Sociolinguistics

Chapter 9Language Change

Learning Objectives

Variation and change Post-vocalic [r] Vernacular forms

Why do changes spread? From group to group From style to style From word to word

How do we study language change? Apparent time studies Real time studies

Learning Objectives

Reasons for language change Social status and language change Gender and language variation Interaction and language variation

Variation and change

Language varies in three ways in physical space (regional variation) socially (social variation) over time (language change)

Variation and change

Language variation Language change

Stable variation Language change in progress

Bell-shaped pattern Steady increase or steady decline

Post-vocalic [r]

Example 3 Standard English has lost the pronunciation

of [r] following vowels in words like star and start.

It does not occur in RP nor in London Cockney dialect.

The loss is still in progress, as there are areas such as south-west England where [r] is still pronounced.

Spread of vernacular forms

Example 4 In Martha’s Vineyard, the people resented the

fact that the island has been invaded by immigrants and tourists.

They pronounced the words light and house like [ləit] and [həus], in which the vowel is more centralised.

This pronunciation was associated with the area in the past.

The fishermen used this to express solidarity.

Exercise 3

The high rise terminal (HRT) is a rising intonation pattern.

It is a vernacular feature which is increasing in Sydney.

Sources Spread to Sydney from other areas of

Australia Spread to Sydney from New Zealand

How do changes spread?

From group to group

Figure 9.1 From style to style

Figure 9.2

Exercise 4 From word to word

Exercise 5

How do we study language change?

Apparent-time studies Real-time studies

The linguist compares the speech of people from different age groups.

The linguist follows the same group of people and documents their change over an extensive period (e.g. 20-30 years).

How do we study language change?

Apparent-time studies of language change Comparing the speech of people from different

age groups Differences between the speech of older

people and younger people are interpreted as indications of changes in progress, e.g. an increase in the use of prestigious forms indicate language change.

How do we study language change?

Apparent-time studies of language change The problem is with the vernacular forms, as

young people use more vernacular forms anyway. Therefore the use of vernacular forms by young people might be simply stable variation.

Researchers need to ensure that teenagers will continue to use the vernacular form even when they reach adulthood.

How do we study language change?

Real time studies of language change Researchers look at language changes in the

same place over a long period of time (20-30 years)

Trudgill’s Norwich study

He compared the data in1968 and 1983, and found that the vowels of beer and bear had completely merged.

Reasons for language change

Social status and language change Members of the group with most social status

tend to introduce changes into a speech community from neighbouring communities which have greater status and prestige.

Lower-class speakers are more influential in spreading less conscious linguistic changes.

Reasons for language change

Gender and language change Women lead changes towards both prestige

and vernacular forms.

e.g. Women in Ucieda, Spain led changes towards the standard form to

show their social aspirations.

Reasons for language change

e.g. Women in Clonard, Belfast introduce vernacular forms from

Ballymacarrett, because the both Clonard and Ballymacarrett are working-class

communities, and Ballymacarett is more prestigious.

Also, women in Clonard have a close- knit multiplex network. They are

employed in poor city stores in shopping areas. They develop work and leisure patterns that resemble

those of male groups.

Reasons for language change

Gender and language change Men lead changes towards vernacular forms

only.

e.g. Men in Martha’s Vineyard led a change to a more vernacular form to

show their loyalty to an older set of values.

e.g. Upper-working-class men in Norwich are leading a sound change away

from RP towards vernacular forms to show the solidarity of working men.

Reasons for language change

Interaction and language change Linguistic changes progress most slowly in

tightly knit communities which have little contact with the outside world.

e.g. Gaelic in Scotland

Maori in the far north of New Zealand

Iceland

Reasons for language change

Interaction and language change Media expose people to new form in speech,

but face-to-face interaction is crucial for linguistic change

Example 10

Test

Date: 9 December 2014 (Tuesday)

Time: 11:30-13:30

Range: Holmes Chapters 1-9

Handouts

Remark: 40%, no re-take

Types of questions

Theory-based questions Application questions

Theory-based questions

In sociolinguistic surveys, there are two technical terms which are useful for describing social networks.

The first one is ______________, which refers to whether members of a person’s network are in touch with each other. (2%)

The second one is ______________, which is a measure of the range of different types of transaction people are involved in with different individuals in your social network. (2%)

Application questions

Speaker Age To God To parents To friends To government

officials

A 63 Hu Hu Hu G

B 61 Hu Hu Hu G

C 58 Hu Hu GHu G

D 52 Hu Hu GHu G

E 37 Hu GHu G G

F 25 Hu GHu G G

G 22 Hu GHu G G

Application questions

In a speech community both Hungarian and German are in use. Study the data set, and comment in terms of:

1. domain (4%)

2. code-switching (4%)

3. language shift (4%)