SOLID, TOXIC & HAZARDOUS

WASTE

Managing Solid Waste Disposal

Waste Stream – the steady flow of matter from raw materials, through manufacturing, product formation and marketing, and on to its final resting place – a solid waste dump Some waste contain valuable resources – reduce,

reuse, recycle Americans produce 4.5 pounds of solid waste per day 76% ends up in landfills

Waste

Waste = any unwanted material or substance that results from human activity or process

Municipal solid waste (MSW) = non-liquid waste that comes from homes, institutions, and small businesses

Industrial solid waste (ISW) = waste from production of consumer goods, mining, agriculture, and petroleum extraction and refining

Hazardous waste =solid or liquid waste that is toxic, chemically reactive, flammable, or corrosive

Wastewater = water used in a household, business, or industry, as well as polluted runoff from our streets and storm drains

Sources

Greatest source in US – mining & agricultureMSW relatively small proportion of solid

waste#1 paper#2 yard trimmings#3 food

WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

Open dump – unsanitary, dangerous, malodorous, vermin-infested Poor often live on or near

Sanitary landfill Lined with layers of clay & plastic to decrease

leachate Leachate collected & treated as wastewater Trash alternately compacted & covered with soil Pipes collect methane (source of energy of burned off) Site selection important (geologically, proximity to

source)

Sanitary Landfill

To protect against environmental contamination, landfills must be located away from wetlands, earthquake-prone faults, and 20 ft above water table

Landfills have drawbacks

Experts believe that leachate will eventually escape The liner will become punctured Leachate collection systems eventually aren’t

maintainedIt is hard to find places suitable for landfills

The Not-In-My-Backyard (NIMBY) syndromeThe “Garbage barge” case

In 1987, Islip, New York’s landfills were full, and a barge traveled to empty the waste in North Carolina, which rejected the load

It returned to Queens to incinerate the waste, after a 9,700 km (6,000 mile) journey

NYC Garbage Barge

The garbage was finally burned in New York, and the 430 tons of ash sent to Islip to be buried.

Landfills can be transformed after closure

Thousands of landfills lie abandoned Managers closed smaller landfills

and made fewer larger landfillsIn 1988, the U.S. had nearly 8,000

landfills Today there are fewer than 1,700

Growing cities converted closed landfills into public parks Flushing Meadows in Queens, New

York, was redeveloped for the 1939 World’s Fair

WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

Toxic Colonialism – send solid & hazardous waste to developing countries US exports 80% of its e-waste to Asia (contain heavy

or toxic metals) Poor neighborhoods & Native American reservations

(no resources to fight waste disposal)Ocean Dumping

Illegal Ocean Dumping Ban Act of 1988

Prohibits dumping sewage sludge, industrial waste, medical wastes, MSW

Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Great Pacific Garbage patch

Great Pacific Garbage Patch

WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

Incineration a controlled process in which mixed garbage is

burned at very high temperatures Reduces amount of landfill volume 80-90% Refuse Derived Fuel – non-combustibles removed Mass Burn Incinerators – burn anything smaller that a

refrigerator More cost effective

Releases air pollutants & require post-combustion controls

Many incinerators create energy

Incineration is used to reduce the volume of waste and generate electricity

Waste-to-energy facilities (WTE) = use the heat produced by waste combustion to create electricity More than 100 facilities are in use across the U.S. They can process nearly 100,000 tons of waste per

day But, they take many years to become profitable

Companies contract with communities to guarantee a minimum amount of garbage Long-term commitments interfere with the

communities’ later efforts to reduce waste

A typical solid waste incinerator

Improved disposal methods

Most industrialized nations now bury waste in lined and covered landfills or burn it in incineration facilities In the U.S., recycling is decreasing pressure on landfills

DIOXINS

Chlorinated hydrocarbons Most toxic TCDD (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) Naturally produced during forest fires Anthropogenic sources – incinerators, smelters,

chlorine bleaching at paper mills, tobacco smoke Bioaccumulate & biomagnify Teratogenic (birth defects), immunotoxic, carcinogen,

liver damage, rashes, skin discoloration Love Canal, NY & “A Civil Action”

Reducing Waste

Reduce, Reuse, RecycleReduce

Decrease packaging Source reduction (redesign to use less material)

Reuse Use the waste for another or the same purpose

Reuse plastic grocery bags Reuse glass containers (glass bottle can be used 15 times)

Recycle Convert to another product

Open loop recycling – convert to a different product Closed-loop recycling – recycled to same product

RECYCLING

Must be profitableReduces air pollutionSteps

1. Collection and processing of materials Materials Recovery Facilities (MRFs)-items sorted,

cleaned & prepared

2. Use recyclables to make new products3. Consumers purchase goods from recycled materials

Paper Recycling

Paper making process energy & water intensive, also uses chlorine – makes sense to recycle

Open-loop recycling 1st – de-ink Mix with fresh pulp (fibers shorten each time

recycled) Uses less chlorine & water Reduces air pollution Fewer trees harvested

Composting

Diverts food and yard waste from the waste stream

Converting organic waste into mulch or humus through natural biological process of decomposition Enriches soil, reduces erosion

Home compostingMunicipal composting

Established area in which yard wastes & tree trimmings converted to mulch (a green fertilizer)

Recycling has grown rapidly and can expand

The EPA calls the growth of recycling “one of the best environmental success stories of the late 20th century”

Recycling rates vary widely, depending on the product 67% of major appliances

are recycled Only 6% of plastics are

recycled

Recycling rates vary widely in the U.S.

Recycling Difficulties

Plastic difficult to recycle Soda bottles (PET plastics) recycled into carpets, clothing,

bottles & packaging Contamination with PVC plastic can render PET unusable

for recycling Recycled plastic more expensive Biodegradable plastics only partially biodegradable Photodegradable (in a landfill???)

Tires Can be reused (not recycled – vulcanized rubber cannot be

remelted) Difficult to bury Shredded to use in playgrounds & as artificial mulch Incinerated for energy

Recycling Difficulties

Lead & Lead Toxicity Recycled from automobile batteries Bioaccumulates in bone Leads to mental retardation, lowered IQs,

hyperactivity, ADHD, learning disorders Max level 10µg/dL of blood

Demanufacturing

Taking apart household items & retrieve recyclable components Refrigerators, stoves, televisions, air conditioners Computers, electronics, etc

Hazardous Wastes

Any wastes that are flammable, explosive, corrosive or highly reactive

Chemicals that are toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic

Not radioactive wastesMost is recycled, stored or converted to less

hazardous material

Hazardous Waste

Hazardous waste is defined as:Ignitable = substances that easily catch fire

(natural gas, alcohol)Corrosive = substances that corrode metals in

storage tanks or equipmentReactive = substances that are chemically

unstable and readily react with other compounds, often explosively or by producing noxious fumes

Toxic = substances that harm human health when they are inhaled, are ingested, or contact human skin

Hazardous wastes have diverse sources

Industry = produces the largest amount of hazardous waste But waste generation and disposal is highly regulated

MiningHouseholds = now the largest producer of unregulated

hazardous waste Paints, batteries, oils, solvents, cleaning agents,

pesticidesSmall businessesAgricultureUtilitiesBuilding demolition

Organic compounds can be hazardous

Particularly hazardous because their toxicity persists over time

Synthetic organic compounds = resist decomposition Keep buildings from decaying, kill pests, and keep stored

goods intact Their resistance to decay causes them to be persistent

pollutants They are toxic because they are readily absorbed through

the skin They can act as mutagens, carcinogens, teratogens, and

endocrine disruptors

Heavy metals can be hazardous

Lead, chromium, mercury, arsenic, cadmium, tin, and copper

Used widely in industry for wiring, electronics, metal plating, pigments, and dyes

They enter the environment when they are disposed of improperly

Heavy metals that are fat soluble and break down slowly can bioaccumulate and biomagnify

PCBs

Polychlorinated biphenyls – chlorinated hydrocarbons

Persistent and bioaccumulate & biomagnifyMade in US until 1976Used in electric transformers, capacitors, pumps &

turbinesUsed as adhesive, lubricants, fire retardants,

hydraulic fluidsAcute exposure - causes nausea, diarrhea, vomitingChronic – interferes with endocrine systemRemoved by bioremediation or incineration

“E-waste” is a new and growing problem

Electronic waste (“e-waste”) = waste involving electronic devices Computers, printers,

VCRs, fax machines, cell phones

Disposed of in landfills, but should be treated as hazardous waste

Some people and businesses are trying to use and reuse electronics to reduce waste

Managing Hazardous Wastes

Easiest way to control – avoid usingGreen chemistry –redesigning chemical

processes to be less hazardous Physical processes

using charcoal to absorb toxins Distilling Incineration (PCBs) – but can release dioxins Long term storage in secure landfills

Bioremediation –using bacteria or other microbes to break down Natural or genetically engineered (PCBs, organic

solvents, pesticides)

Managing Hazardous Wastes

Phytoremediation – using plants (possibly genetically engineered) to absorb & accumulate toxic materials from the soil Sunflowers remove lead Poplar trees remove many contaminants Canola removes selenium

Plants become contaminated & must be disposed of properly

Slow processOnly works to depth of roots

Hazardous Waste Disposal

For many years, hazardous waste was discarded without special treatment Public did not know it was harmful

to human health Assumed the substances would

disappear or be diluted in the environment

Since the 1980s, cities designate sites or special collection days to gather household hazardous waste

Hazardous Waste Disposal

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA, 1976) Main legislation that controls

hazardous waste disposal States are required to manage

hazardous waste Intended to ensure testing and

ensure correct disposal methods (prevent illegal dumping)

Large generators of hazardous waste must obtain permits and must be tracked “from cradle to grave”

Love Canal NY 1978

NIAGARA FALLS, N.Y.--Twenty five years after the Hooker Chemical Company stopped using the Love Canal here as an industrial dump, 82 different compounds, 11 of them suspected carcinogens, have been percolating upward through the soil, their drum containers rotting and leaching their contents into the backyards and basements of 100 homes and a public school built on the banks of the canal.

Love Canal, NY

The first declared national environmental disasterEntire community evacuatedChemical hazardous wastes stored in the canal for

decadesDump closed & house built Tanks began leaking, children developed

chemical burnsMiscarriages & birth defectsYears of litigation – company required to clean up

siteImpetus for passing Superfund Act (CERCLA)

CERCLA & SARA

Comprehensive Emergency Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA, Superfund Act, 1980)

Amended in 1984 – Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) Intended to allow the feds to respond quickly to

hazardous waste contamination Established a federal program to clean up U.S. sites

polluted with hazardous waste Experts identify polluted sites, take action to protect

groundwater near these sites, and clean up the pollution

CERCLA & SARA

EPA administers the act & determines which sites require attention Supertoxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic Chemicals of greatest concern

Lead Trichloroethylene Toluene Benzene PCBs Chloroforms Phenol Arsenic Cadmium Chromium

Superfund: harmful sites

Harmful sites are: Placed on the EPA’s National Priority List Ranked according to the level of risk to human health

that they pose Cleaned up on a site-by-site basis as funds are

availableThe EPA is required to hold public hearings

and inform area residents of its findings and to receive feedback

CERCLA & SARA

Sites placed on the National Priorities List Currently 1,162 sites (113 in NJ) as of 1/24/14

Include abandoned factories, smelters, mills, refineries & chemical plants

If unable to determine who is responsible for damage, cleanup is paid for from Superfund Money generated by taxing chemical & hazardous

materials Tax expired in 1995 and has not been reauthorized Currently funds come from taxpayers Companies required to file annual Toxic Release

Inventory

Contaminated sites are being slowly cleaned up

Globally, thousands of former military and industrial sites are contaminated with hazardous waste For most nations, dealing with these messes is

too difficult, time consuming and expensive

The Superfund process

Once a Superfund site is identified, EPA scientists evaluate: How close the site is to human habitation Whether wastes are currently confined or likely to

spread Whether the site threatens drinking water supplies

Upper Ringwood Superfund Site

The Superfund Act

Superfund

Later laws charged the EPA with cleaning up brownfields = lands whose reuse or development are complicated by the presence of hazardous materials

Two events spurred creation of Superfund legislation In Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York, families were

evacuated after buried toxic chemicals rose to the surface, contaminating homes and an elementary school

In Times Beach, Missouri, the entire town was evacuated after being contaminated with dioxin from waste oil sprayed on roads

Brownfields

Site contaminated with toxic or hazardous materials

Abandoned properties with not enough contamination to be on National Priorities List

Many industrial areas in urban areas

Subject to remediation so they may be reclaimed and used by humans

Illegal dumping of hazardous waste

Since hazardous waste disposal is costly, it results in illegal and anonymous dumping by companies, Creating health risks Industrial nations illegally dump in developing nations Basel Convention, an international treaty, should

prevent dumping but it still happensHigh costs of disposal encourages companies

to invest in reducing their hazardous waste

Three disposal methods for hazardous waste

These methods do nothing to lessen the hazards of the substances But they help keep the substance isolated from people,

wildlife, and ecosystemsLandfills = must have several impervious liners

and leachate removal systems Design and construction standards are stricter than for

ordinary sanitary landfills Must be located far from aquifers

Surface impoundments

Surface impoundments = store liquid hazardous waste

Shallow depressions are lined with plastic and clay

Water containing waste evaporates, the residue of solid hazardous waste is then transported elsewhere

The underlying clay layer can crack and leak waste, and rainstorms cause overflow, contaminating nearby areas

Deep-well injection

Deep-well injection = a well is drilled deep beneath the water table and waste is injected into it A long-term disposal method The well is intended to be

isolated from groundwater and human contact

However, the wells become corroded and leak waste into soil

Radioactive waste is especially hazardous

Radioactive waste is particularly dangerous and persistent

Yucca Mountain in Nevada is now designated as the single-site repository for all U.S. nuclear waste

The Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) is the world’s first underground repository for transuranic waste from nuclear weapons development Caverns holding the waste are 655 m (2,150 ft)

below ground in a huge salt formation thought to be geologically stable

WIPP became operational in 1999 and is receiving thousands of shipments of waste

Yucca Mountain, Nevada