words. It must be joined to other

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morphemes. It bound because although it has meaning, it has to be attached to another

morpheme to produce a word. Examples of bound morphemes are –ish, -ness, -ly, dis-,

trans-. For example “quiet” is free morpheme and “-ly” is bound morpheme, so when

both morpheme combined, the word that produce is “quietly”.

Next, the study of how individual words and their most basic meaningful units are

combined to create sentences is known as syntax. As words are grouped together when

we communicate, we must follow the rules of grammar for our language, in other words,

its syntax. It is the knowledge of syntax that allows us to recognize that the following two

sentences while containing different words order and levels of complexity or has the

same meaning. Example of sentences is “The cat sat on the mat”. This sentence can be

analyzed in terms of grammatical functions such as “The cat” is the subject of the

phrase, “on the mat” is a locative phrase and “sat” is the core of the predicate. Another

way in which languages convey meaning is through the order of words within a

sentence. The grammatical rules for how to produce new sentences from words that are

already known is syntax. The syntactical rules of a language determine why a sentence

in English such as “I love you” is meaningful but “love you I” is not.

Next component of language is semantics. Semantics refers to the ways in which a

language conveys meaning. This is because semantics moves beyond the literal

meaning of words and is culture-dependent. This is among the most difficult aspects of

language for individuals who are not native speakers and even those who speak the

same language but come from different cultures and convey meaning using words in

unique ways. Anyone who has attempted to converse with a teenager in his own

vernacular can appreciate the importance of sharing a semantic base for

communicating clearly.

The last component of language is pragmatics. Pragmatics is a branch of linguistic

concerned with the use of language in social contexts and the ways in which people

produce and comprehend meanings through language. Pragmatics is needed if we want

deeper, fuller and generally more reasonable account of human language behavior.

What is important is the communicative function the utterance plays in interaction with

others, so pragmatics operates at the level of meaning. It is possible that a learner

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knows vocabulary and grammar of the target language, but is unable to communicate

intentions at the moment of speaking. It is also possible that, as a listener, the learner

understands the speaker’s intentions but cannot find the most appropriate way to

respond to what has just been said.

Language must be acquired. Children must learn to hear the difference in speech

and how to produce them. They must learn the meaning of words and rules for

combining them into sentences and they must learn how best to talk with others.

Children around the world follow the same sequence or order of early language

development. Children learn the language which they hear around them. There six

stages of speech and language development such as pre-verbal stage, babbling,

holophrastic stage, two-word utterances, telegraphic speech and post-telegraphic stage.

The first stage of speech and language development is pre-verbal stage. Pre-verbal

stage is for babies who newly born until 6 months old. At this stage, anything that the

babies does or says before meaningful words are used. For example, the babies cries,

smiles, grunting noises, facial expressions, gestures and so on. Before first words, the

earliest vocalizations or sounds that most of the babies did was involuntary crying. The

babies did this action when they feel hungry or uncomfortable. When adults respond to

crying, babies begin to recognize the importance of language and communication.

Other than that, cooing and gurgling where the baby use vowel-like sounds such as

“ooooo” and “ahhhh” to show satisfaction or happiness.

Next stage is babbling. Babbling is the extended repetition of certain single syllables,

such as “ma-ma-ma, da-da-da, ba-ba-ba” that begins at 6-7 months of age. Babbling is

produced mainly when adults are interacting with them but babies also produce them

when they are alone. Babbling is vocal play. The function of babbling is to help babies

practice speech like sounds and intonation patterns and to gain control of their speech

organs. Researchers believe that babbling plays a part in language development, as it

helps teach the child the basic sounds, functions and structures of their language. When

the parents responds to the babbling, the verbal interaction or communication shows

the child that speech is a bi-directional or two-way process.

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The third stage of speech and language development is holophrastic stage.

Holophrastic stage is a stage of language development in which the child expresses

ideas using single words. Infants first recognize words, then only they begin to

comprehend words. The first words are generally simple naming words for people,

animals or body functions. By their 1st birthday, infants usually produce one or two

words that are recognizable. The first words appear to be an extension of babbling.

Later these words work as single-word sentences. By the age of 2 most children may

understand a few hundred words whereas by age 6, they may understand over 10,000

words. Functions of children’s first single-word utterances are to draw the adult’s

attention to an object or event and to get something they want.

Another stage is two-word stage. This stage is one of the stages of language

development in which child begins to use unique combinations of two-word sentences.

By the age of 2 (“two-word” stage), children are able to use at least 50 different words,

develop an understanding of how words can be used to convey messages, use “two-

word” sentences (no function words like articles, prepositions, pronouns and no word

endings) such as “Mommy juice”, “baby fall” and begin to put words into the order and

sentence patterns (syntax) of the language to which they are exposed. For example,

“kiss baby”, “baby kiss”. The child also can combine words in creative ways to express

needs like “more park”, “all gone cookie”.

At around 18 months of age, babies begin to combine words to form two-word

utterances. He/she begins to develop an understanding of how words control meaning.

There are one process which known as “The Naming Insight”. Once an infant’s

vocabulary reaches about 50 words it begins to build rapidly, at the rate of 50-100+

words per month. Most of these first words are nouns. This language spurt (sudden

increase of language) occurs around 18 months and is known as the Naming Explosion.

The rate of children’s vocabulary development depends on the amount of talk they hear.

The more adults talk to a young child, the more quickly will the child learn new words.

Once children reach 18 months, they will have a productive vocabulary of around 50

words. At 24 months, most children will be able to use about 200 words while it will be

around 2,000 words by 36 months. On average, children will learn 10 words a day from

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the time they are 18 months old. The early words of children are usually naming words,

action words, words related to social actions such as ‘hello’, ‘bye’.

In addition, telegraphic speech stage is used for child age of 24 to 30 months. In this

stage, child combines words to produce sentences but does not use grammatical

elements such as pronouns, article, modals, auxiliary verbs and word endings. Most

children begin to combine words into simple sentences by 24 months of age. These

sentences are very short and to the point, contain only the most important information

and usually deal with everyday events, things, people or activities. Besides that,

children’s first sentences are multi-word combinations where several words put together

which are known as telegraphic speech. For example “want more cookie”. Functions of

telegraphic speech stage are to ask questions, to express more complex needs, to refer

to events in the past and even in the future and to talk about things, events or actions.

At around 24 months of age, babies begin to combine words to form multi-word

sentences. He/she begins to develop an understanding of how words combine to

produce complex meanings.

Last stage in speech and language development is post-telegraphic stage. This

stage refers to child age between 30 months to 4 years. Post-telegraphic stage is the

stage at which children gradually combine words in meaningful order and use more

complex structures but with some basic grammatical errors. There are three types of

common errors in early child language. Firstly is under-extension. At this stage, child

will use a word too narrowly. For example, the child will use the word “cat” to refer only

to the family cat. Secondly is over-extension. They used a given word in a more general

way than appropriate or more common than under-extension. For instead, the word

“open” is used to ask the adult to open a door or even peel fruit. Other common error is

over-generalization. They apply general rules to words that are exceptions so treating

irregular forms of words as regular words. For example, they will say “go-ed” and

instead of “went”. However, by the age of 4 most children are able to acquire less

common and more complex language structures such as passives and relative clauses.

At the same time they begin to develop the ability to use language appropriate to the

situation and the person they are talking to by using polite forms to address older adults.

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Language plays a vital role throughout the children’s development process. The

existing knowledge in a child’s brain or schema will be altered and reconstructed when

he/she come across with new experiences. Indirectly, it will bring impact to a child’s

cognitive, social and also emotional development from time to time. The following

discussion explains the interrelations of cognitive, social as well as emotional domains

with the literacy development of children. Not only that, different related theories will

also be used in referring and explaining the relationship between language and

children’s development.

From the perspective of cognitive development, children play an active role in the

acquisition of language. In another word, children actively build on their knowledge as

well as experiences through learning. Based on Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Theory,

children are constantly building a symbol system in their brains in the process of

language acquisition in order to enhance their understandings towards information

(Close, 2010). The cognitive development of children which included the expansion of

symbolic capacity and conceptual structure enable a child to interpret what other people

say by language. In this way, children will learn and articulate more words or sentences

in order to elaborate their contents.

Jean Piaget is the foremost theorist who proposed the idea of children’s cognitive

development theory with different stages. There are four stages of intellectual

development according to Piaget’s theory, which are the sensorimotor stage,

preoperational stage, concrete operational stage as well as the formal operational

stage. The Cognitivists believe that learning monitors children’s development and young

learners are able to pick up something new when they proceed to a certain

developmental stage. Not only that, Cognitive Theory places emphasis on the terms

‘meaning’, ‘knowing’ and also ‘understanding’ (Kiymazarslan, 2002). Based on the

Cognitivists, ‘meaning’ is vital in children learning process whereas ‘learning’ is

regarded as a process of relating new concepts to the existing cognitive knowledge

(Brown, 1987). As for ‘understanding’, the theory defines it as the internal

representations which conduct a child’s performances. In the process of language

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acquisition, the internal representations can be related to the language system. The

examples include the ways to choose suitable grammatical rules, vocabulary and also

pragmatic conventions which manage the children’s language usage (Kiymazarslan,

2002). As a whole, the Cognitive Theory states that children are able to attain language

naturally and automatically as cognitive development is the key of language growth.

On the other hand, social development is also one of the major aspects in relation to

children’s development of language. This can be related to the Social Learning Theory

proposed by the psychologist, Albert Bandura. Based on his theory of language

development, children learn new words by observing other people. In the process of

observation, children acquire new experiences as well as develop new skills (Cherry,

2012). The main feature which differentiates Bandura’s Social Learning Theory from the

Behaviorist is that external reinforcement is not the only approach to learn new words.

In the meanwhile, intrinsic reinforcement is important as well in encouraging language

leaning among children. The examples of intrinsic motivation which are sense of

achievement and self-esteem can be the factors in leading children’s learning.

Social interaction brings significant impacts on the language learning process among

children. In relation to this view, Vygotsky proposed his Sociocultural Theory which

investigated on the role of social interaction plays on language development. Based on

the Sociocultural Theory, language is crucial to children development and words play a

fundamental part in children growth of cognition as a whole (Kiymazarslan, 2002). In

this theory, Vygotsky emphasizes on the perception of ‘zone of proximal development’

which comprised of two phrases, egocentricity and interaction. This zone describes the

difference between a child’s actual developmental level in terms of problem solving

ability and the level of his/her potential development under the guidance of adults or the

assistance of more proficient peers of the child (Kiymazarslan, 2002).

These two developmental levels can be clearly observed through children’s daily

interaction. For example, some children choose to stay silent or speak less when they

are working alone but when they are playing games with their peers or friends, they are

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more likely to have interaction. This situation implies that speech of a child can be

influenced by the presence of others in surrounding. Therefore, it highlights the

importance of exposing children to social interaction to make them to build on their

language resources. In other words, children are able to learn and develop new

concepts of language through talking with adults and later solve problems by

themselves. Within the context of Sociocultural Theory, children language development

can be regarded as a product of social interaction.

The role of environment is important for children and the social or pragmatic function

of language development are often stressed. According to the social interaction theory,

most of the child’s purposes for learning language are socially related (University of

Kansas, 2002). A child development of language begins through social interaction with

his/her caregivers since birth. Babies are able to express their need with crying, facial

expressions and body gestures. In respond to these signs, parents or caregivers are

responsible to react to the communicative actions with verbal language. This will help to

establish the foundation for the child’s future language development. For instance, when

a child points to his/her milk bottle and say, “Milk.” The parents can respond in this way,

“Milk? Do you want to drink milk?” When the child replies “Yes, I want milk”, he will get

the milk as reward from his/her parents. From this recurrent pattern of conversation, a

child can learn more complex and sophisticated language besides the corresponding

social skills (University of Kansas, 2002).

From the perspective of emotional development, children acquire language with

feelings and thoughts about other persons. When a child is engaged in a dynamic real

life situation, he/she will embrace the acquisition of language in order to use it as a tool

for effective expressions. The emotional development can be furthered explained by

using Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Generally, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

(1968) implements a holistic approach which included emotional qualities of individuals

and its impacts on children development of language. According to Maslow, children

will move on to more advanced level of needs once the lower-level needs are fulfilled. In

another words, when a child feel secure and motivated, he/she will further move on to

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achieve the language potential. Hence, before a child’s cognitive need is developed,

parents have to first meet the basic physiological requirements of the child. In another

word, children need to feel secure in terms of physically and emotionally within their

learning environment before they start to develop potentials in language (Mcleod, 2007).

This also suggested that children with low self-confidence will not make optimum

progress in language development unless they have gained back their confidence.

In the meanwhile, Maslow’s hierarchy can be linked and supported with Piaget’s

developmental stages in children. For instance, in the preoperational period of Piaget,

children begin to imitate language through exploration of environment. Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Needs can be correlated to this stage because language imitation begins

the growth of social needs (Vann, 2011). In this phrase, the developmental skills enable

children to discover the surrounding verbally and form the foundation of motivation as

well. Therefore, once the emotional state of a child is fulfilled, he/she is more capable to

achieve and mastery higher level of language acquisition due to the more intricate self-

esteem concept (Venn, 2011).

Language learning is crucial in young children’s development and school plays a

vital role in encouraging children in acquiring effective language learning. Teachers and

practitioners have the responsible to promote children’s learning process especially

language speaking skills through practical classroom activities in school. However,

there are various challenges faced in Malaysian schools context regarding language

learning in terms of teaching, curriculum as well as literacy.

Firstly, a common learning problem faced by some schools is the shortage of

expertise language teachers. Language teacher play an important role in identifying any

child’s difficulty in the area of communication and also language arts. Without proper

training, a teacher might face problem in knowing the difference between normal or

delayed speech and language development in children. This will create difficulties for

the teacher to make accommodation in language classroom in order to assist the

communicatively impaired child. Besides, remoteness of rural school areas might also

cause shortage of language teachers such as English and Bahasa Melayu teachers

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(Marwan et al, 2011). The recruitment of rural school teachers is challenging because of

the social or cultural isolation in the economically deficient environment (McClure et al,

2003). When there is no or a little professionally language support for students, it will

reduce the students’ language proficiency and competence in their future workplaces.

To solve this problem, the authorities can increase the incentive to encourage more

language teachers to service in remote areas such as the East Peninsular of Malaysia.

Not only that, teachers can be given more opportunities to take part in professional

development programs in languages such as Teacher Professional Development

workshops (TPDs) and in-service training (INSET) programs.

In addition, illiteracy is also one of the fundamental issues which can be identified in

schools. Literacy is the foundation in elementary learning and consists of the 3R skills,

namely reading, writing and arithmetic. English language literacy is the current issue

that schools need to tackle with especially rural schools. Some young students have

poor performances on English competency in terms of mastering spelling and reading

skills. For instance, some students are not able to integrate vocabulary and grammar

correctly in a text or fail to interpret information accurately. The low literacy level of

students may cause them fall behind and unable to cope with other peers’ progress.

When students have low motivation in learning, it will lead to high absenteeism rate in

schools as well. To solve this issue, LINUS (Literacy and Numeracy Screening) is one

of the initiatives taken to determine the learning progress of lower standard students in

English literacy is at an expected pace (Teo-Education, 2013). It aims to provide basic

mastery skills in literacy for Standard 1 to 3 students. The advantages of this

programme include helping teachers to detect children with dyslexia symptoms as well

as to eradicate dropout problem which caused by students’ inability to cope with the

academic progress (Teo-education, 2013).

Besides that, lack of resources for teaching learning materials and infrastructures is

another language learning issue that should need to take into account. This issue

especially faced by rural schools which have inadequate ICT (Information and

Communication Technology) tools such as projectors and computers to be integrated in

a language learning classroom. As an example, teacher is unable to demonstrate

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sounds articulation from a video or slide show in a class and develop better

understanding of the students. Furthermore, the remoteness of schools also limits the

school communities from having poor accessibility to internet as well. This can create a

difficult situation as most of the language teaching and learning resources are available

in the internet. This may affect the language learning process of students because

teachers are not able to utilise ICT in delivering more attractive lessons. To address this

issue, all schools should be supported with well-equipped facilities such as media

centre and computer labs. This effort will further stimulate students’ language learning

skills and also improve their readiness (Marwan et al, 2011).

Next, overload curriculum is also one of the learning concerns faced in Malaysian

schools context. In Malaysian primary schools, the Integrated Curriculum for Primary

School is divided into 2 phases and emphasises on various elements such as 3R skills

and language knowledge acquisition. This makes language subjects’ syllabus contain

too much of elements and teachers are forced to rush through the syllabus in order to

prepare students for examinations. Not only that, some schools’ learning has become

exam-oriented and teachers will tend to neglect in developing students’ speaking and

listening skills due to the shift focus on examination. Indirectly, this time-constrained

curriculum will affect the language speaking development of children as they do not get

opportunities to speak in class. To overcome this obstacle, language teachers should

make a proper plan in planning their classroom activities in order to deliver the

curriculum effectively. For example, teachers should organise more student-centred and

interactive activities like role play to encourage the development of speaking skills

among students.

In conclusion, primary education plays a fundamental role in the language learning

process of children. However, these learning issues mentioned will bring negative

impacts on the effectiveness of language acquisition process of students. Therefore,

these problem need to be rectified and improved to ensure a high quality of language

learning in primary schools. This effort will further optimise students’ potentials and

contribution to the society as future leaders of the country in order to achieve the goal of

universal quality education for all Malaysians by 2020.

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