Social Research Methods

Ethnography and Participant Observation

Ethnography

Detailed description of events + insights into their meaning

A method of discovery - the obscure - small samples.

Comparative method - official/unofficial, formal/informal

Naturalistic stance - natural setting - empathy. Understand the symbolic world of the people

studied

Key methods

Interviews Documents Direct observation - become part of the

setting = Participant observation

Entering the field

Entry = the process of developing presence and relationships in the designated research setting that makes it possible for the researcher to collect data.

Field = the natural, non-laboratory setting or location where the activities in which a researcher is interested take place.

Building rapport Develop good personal relationships with people to

get access and information

Participant observation

= data collection technique that requires the researcher to be present at, involved in and recording the routine daily activities with people in the field setting.Identify the rules and meanings that govern relationships and actions in the setting.Not just observation, but often asking questions too (if possible)

Classic examples

James Patrick - A Glasgow Gang Observed

William Foote Whyte - Street Corner Society

Laud Humphreys - Tearoom Trade Erving Goffman - Asylums

Covert vs. overt

Covert - secret. Ethical problems - justifiable if no alternative (e.g. with elites)May limit ability to wander (should be working)May limit where you can go (workers not allowed in management canteen)Good for understanding what role means for participantsNo ethical issues if done in public arena, (football match, shopping, club). But may still need permission.

Overt - known

Need to negotiate access Gatekeepers = those who control access to

information, other individuals and settings. May also be a sponsor. Some gain entry just by “hanging about” (e.g.

fiddling by market traders) Local gatekeepers are people who control

access to resources or information researchers need.

Key informants

Recognized special expertise in a topic of interest to the researcher

cultural experts are people who have special cultural expertise.

Gatekeeper often the first informant BUT, beware, key informants may not be

typical people in the setting.

Front management

Impression you make in the setting Need to get along and like people (to some

extent) even if you don’t agree with them. The acceptable incompetent Going native -> too much empathy Balance view of the Martian and the convert. Dealing with factions - align with largest

group or remain outside and neutral

Marginality

Fear of non-acceptance Loneliness Worry over discovery of covert status Helps to work in a team Marginality is creative - generates insight.

Those observed may use exclusionary techniques

Using a standard language unfamiliar to the researcher

Code switching (changing from a language familiar to the researcher to one not understood)

Changing the subject of a conversation when the ethnographer approaches

Refusing to answer the question Positioning so that the ethnographer cannot hear

what is being said Not inviting researchers to attend social events.

Reasons for this =

Lack of trust Discomfort with outsider Inability to support stranger (e.g. cannot

afford)

What to observe

Settings Observe and track events and event

sequences Counting, census-taking and ethnographic

mapping (e.g. decisions, kin relationships) Searching for indicators of socio-economic

difference

Data Collection

Notes Still camera Audio & still camera Video Laptops Tracking users:

- diaries- interaction logging

Settings

Need to identify - talk to some participants or research partners (gatekeepers)

Public or semi-public settings can be observed in unobtrusive way.

Events

Involve more than one person Have History and consequence Are repeated Bounded in time and space.

e.g. meetings, gatherings, celebrations, religious, political social and sporting events,

Classic questions are

Space. What is the physical space like? Actors. Who is involved? Activities. What are they doing? Objects. What objects are present? Acts. What are individuals doing? Events. What kind of event is it? Goals. What do they want to accomplish? Feelings. What is the mood of the group

and of individuals?

Counting, census-taking etc.

Cross-sectional or longitudinal E.g. number, ages, mixture of cultures, ethnicity

etc. E.g. how many at the club, ages, sex, style of

dress, how many in group, when they arrived? Census = details of each household

Do this in ethnography or community study Basic form for each. Maps of community. Use maps to show where people are

Charts - e.g. hierarchy, organization, decision, event flow, taxonomy.

Organisation chart

Look for social differences

Clothing Hair style Type and amount of jewellery Leisure time activities Speech and language patterns Television programme preferences Choice of car Where home is Decoration of home Each of these my have many subtypes or categories.

e.g. shoes - trainers, make, style trousers - jeans, make, colour, style,

Interpretative Data Analysis

Look for key events that drive the group’s activity.

Look for patterns of behaviour. Test data sources against each other -

triangulate. Report findings in honest way. Produce ‘rich’ or ‘thick descriptions’. Include quotes, pictures, and anecdotes

Typologies

Those used by informants e.g. Giallombardo study of women’s prison.

Prisoners describe inmates as: snitchers, inmate cops and lieutenants, squares,

jive bitches, rap buddies, homeys, connects, boosters, inners, penitentiary turnouts, lesbians, femmes, stud broads, tricks, commissary hustlers, chippies, kick partners, cherries, punks, and turnabouts.

An “emic” account

Those used by analyst

e.g. Lofland study of waiting behaviour: The sweet young thing The nester The investigator Seasoned urbanites The Maverick

An “etic” account

Fieldnotes

No point in observation if you don’t record Develop powers of observation, Practice

mental notes -

Fieldnotes 2

Describe behaviourally - try to avoid interpreting meaning of action (leave this for analysis stage). Describe actions as neutrally as possible until you have seen behaviour in all other settings.

Descriptions of individual should include clothing, carriage, items carried, status of items. Don’t just say ‘elegantly dressed’ because that does not tell us what this means in that setting.

Describe physical state of environment. Not just bright and warm, but say what colours used, what was on walls, what furniture there was, what kind, new or old, colour and upholstery etc.

Fieldnotes 3

Jotted notes. Need to write up as full fieldnotes

Include key phrases, words or quotations. Jot at inconspicuous moments - the weak

bladder technique.

Keep data and interpretation separate

Inferences and personal observations, reflections, hunches and emotional reactions of the field researcher can be recorded separately from the stream of fieldnotes that describes the event or situation.

E.g. split page into two columns - wide one for notes, narrower one for comments.

Fieldnotes good practice

Record what is said, with selected, key quotations.

Write up as soon after event as possible Use pseudonyms Notes describe actions in actual sequence Include relevant history (do this when writing up) Record, time, date and location, name of

researcher (if in team) and pseudonyms of those present.