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Document de travail du LEM 2008-08 SCHWARTZ VALUES, CONSUMER VALUES AND SEGMENTATION: THE SPANISH FASHION APPAREL CASE Maria D. De Juan Vigaray*, Monali Hota** *Faculty of Economics, University of Alicante, Spain **IÉSEG School of Management, CNRS-LEM (UMR 8179)

Spain Consumer Values & Segmentation

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Page 1: Spain Consumer Values & Segmentation

Document de travail du LEM 2008-08

SCHWARTZ VALUES, CONSUMER VALUES AND

SEGMENTATION: THE SPANISH FASHION APPAREL CASE

Maria D. De Juan Vigaray*, Monali Hota**

*Faculty of Economics, University of Alicante, Spain

**IÉSEG School of Management, CNRS-LEM (UMR 8179)

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SCHWARTZ VALUES, CONSUMER VALUES AND SEGMENTATION: THE

SPANISH FASHION APPAREL CASE

Maria D. De Juan Vigaray, Faculty of Economics, University of Alicante, Spain Monali Hota, IESEG School of Management, Lille Catholic University, France

ABSTRACT

This paper presents research conducted in Spain, on regular consumers of fashion apparel,

which focuses on extending Schwartz’s (1992) motivational typology of values, to measure

Spanish consumer values and identify actionable target markets and consumer segments. 11

types of consumer values are identified including three new Spanish value types: Ecology,

Spiritualism and Self direction. Six consumer values out of these seem to be important when

it comes to characterizing the Spanish population, and finally four consumer segments are

identified: ”Security-Conscious, Non-Innovative and Non-Motivated by Ecology”, “Social

Rebels”, “Tradition Seeking but Ecologically-Conscious and Highly Innovative” and “Non-

Traditional High Achieving Power Seekers”.

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INTRODUCTION

A review of the literature (refer to next section for a detailed discussion) suggests that there is

an established relationship between values and consumer behavior, which holds across

cultures, to the extent that it not only affects attitudes, behavior and decision making, but also

can be used as a basis for effective consumer segmentation. This is justified as values play a

central and stable role in consumers’ cognitive structures and also impact upon their attitudes

which in turn impacts upon their behavior as consumers.

Research to date has studied values using different theories and typologies, the most notable

one being Schwartz’s Value Typology (e.g. Schwartz, 1992, 1999), both through a single-

culture study (see Kahle 1980, 1986; Kahle, Beatty and Homer, 1986; Shen and Yuan, 1999;

Shrum, McCarty and Loeffler, 1990; Sin and Yau, 2001), as well as in a cross-national or

cross-cultural context (e.g. Kropp et al. , 2000; Wang, Rao and D'Auria, 1994). Countries

such as the United States and China have been studied extensively, forming the basis for both

single as well as cross-cultural studies; while others such as Greece and India have not been

studied so far. Spain and similar cultures are under-researched in the context of Schwartz’s

Value Typology, as there have only been limited research efforts in the past, in non-consumer

contexts such as workplace/occupation and religion (Gouveia, Clemente, and Vidal, 1998 and

Ros and Grad, 1991). Current statistics show that the number of potential consumers in Spain

(i.e. middle and upper classes) is more than 30 million people, which is more than the entire

population of countries like Australia and almost the same as the entire population of Canada.

Further, Homer and Kahle (1988) suggest that the relationship underlying the value-attitude-

behavior hierarchy should be tested in different product and industrial contexts; as such

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psychographic information may provide a richer means of assessing the extent to which

global consumer segments exist. However, no prior research has attempted to assess the

Schwartz Value Typology in a context such as fashion apparel consumption, although it is a

very important industry. This makes Spain even more ideal as a cultural setting to validate

and extend Schwartz’s Value Typology and examine its implications for consumer behavior,

as Spain as a country has significant links with the global fashion apparel industry due to

brands such as Zara and Mango becoming key players in the global market (refer to next

section for a more detailed discussion).

This paper presents research conducted in Spain, on regular consumers of fashion apparel,

which focuses on extending Schwartz’s (1992) motivational typology of values into a

consumer context. A modified version of Schwartz’s framework has been used to measure

Spanish consumer values and then theses values have been used to cluster the consumers into

actionable target markets and segments.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Values – an Overview

Despite a significant body of research where values are considered to be at the core of the

investigation (Thompson and Troester, 2002; Weeks and Kahle, 1990), in fields such as

marketing, psychology, sociology and even anthropology, there is no consensus in the

literature about what a ‘value’ is, or what constitutes a valid definition of values across

disciplines. Several decades of research (see e.g., Kluckhohn, 1951; Rokeach, 1973;

Schwartz, 1999) suggests that ‘values’ can be comprehensively defined as conceptions of the

desirable that guide the way social actors, select actions, evaluate people and events, and

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explain their actions and evaluations. The writings of Rokeach (1973) have served as the

major theoretical foundation for psychological research on consumer value systems (see

Kahle, Rose, and Shoham, 2000). Kahle (1996) suggests that values are shaped by means of

people’s experiences and learning process and his List of Values has been employed in a wide

variety of consumer research settings in a variety of nations (Beatty et al. , 1993; Grunert and

Scherhorn, 1990). Finally, values are very global in nature, but are also culture specific

(Glazer & Beehr, 2005).

Values and Consumer Behavior – an Overview

In surveying the relevant literature, we have found an established relationship between values

and consumer behavior (Beatty et al., 1985; Kahle, 1986; Scott and Lamont, 1973; Vinson

and Munson, 1976) shopping motivations (Wolfe, 1994); consumer behavior and the

importance of store attributes (Erdem et al., 1999); decision making when buying natural food

(Grunert and Juhl, 1995; Homer and Kahle, 1988;) and store choice (Sheth, Newman and

Gross, 1991). Examining this from a cultural perspective, this relationship holds as well, and

has been validated by researchers in widely varying cultures. For example, Steenhaut and

Kenhove (2006) in Belgium have discovered a relationship between a consumer’s personal

values and his beliefs and ideologies with respect to ethical consumer decision making.

Similarly, Yau (1988) has not only used Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s (1961) value-orientation

model to create a classification of Chinese consumers’ cultural values with corresponding

implications for consumer behavior, but also discussed the ways in which Chinese cultural

values can be used as a basis for effective market segmentation (Yau, 1986).

Values help us explain and understand consumer behavior because they play a central role in

consumers’ cognitive structures and because of their supposed stability over a period time

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(Brangule-Vlagsma, Pieters and Wedel, 2002). Further, Homer and Kahle (1998) have

demonstrated using structural equations that, individuals’ values have an effect on their

behavior as consumers through their attitudes, that is, individuals’ values impact upon their

attitudes towards certain consumer issues, which in turn impact upon their final behavior as

consumers. For example, Rose et al. (1994) have shown using the List of Values and an

American sample, that these values impact upon attitudes of group identification and need for

affiliation (i.e. attitudes towards conformity), which, in turn, are positively related to brand

name purchasing and style, but are negatively related to purchasing clothing based on

utilitarian qualities.

“Values also have the potential to help clarify the understanding of consumers’ motivations

and may point to the underlying “rationality” or “psycho-logic” of ostensibly illogical

decision processes (Kahle, 1996 p. 136). For example, Hawkins, Best and Coney (1995)

report that consumers may prefer the taste of one beer over the other, in spite of the beers

being identical in every respect except the values to which their marketing materials have

been tied.

Schwartz’s Motivational Typology of Values

The preceding review of literature suggests that there is wide divergence in the approach used

to study values, although the implications for consumer research have been established.

Moreover, prior empirical research on values has either used instruments not validated for

cross-cultural equivalence of meaning or lacks data from important regions of the world (see

for example Hofstede et al. , 1990). The Schwartz cultural-level value system is based on his

seminal work on human values (see for example Schwartz, 1994; Schwartz and Ros, 1995;

Smith and Schwartz, 1997). This represents the most promising framework for universal

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values and takes care of the limitations of prior consumer research on values in three

important ways by, (1) exhibiting both external and convergent validity (Bond and Smith,

1996), (2) using both Western and non-Western sources to derive cultural value dimensions,

and (3) controlling for meaning equivalence.

Schwartz approach serves as the basis for our study, as this also aims to expand the set of

conceptual and empirical tools that can be used to investigate country differences and

similarities as they pertain to consumption behavior. Schwartz (1992) defines values as

criteria that people use to choose and justify their behavior and judge others and self. He

proposes five main aspects of values similar to Rokeach’s (1973) theory: “1) they are

concepts or beliefs; 2) they pertain to desirable end states or behaviors; 3) they transcend

specific situations; 4) they guide selections or evaluation of behaviors and events and; 5) are

ordered by relative importance”. Schwartz believes that values are cognitive representations

of three types of universal needs which apply to all societies: a) needs arising from the

biological structure of humans; b) needs to manage social connections and networks; and c)

needs to maintain a group and social institutions. If needs can be expressed via values, values

can also be reflective of a number of needs.

Schwartz Value Typology is grouped into 10 value types. For each value type he has chosen

terminal and instrumental values, which are also expressed via consumption behavior. The

value structure is defined by three different sets of values. The first five are meant to represent

individual interest: 1) power, 2) achievement, 3) hedonism, 4) stimulation, 5) self-direction,

which are opposed to the three value types that represent the collective interest, 6)

benevolence, 7) tradition; 8) conformity. Ninth and tenth (universalism and tradition,

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respectively), stand between these two value clusters and have been termed as mixed interest

values.

Schwartz has also defined seven international (cultural) value types along three polar

dimensions: hierarchy versus egalitarianism; mastery versus harmony; and conservatism

versus intellectual and affective autonomy. 1) Hierarchy: legitimacy of an unequal

distribution of power roles and resources; 2) egalitarian commitment: transcendence of selfish

interests to interests, which serve the common good; 3) mastery: getting ahead through self-

assertion; 4) harmony: fitting harmoniously into the environment; 5) conservatism:

maintenance of the status quo, proprietary and restraint of actions that might disrupt group

solidarity and traditional order; 6) intellectual autonomy: independent ideas and the rights of

the individual to pursue his/her own intellectual directions; 7) affective autonomy: individual

pursuit of affectively positive experiences. As suggested by Schwartz (1999) researchers can

derive the profiles of value emphasis on all the seven value types that characterize those

nations that they wish to study.

Schwartz’s Value Typology – Prior Validation in Spain and Similar Cultures

Past research in the social sciences has sought to validate and extend Schwartz’s Value

Typology to the Spanish culture, in different non-consumer contexts, with small and specific

sub-samples of the Spanish population (e.g. undergraduate students). The results of all the

studies as discussed below appear to point to one thing – the existence of the same universal

motivational types as originally developed by Schwartz. Ros and colleagues (see Ros and

Grad 1991; Ros and Schwartz 1995) for example, have studied Schwartz values in the

occupational context with samples of high school teachers (n=179) and students undergoing

teacher training (n=193), and have found the same types of values as Schwartz, although in a

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different hierarchical order. The teachers had the following hierarchy (power, achievement,

hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity,

security) while the students had this hierarchy (power, security, conformity, tradition,

benevolence, universalism, self-direction, stimulation, hedonism, achievement). This may be

attributed to the significant difference in occupation between the two samples.

Furthermore, Gouveia et al. (1998) have attempted to simplify the format of the Schwartz

questionnaire in the adapted Spanish version (as developed by Ros and Grad 1991), to make it

simpler for respondents to answer. Their sample once again consisted of a very specific

category of undergraduate students (n=176), in the context of religious beliefs, and the

majority of the respondents were single women. Although the results of their study suggest

that using the revised version of the questionnaire does not have an unfavorable impact on the

discovery/formation of the 10 value types, there are still some unique issues that need to be

taken into account. In another study similarly in Brazil, Gouveia and colleagues (2001) found

the existence of the same value types that Schwartz has found in other parts of the world in

the context of a sample of primarily non-religious and female undergraduate students. Finally,

Gouveia (2003), attempted to develop a new typology of Spanish values with data obtained

from two diverse samples, but found that this new typology was in fact convergent to

Schwartz’s theory, and fairly compatible with it, although it was more parsimonious assuming

a reduced set of values.

Fashion Apparel Industry and Spain – the Rationale

In the present study, we opted to study Schwartz’s Value Typology in the textile and fashion

apparel sector (T/F) due to four important reasons. Firstly, we are following Homer and

Kahle (1988) who have suggested that the causal relationship underlying the value-attitude-

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behavior hierarchy should be tested in different product and industrial contexts. Very few

studies have examined the relative importance of personal values on the attitudes and

behavior in important contexts such as that of T/F, so far. The need for more research on

cultural differences in consumer behavior is apparent in international retailing (Dawson,

1994). Secondly, T/F has been identified as a communication tool that reflects and is

influenced by social norms (Gutman & Mills, 1982); it is used as a form of self expression, a

personal signature that suggests to others one’s identity and desired place in society

(Feinberg, Mataro & Burroughs, 1992) and Keillor et al. (2001) suggest that an understanding

of consumer characteristics may be critical. Thirdly, the two main characteristics of the T/F

sector are seasonality and the rise and decline of numerous fashion styles (Calvo, 2006). The

difficulty in predicting consumer tastes and reaction to emerging fashion styles has led to few

research programs focusing on the best methods to segment the fashion apparel market using

psychographic variables such as values that are criterion that individuals use to select and

justify their actions. Finally, the fashion apparel industry is a perfect choice for the study

given the chosen cultural context of Spain. Spain's economy is the thirteenth largest in the

world and has been experiencing strong economic growth since the past decade, according to

economic analysts. The T/F sector in Spain is rapidly growing and becoming a key player

worldwide. The country's economy relies heavily on this sector which employs more than

275.000 people, and accounts for 10.7 percent of the nation's total industrial employment. In

the textile sector, the market for apparel in Spain is the most important with several events

taking place throughout the year to stimulate demand. Current market factors such as

economic stability, changing lifestyles or increasing numbers of female and college-educated

workers, favor Spain as an attractive environment for T/F retailers (Gomez and Campillo,

1996).

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METHODOLOGY

Data Collection and Sampling

The research sample consisted of people, above the age of 18 years, from a Spanish province.

We collected the data using survey questionnaires that were administered face-to-face in the

respondent’s homes by research assistants. The survey was administered to respondents who

had purchased some items of fashion clothing for themselves within the past six months,

avoiding a sample of students as suggested by Kahle (2000). We recorded names and contact

information, and we ensured quality control via a telephone survey of a random sub-sample of

40% to verify the authenticity of the collection procedure and the data. We distributed a total

of 3,500 surveys questionnaires altogether, with an approximate response rate of 90%, out of

which finally we judged 1,460 usable for data analysis. The sample had a balanced

demographic profile in terms of socio-economic criteria such as income, social class and level

of education, and the respondents belonged to a number of different cities analyzed in order to

ensure geographical representation. Further, we took care to ensure that there was no special

age or gender bias in the sample. 42% of the sample was male, while 58% was female. In

terms of age, the sample spanned across people from the ages of 18-86 years, with the median

age being 25 years.

Measurement of Values

We employed the Schwartz Value Inventory (SVI) to measure the importance of the culture-

level value types using the Spanish version of the questionnaire previously validated in the

sociology discipline (see Ros and Grad, 1991; Ros and Schwartz, 1995). Since SVI was

developed for non-Spanish respondents, and was used in contexts very different from the

fashion apparel consumer context, a number of modifications were made to the questionnaire

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to ensure content validity and comprehension, both in the Spanish cultural context and the

fashion apparel consumer context. Firstly, we asked a panel of expert judges, made up of

three academics, three fashion retailers and two expert fashion apparel shoppers, to assess the

list of the variables in terms of the content adequacy (as in Hwang and Lin, 1987). This

resulted in the elimination of seven out of the 32 ‘terminal’ value items in the Spanish version

of the SVI (“emphasis on spiritual not material matters”, “feeling that others care about me”,

“protection of my nation from enemies”, “a world at peace free of war and conflict”, “the

identity of our country as an indivisible nation”, “truth friendship, close, supportive friends”

and “correcting injustice, care for the weak”). Further, one of the ‘instrumental’ values was

slightly rephrased from the earlier Spanish version, for better comprehension in a consumer

context, and two more items were deleted based on the experts’ feedback: “working for the

welfare of others” and “forgiving, willing to pardon others”. The Spanish questionnaire was

then back-translated into English and given to two bilingual academics (one from North

America and one from Spain), along with the original SVI, to check for translation issues.

There were only slight discrepancies between the two questionnaires which were then

resolved. This questionnaire was also administered to a second pre-test panel of 10 Spanish

fashion apparel consumers to conduct a final check for issues related to content validity and

comprehension. However, no issues were found and hence this was judged the final

questionnaire for the study, which consisted of 48 items measured on a six-point scale

(ranging from 1 = least important to 6 = most important), all of which were valid and relevant

in the fashion apparel consumer context.

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RESULTS

Consumer Values

Firstly, we analyzed data obtained from the ‘terminal’ and ‘instrumental’ values separately

using principal components analysis in order to identify the underlying dimensions of the type

of values. We rotated the initial solutions using the varimax procedure and factors with Eigen

values greater than 1.0. For the ‘terminal’ values these factors collectively accounted for

63.43% of the variance in the data; KMO = 0.80, minimum MSA = 0.619 and R2 = 44.00, and

for the ’instrumental’ values 63.65% of the variance in the data; KMO = 0.808, minimum

MSA = 0.516 and R2= 46.00. Second, for ‘terminal’ and ‘instrumental’ values, we named

factors after the items that had their highest loadings on that factor. By examining the

dimensionality of the statements, we were then able to assess the metric equivalence of

measures (Netemeyer, Durvasula and Lichtenstein, 1991).

As suggested by the literature (Carman, 1978), ‘terminal’ values correlate with ‘instrumental’

values with intensity and in the same direction as expected (i.e. ‘terminal’ values direct

‘instrumental’ values). In our case all the correlations were positive and significant (p < 0.01)

for all the ’terminal’ and ‘instrumental’ values, and negative for the ‘terminal’ value

“hedonism” related to the ’instrumental’ values “benevolence”, “tradition” and “security”.

Next, for all the values, both together ‘terminal and instrumental’, we conducted new factor

analysis and rotated initial solutions using the varimax procedure and factors with Eigen

values greater than 1.0. These factors collectively accounted for 46.23% of the variation in the

data; KMO = 0.840, minimum MSA = 0.528 and R2 = 26.00%. We named factors considering

the items that had their highest loadings on that factor. Finally, we found 11 motivational

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types or consumer values, which are congruent with Schwartz’s results, however with slight

differences and peculiarities (refer to table 1).

Table 1 goes about here The motivation type, ‘self-direction’, which is unique to Schwartz’s theory, in this study

presents a duality with ’creativity’ and ‘independence’. Furthermore, some Spanish culture-

specific motivational types appear to be have been uncovered by this investigation. The first

is ‘ecology’, which coincides with previous exploratory attempts to revise the Schwartz Value

(Odin et al., 1998), as well as emerging research, about environmental values in Spain (Fraj

and Martínez, 2006). This new value type appears significant in the fashion apparel

consumption context, and will be discussed in more detail in the Conclusion. The second is

‘tradition’ which appears as an entire value type on its own, without ’conformity’ which does

not seem to be a Spanish value type according to this data. Finally, ‘spirituality’, also appears

as a new motivational value type that surprisingly is not justified by Schwartz’s theory

(although the SVI scales indicate that he had initially sought to find something similar), but

has recently been linked to consumption motivations (Skousgaard, 2005).

Consumer Segments

We used cluster analysis to create a typology of prototype consumers by grouping similar

types of values into homogeneous groups (see table 2). To test the solution, a discriminant

analysis was used (see table 3). The solution shows that we classified correctly 99.20 per cent

of the original groups’ participants and confirms the good fit of the four cluster solution.

Table 2 goes about here Table 3 goes about here

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Furthermore, we used an ANOVA to evaluate whether the cluster centers are different and to

identify the consumer values that characterized each cluster/consumer segment; the results are

significant at the 5 per cent level for all constructs (see table 4).

Table 4 goes about here

We identified four consumer segments which are shown in Table 5 and the solution is

interpreted in the next section.

Table 5 goes about here

The first segment “Security Conscious, Non-Innovative and Non-Motivated by Ecology”,

CT1, is made up of consumers who have the highest scores on Schwartz’s value type of

‘Security’, thus implying that they always focus on their needs for safety, harmony and social

stability. These consumers also have the lowest scores on two value types of ‘stimulation’ and

‘ecology’. This implies that they lack in enthusiasm and do not have a need for excitement,

novelty and risk and are also least likely to be concerned about the environment.

The second segment “Social Rebels”, CT2, is made up of consumers who have the lowest

scores on four of Schwartz’s value types: ‘achievement’, ‘benevolence’, ‘security’ and ‘self-

direction independence’. These consumers are not oriented towards either personal success or

social harmony and stability. They do not have a benevolent, appreciative or tolerant attitude

towards mankind or society in general.

“Tradition-Seeking but Ecologically Conscious and Highly Innovative”, is the third consumer

segment, CT3, which has the highest scores on three of Schwartz’s value types: ‘tradition’,

‘stimulation’ and ‘ecology’, implying that these consumers are highly motivated by the need

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to confirm to traditional Spanish beliefs, customs and manners, but also seek a high degree of

excitement and novelty in life, and are highly concerned about the environment.

The fourth segment is identified as “Non-Traditional High-Achieving Power Seekers”, CT4,

who have the lowest scores on Schwartz’s ‘tradition’ value type thus implying that they are

not seeking to confirm to traditional Spanish beliefs, customs and manners. However, they

have the highest scores on two other value types: ‘achievement’ and ‘power’ and show a

strong tendency to show off their personal success, and seek social status and prestige.

A further examination reveals that the Spanish consumers in fact, seem to be primarily

characterized by six value types: ‘tradition’, ‘achievement’, ‘security’, ‘stimulation’,

‘ecology’ and ‘power’, and that too in a bipolar fashion. CT3 and CT4 have the highest and

lowest scores respectively on ‘Tradition’, while CT2 and CT4 have the lowest and highest

score respectively on ‘Achievement’. Similarly, CT1 and CT3 have the lowest and highest

score respectively on ‘Stimulation’, while CT1 and CT2 have the highest and lowest score

respectively on ‘Security’. Finally, CT1 and CT3 have the lowest and highest score

respectively on ‘Ecology’, while CT3 and CT4 have the highest and lowest score respectively

on ‘Power’.

CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION

This study examines the validity of Schwartz’s (1992; 1994) Motivational Value Typology in

Spain, and extends it to the measurement of consumer values and identification of target

segments, in the fashion apparel consumer context. The results show that Schwartz’s typology

is valid for the most part in the Spanish cultural context (as in the case of past social science

research discussed previously in the paper), even though the context has changed from

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studying people’s values in the context of their occupation and religious beliefs, to studying

their values as consumers of fashion apparel. However, the hierarchy in which the values

appear is slightly different, the order being, individual values: ‘power’, ‘achievement’,

‘stimulation’, ‘self-direction creativity’, ‘self-direction independence’; for the mixed ones:

‘universalism’, ‘security’ and ‘ecology’; and for the collective values ‘benevolence’,

‘tradition’ and ‘spirituality’. This is supported by Schwartz and Bardi (2001) who state, that

correctly interpreting the value hierarchies of groups requires comparison with the pan-

cultural normative baseline.

Some significant differences have also emerged in this study, with respect to Schwartz’s

original typology unlike other Spanish studies. These differences are consistent with the

nature of values, as different cultures and societies can give origin to similar value structures,

but with values that vary somewhat in intensity and direction.

Firstly, Schwartz’s unique motivational type ‘self-direction’ seems to be bifurcating in the

Spanish consumer context into two value types, termed as ’creativity’ and ’independence’.

This appears to be justified when one looks at the work of Schwartz (1999) talking about the

emergence of ‘autonomy’ as a cultural value, which describes cultures in which the person is

viewed as an autonomous bounded entity that finds meaning in his own uniqueness and seeks

to express his own internal self. Two types of ‘autonomy’ are distinguished: 1) “affective”

autonomy which refers to feelings and emotions and the right of individuals to pursue their

own affectively positive experiences; and 2) “intellectual” autonomy which refers to ideas and

thoughts and the right of individuals to follow their own intellectual directions (Schwartz

1999). This seems to be mirrored in the findings of this study through the bifurcation of ‘self-

direction’ into ’creativity’ and ’independence’.

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Secondly, one of Schwartz’s value types is in fact made up of two types of values ’tradition’

and ‘conformity’, whereas in the Spanish consumer context it seems to be entirely made up of

’tradition’. Linking this up to the earlier finding, one can see that the reason why ‘self-

direction’ may be bifurcating is because ‘conformity’ is transforming into its exact opposite

value, namely ‘independence’. Examining Spain on Hofstede’s national cultural dimensions,

one realizes that Spain is a highly collectivistic country, which further implies that

‘conformity’ may be an intrinsic part of the traditional cultural fabric for the entire population

and may not emerge as a unique value type for one group. ‘independence’, on the other hand

may emerge as a unique value type, since there may be an emerging group of young Spanish

who would like to move away from the traditional social norm of ‘conformity’.

Thirdly, the results of this study show the emergence of a unique motivational value type

‘ecology’ which has not appeared in past Spanish research, but has emerged both in previous

attempts to revise Schwartz’s values (Odin et al 1998), and in emerging research about

environmental values in Spain (Fraj and Martínez 2006). Further, the results indicate that this

‘ecology’ value type appears positioned very close to self-transcendental values such as

‘benevolence’ and ‘universalism’. This appears justified. Schwartz (1992; 1994) argues that

values grouped into self-transcendence and self-enhancement influence the tendency towards

ecological behavior, with those values that are close to the self-enhancement dimension (i.e.

power, achievement), being negatively related to environmental action.

Finally, ‘spirituality’, also appears as a new motivational value type, which Schwartz had

initially sought to find in his study, but could not justify in his theory. There seems to be some

confusion in the literature over the conceptualization of the term ‘spiritual’ (Morgan 1993;

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Schwartz, Meisenhelder and Reed 2003), however, the discovery of this value type in the

consumer context is a significant finding.

The further focus of this study is on exploring segmentation of Spanish consumers based on

Schwartz’s Value Typology , so moving onto a discussion of that, the results suggest that four

segments may exist in the general Spanish consumer population (see table 5). Further, the

Spanish consumers seem to be primarily characterized by six value types: ‘tradition’,

‘achievement’, ‘stimulation’, ‘security’, ‘ecology’ and ‘power’, and that too in a bipolar

fashion. CT1 and CT3 are totally opposite to each other when it comes to values such as

‘stimulation’ and ‘ecology’. CT3 and CT4 are totally opposite to each other concerning

‘tradition’ and ‘power’. Similarly, CT2 and CT4 are totally opposite to each other when it

comes to ‘achievement’, while CT1 and CT2 are totally opposite to each other when it comes

to ‘security’.

IMPLICATIONS FOR MARKETING

The fact that nine out of 10 of Schwartz’s original value types have been validated in the

Spanish fashion apparel consumption context has significant implications for fashion apparel

companies and retailers. Firstly, the knowledge of such distinct consumer/shopper segments

could be used by these companies to design fashion apparel products, fashion advertising

appeals, and also other parts of the market mix such as fashion retail store atmospherics. For

example, if a retailer finds a large segment of consumers with a ‘self-direction creativity’

value type, it could consider ways to facilitate the creative experience its customers can have

through innovative window displays, while the product manufacturing should concentrate on

creating fashion garments that better allow the consumers to express their creative inner self.

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Secondly, the emergence of the three culturally unique Spanish value types is also a

significant finding for Spanish fashion apparel companies and retailers. Despite Levitt’s

(1983) argument that consumers throughout the world are becoming so similar that the

globalization of markets is inevitable, there is still a case to be made for the importance of

differences in consumer values across cultures. Differences do exist, and a lack of recognition

of this can unnecessarily expose companies to risks that could have easily been avoided, even

in countries viewed as very similar culturally. For example, the existence of a segment that

values “ecology” would influence issues such as the way in which the fashion apparel is

produced, the kind of fabrics that are used for manufacture, as well as more experiential or

service-related aspects of the fashion apparel store environment such as environmentally

friendly store fixtures, or recyclable shopping bags.

Finally, ‘spirituality’ has already been identified by consumer researchers as a relevant factor

in motivating consumption (Baumgartner, 2002; Curasi, Price and Arnould, 2004; Kozinets,

2001; Murray, 2002), in a variety of consumption contexts (see Arnould and Price, 1993;

Belk, 2004; Belk et al. , 1988; Celsi, Rose and Leigh, 1993; Hirschman, 1994; Holt, 1995;).

Although very little research has directly examined spiritually-motivated consumption, except

in the context of consumer expression of religious values (O’Guinn and Belk, 1989), this

indicates a strong likelihood that the presence of the ‘spirituality’ value type in the Spanish

culture would have implications for the way in which such Spanish consumers are motivated

towards fashion apparel consumption. This study proves that human values are both very

global yet at the same time may be very-culture specific, depending on the context in which

they are studied (Glazer and Beehr, 2005). While past Spanish research in non-consumer

contexts showed that Schwartz’s Motivational Value Typology can be almost entirely applied

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to any cultural context, this study in the fashion apparel consumer context shows that unique

differences may be found in human values, from one culture to another.

The use of the Schwartz Value Typology to segment the consumer also appears to have

significant implications for marketers. For example, CT1 will focus on their needs for safety,

harmony and social stability while consuming fashion apparel products and retail services,

and may not seek exciting and novel apparel designs. They are also least likely to be

motivated by fashion apparel and marketing campaigns focusing on environmental concerns.

On the other hand, CT3 will seek a high degree of excitement and novelty from the fashion

clothing that they consume, although they may also be motivated by the need to conform to

traditional Spanish beliefs, customs and manners. This is something similar to what is

happening in the Indian fashion industry, where a large proportion of female consumers still

use traditional Indian garments like Sarees and Salwar Kurtas, but want them to be styled in

exciting and innovative ways with Western cuts, design elements and fabrics being used. CT2

may seek fashion apparel and brand marketing which helps them to stand out, and reflects

their attitudes as people who wish to live a little dangerously and rebel against society, while

CT4 will seek fashion clothing and brands at the cutting edge, that help them to establish their

success, power and prestige in the eyes of society, such as luxury clothing brands, and may

not be very concerned about buying apparel that helps them to conform to traditional beliefs,

customs and manners.

Finally, the fact that six out of the 11 Schwartz motivational value types identified appear to

characterize fashion consumer segmentation in Spain, also has significant implications for

Spanish marketers, as they can focus on these specific values to target them in a better way.

For example, CT1 and CT3 seem to be characterized by sharp differences in the motivational

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value type of ‘Ecology’, which will obviously impact upon the demand for fashion brands and

retail outlets that wish to capitalize on environment-friendliness, as discussed earlier. On the

other hand, ‘Spirituality’ has emerged as a new value type in Spain, however it seems to be an

influence on all segments of Spanish consumers and does not differentiate one from the other.

Therefore, it may be used as a general marketing appeal which can be used to create a niche

segment of fashion clothing, as is being done in some countries using words, pictures and

symbols from Indian religion. However, there has been some debate and furor of late, over the

emergence of such fashion trends, among Indians living all across the globe. So, further

research should be conducted to decide whether spiritualism can be used for fashion apparel

marketing in Spain, or whether it needs to be left alone as a mark of respect for consumers’

religious segments.

LIMITATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The primary limitation of this study is that the data has been collected from a very specific

geographical area/cultural context (i.e. Spain) and hence the results cannot be generalized to

all contexts. Further, the data pertains to consumers of a specific industry, i.e. the fashion

apparel industry, and may or may not be generalizable to other product and

shopping/consumption contexts. Finally, the lack of longitudinal data is also a limitation of

the study. Future research should examine this issue in other countries, other

product/consumption contexts such us leisure and tourism as well as cross-culturally, for

further empirical validation of the concepts discussed here. This study is also somewhat

exploratory in nature in terms of the identification of unique cultural extensions to the original

Schwartz Motivational Value Types. Further research should be done on a larger scale, using

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other cultural samples, to check if the new value types emerging in this study (i.e. bifurcated

self-direction, ecology and spirituality), also appear in other cultures.

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Table 1. Types of values and characteristics

Type of value Characteristics

Tradition Motives that conform to beliefs, the maintenance of customs and good manners.

Benevolence The goal to preserve and improve the well-being of the people with whom the individual interacts frequently. Honesty.

Collective

Spiritualism Need to make sense of reality. Personal harmony by transcending the reality of daily life.

Achievement Search for personal success by showing off personal achievements. Success, ambition. Ability

Stimulation Enthusiasm, values associated with the need for excitement, novelty, risk.

Power Attainment of social status, prestige, control and dominance of others.

Self-direction creativity

Generates new ideas, new projects, etc. with ease.

Individual

Self-direction-Independence

Search for independence, self sufficiency

Security Search for safety, harmony and social stability

Ecology Becoming one with nature, a world of beauty, environmental protection.

Mixed

Universalism Appreciation, tolerance, protection for the welfare of mankind and nature.

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Table 2. K-Mean Cluster Analysis for the 4 Metatypes Factor F Sig. Factor F Sig. Groups Size Conservadurism 61.54 0.00 Universalism 54.37 0.00 1 384 Achievement 72.65 0.00 Power 384.5 0.00 2 254 Estimulation 275.61 0.00 Espirituality 6.45 0.00 3 527 Benevolence 61.29 0.00 Creativity 9.11 0.00 4 275 Security 178.25 0.00 Independence 25.38 0.00 Total 1440 Ecology 38.51 0.00 Lost 20 N 1460

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Table 3. Results of the discriminant analysis

Discriminant functions Factor λ de Wilks F Sig.

F1 F2 F3 Conservadurism 0.89 61.54 0.00 -0.13 0.61 0.16 Achievement 0.89 72.65 0.00 0.62 0.07 0.28 Estimulation 0.63 275.60 0.00 0.04 -0.13 0.95 Benevolence 0.89 61.29 0.00 0.52 0.36 -0.11 Security 0.73 178.25 0.00 0.73 0.42 -0.32 Ecology 0.93 38.51 0.00 0.11 0.07 0.51 Universalism 0.89 54.37 0.00 0.54 0.18 0.21 Power 0.55 384.54 0.00 0.48 -0.87 -0.12 Espirituality 0.98 6.45 0.00 -0.15 0.13 -0.12 Creativity 0.98 9.11 0.00 0.03 0.12 0.24 Independence 0.95 25.38 0.00 0.41 0.15 0.05 Wilks Lambda 0.08 0.20 0.46

Chi-square (gl. significatividad)

3599.84 (33; 0.00)

2295.17 (20; 0.00)

1091.72 (9; 0.00)

% de varianza 37.700 33.400 29.00 Canonical correlation 0.773 0.754 0.73

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Table 4. Results of the analysis of variance

Factor Consumer Type 1

Consumer Type 2

Consumer Type 3

Consumer Type 4

1. Tradition .08 234 -.17 134 .33 124 -.59 123 2. Achievement -.17 234 -.65 134 .24 12 .37 12 3. stimulation -.96 234 .09 13 .55 124 .19 13 4. Benevolence .24 2 -.71 134 .14 2 .06 2 5. Security .49 234 -1.07 134 .07 12 .16 12 6. Ecology -.37 234 -.12 13 .31 124 .03 13 7. Universalism -.07 234 -.63 134 .24 12 .22 12 8. Power -.24 234 -.06 134 -.49 124 1.33 123 9. Spiritualism .13 4 .07 2 -.02 -.20 12 10. Creativity -.14 3 -.07 2 .18 124 -.07 3 11. Independence .03 2 -.47 134 .13 2 .15 2

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Table 5. Consumer types identified

Consumer Type (CT) CT1 Security Conscious, Non-Innovative and Non-motivated by Ecology CT2 Social Rebels CT3 Tradition-Seeking but Ecologically-Conscious and Highly Innovative CT4 Non-Traditional High-Achieving Power Seekers