SNAKES IN THE VICINITY OF CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL

Herpetological Conservation and Biology 7(1):46−57. Submitted: 28 February 2011; Accepted:12 December 2011; Published: 6 May 2012.

46

SNAKES IN THE VICINITY OF CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL

DEB P. PANDEY

Department of Zoology, Birendra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Bharatpur-10, Chitwan, Nepal Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre, Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt am Main, Germany

e-mail: [email protected] Abstract.—Chitwan National Park (CNP) is situated in the south-central subtropical lowlands of the inner Terai of Nepal. From 2002 to 2008, I collected snakes in areas bordering the CNP. I also received preserved specimens and photographs of snakes from some residents in the area. I recorded 26 species belonging to 20 genera. Of the 26 species, 12 were non-venomous species, five were mildly venomous (four back-fanged), and nine were venomous (eight front-fanged). Oligodon kheriensis was previously known from two specimens only; from Kheri Division, Uttar Pradesh, India andMahendranagar, western Nepal. This record extends the known range of this rare species about 350 km east of its type locality. Key Words.—checklist; Chitwan National Park; Elapidae; snakes; vipers

INTRODUCTION Nepal has a rich but understudied snake fauna.

Different authors list up to 90 snake species from Nepal, including up to 22 venomous ones (Shrestha 2001; Schleich and Kästle 2002; Shah and Tiwari 2004). These are broadly distributed in the lowlands (70 m elevation), in some valleys in the middle hills with a tropical climate, and in the Himalayan regions (up to more than 4,800 m). Venomous snakes have been found at altitudes as high as 3,200 m in Nepal (Shah 1995; Shah et al. 2003).

Chitwan National Park (CNP), a World Heritage Site located in the south-central lowlands of Nepal, is famous for its Greater One-horned Asian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis), Royal Bengal Tigers (Panthera tigris tigris), and Gharials (Gavialis gangeticus). However, very little is known about the snakes of Chitwan National Park and its vicinity. Moreover, the literature on snakes and their diversity in different parts of Nepal is exceptionally limited, though the first zoogeographical study of herpetofauna was published in 1962 (Swan and Leviton 1962). The aim of this study is to prepare a checklist of snake species found in the vicinity of CNP and gather information on the location of venomous species of snakes that would be important in ecosystem and snakebite management.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

I surveyed and collected snakes in Village

Development Committee (VDC) areas of Chitwan (Fig. 1) and the Nawalparasi districts (Fig. 2) in the south-central, subtropical lowlands of Nepal in the vicinity of CNP. Surveys focused especially at the Madi Valley south and southwest of CNP and near the Rapti and Narayani Rivers, north and west of CNP. I used Google

Earth (Google Inc., Mountain View, California, USA) to approximate the coordinates and altitude of the 12 study sites (S1–S12; Appendix 1). The region around the CNP constitutes a 750-km2 buffer zone that is 55% agricultural land and 45% community forests (Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation and Park People Project 2000). In addition to these agricultural and forest habitats, there are 40 lakes within the park and one lake (Bishazari Lake) outside that provide suitable habitat for snakes of this region.

I surveyed the streams, community forests, and agro-ecosystems in selected study sites in vicinity of CNP during daytime hours, especially in the hot/dry and the rainy seasons, from 2002 through 2008. I used literature (Green 2000; Shah and Tiwari 2004) and field guides (Whitaker 1978; Shrestha 2001; Schleich and Kästle 2002; Whitaker and Captain 2004; Vogel 2006) to identify snake species and assign venomous condition (Nv = Non-venomous, Mv = Mildly venomous, Bf = Back-fanged, Vs = Venomous secretion, V = Venomous). Also, I sent some specimens to the Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, Soyambhu, Kathmandu, and the Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, for identification. After identification, I released most of the captured snakes at the point of capture, although a few were released elsewhere in similar habitat. In this area, local residents typically bury killed snakes. I disinterred, studied, and photographed all the interred snakes reported by locals. In most cases, I reburied snakes in the same location if I could identify them immediately. I preserved others for later identification. In addition, I also studied dead snakes from Bharatpur Hospital, Chitwan district, Nepal and other health institutes within the region.

I preserved collected snakes in 10% formalin for identification. During my field visits, I encouraged and motivated local residents to collect and preserve any dead

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Copyright (c) 2012. Deb Pandey. All rights reserved.

Herpetological Conservation and Biology

47

NEPAL

84° 15’ 84° 40’

84° 15’ 84° 40’

27° 50’ 27° 25’

27° 50’ 27° 25’

FIGURE 1. Village Development Committee (VDC) areas in Chitwan District, Nepal where I surveyed for snakes (yellow with red dots).

Pandey.—Snakes in the Vicinity of Chitwan National Park, Nepal.

48

NEPAL

83° 50’ 84° 15’

27° 50’ 27° 25’

27° 50’ 27° 25’

83° 50’ 84° 15’

FIGURE 2. Village Development Committee (VDC) areas in Nawalparasi District, Nepal, where I surveyed for snakes(yellow with red dots).


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TABLE 1. Snake species recorded from different study sites in the vicinity of Chitwan National Park in Nepal. Study sites were Gaidakot, Nawalparasi (S1), Bharatpur, Chitwan (S2), Madi valley, Chitwan (S3), Pragatinagar, Nawalparasi (S4), Meghauli area, Chitwan (S5), Devechuli, Nawalparasi (S6), Kawaswoti area, Nawalparasi (S7), Rampur area, Chitwan (S8), Nayabelani, Nawalparasi (S9), Tandi area, Chitwan (S10),Patihani, Chitwan (S11), and Deurali, Nawalparasi (S12). A plus sign (+) denotes the confirmed presence of a species. An asterisk (*) indicates the species recorded by a photograph only. Site descriptions are in Appendix 1.

Species Study Area

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12

Ramphotyphlops braminus + + - - - - - - - + - -

Typhlops diardii + - - - - - - - - - - -

Eryx johnii* - - + - - - - - - - - -

Python bivittatus - - + - - - - - - + - -

Ahaetulla nasuta - - + + - - - - - + - -

Amphiesma stolatum - + + - + - - - - - - -

Boiga trigonata - - + - - - - - - - - -

Coelognathus helena - + + - - + - - - + - -

Coelognathus radiatus - - + - - - - - - + - -

Dendrelaphis tristis - - + - - - - - - + - -

Enhydris sieboldii - - + - - - + - - + - -

Lycodon aulicus - + + - - - - - - + - -

Lycodon jara - - - - - - - - - + - -

Oligodon arnensis - + + - - - + - - + - -

Oligodon kheriensis* - - - - - - - - - + - -

Ptyas mucosa - - + - - - - + - + - -

Rhabdophis subminiatus - - + - - - - - - - - -

Xenochrophis piscator - + - - - - - - - + - -

Bungarus caeruleus - + + - + - - - + + - -

Bungarus fasciatus - - + - - - + - - + - -

Bungarus lividus - - - - - - - - - + - - Sinomicrurus macclellandii univirgatus - + - - - - - - - - - -

Naja kaouthia - - + - - - - - - + - -

Naja naja - - + - - - + - - + - -

Ophiophagus hannah - - + - + - + - - - - -

Cryptelytrops albolabris - - + - - + - - - - + +

snakes. If it was difficult to preserve a snake because of its size, location, or for other reasons, I instructed residents to take high resolution photographs. I deposited the collected specimens in the museum of the Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Chitwan, and the Museum of Biodiversity Conservation Center, Sauraha, Chitwan. I also included records of snakes for which no specimens were available, using photographs only.

RESULTS

I recorded 26 snake species belonging to 20 genera

(Table 1) and five families (Table 2). Snakes ranged from the smallest-bodied (6 cm) blind snake to the largest-bodied (4 m) python (Figs. 3–6). Twelve of these snakes were non-venomous; five mildly venomous (four of which were back-fanged) and nine were venomous snakes (eight of which were front-fanged;

Table 2). I recorded 29% of the total snake species known to occur in Nepal. I found nine species (35%) in human-outdoor environments (e.g., yards, premises of residents, outdoor toilets, roadsides, and playgrounds), eight species (31%) in crop-fields and farms, seven species (27%) in water bodies (on or near to the banks of water bodies, such as wells and water tanks) five species (19%) inside buildings (including on beds), four species (15%) at fences, two species (8%) in subterranean habitats (e.g., in decayed materials or burrows), and one species (4%) in a grassy area of a garden.

DISCUSSION

In this study, I found one worldwide rare snake

species (Oligodon kheriensis), a species new for this area, and a rare and venomous (back-fanged) snake (Rhabdophis subminiatus) reported only from Chitwan, Nepal. Oligodon kheriensis was previously known only


50

from two specimens; from Kheri Division, Uttar Pradesh, India and Mahendranagar, western Nepal (Smith 1981, Schleich and Kästle 2002). My record of this species from the Pithuwa Village Development Community, Chitwan, extends the known range of this rare species about 350 km east of its type locality. I recorded it in mid-afternoon (1556), 6 April 2002, in an open cultivated land while it was still. Eryx johnii has been reported from three sites other than my study region (Schleich and Kästle 2002), and Shah and Tiwari (2004) reported it from Parsa near Chitwan. So, it might be new record for this region. I found eight species of front-fanged venomous snakes, but not Daboia russelii, which previous authors had reported from the region (Shah and Tiwari 2004) and some other parts of Nepal (Bhetwal et al. 1998; O´Shea 1998; Shah and Tiwari 2004). I collected only one specimen of Rhabdophis subminiatus from Chitwan, which Wall (1923) first reported in Nepal without specific locality data. Similarly, Schleich and Kästle (2002) reported R.

subminiatus imprecisely from CNP, but Shah and Tiwari (2004) confirmed its occurrence in Chitwan, which supports my finding. Because of these few records, both D. russelii and R. subminiatus are considered rare snake species in Nepal and Chitwan. Given this, further extensive and precise searches for Daboia and Rhabdophis should be carried out to verify their existence and distributional patterns in this and other regions of Nepal. Because knowledge of venomous snakes is useful in these areas, understanding the distribution of these two species may assist in the selection and development of antivenom and for snakebite management in Nepal.

I also found Typhlops diardii, which Schleich and Kästle (2002) and Shah and Tiwari (2004) have reported from this area, although O’Shea (1998) and Shrestha (2001) reported it only from Bardia region of western Nepal. However, T. diardii was considered uncommon in this region (O’Shea 1998; Shrestha 2001). Schleich and Kästle (2002) and Shah and Tiwari (2004) also reported

TABLE 2. Checklist of snakes in vicinity of Chitwan National Park, Nepal including scientific name, common English name, common vernacularname (if available), family (T = Typhlopidae, B = Boidae, C = Colubridae, E = Elapidae, Vip = Viperidae), and venomous condition (Nv = Non-venomous, Mv = Mildly venomous, Bf = Back-fanged, Vs = Venomous secretion, V = Venomous).

Scientific Name Common Name Vernacular Name Family Venomous Condition

Ramphotyphlops braminus Brahminy Worm Snake Andha Sarpa, Teliya T Nv

Typhlops diardii Diard's Worm Snake Phusre Telia T Nv

Eryx johnii Red Sand Boa/Brown Earth Boa Domukhe/Lide/Laxmi/Mate Sanp B Nv

Python bivittatus Burmese Rock Python Ajingar B Nv

Ahaetulla nasuta Common Vine Snake Sugia C Mv, Bf

Amphiesma stolatum Striped/Buff-striped Keelback Bagale, Nauri/Nauria, Ashare, Harara C Mv, Bf

Boiga trigonata Common Cat Snake Sanbe/Adhoo Sarpa, Tirishe, Batashe C Mv, Bf

Coelognathus helena Common Trinket Snake Singare Sarpa C Nv

Coelognathus radiatus Copper-headed Trinket Snake Singare Sarpa C Nv

Dendrelaphis tristis Common Bronzeback Tree Snake Sirish C Nv

Enhydris sieboldii Siebold’s Smooth-scale Water Snake Dhod, Machhagidhi C Mv, Bf

Lycodon aulicus Common Wolf Snake Dhamiloo Sanp, Chichinde C Nv

Lycodon jara Yellow-speckled Wolf/Twin-spotted Wolf Snake (not available) C Nv

Oligodon arnensis Common/Banded Kukri Snake (not available) C Nv

Oligodon kheriensis Coral Red Kukri Snake (not available) C Nv

Ptyas mucosa Asiatic Rat Snake Dhamin, Dhamila, Muse Sarpa C Nv

Rhabdophis subminiatus Red-necked Keelback (not available) C V, Bf

Xenochrophis piscator Checkered Keelback Pani Sarpa C Mv, Vs

Bungarus caeruleus Common Krait Krait, Chure, Setokalo-Chure E V

Bungarus fasciatus Banded Krait Panhelokalo Chure E V

Bungarus lividus Lesser Black Krait Kalo Krait E V

Sinumicrurus macclellandi univirgatus

MaCelland’s Coral Snake Setofetawal Nag, Karkat Nag E V

Naja kaothia Monocled Cobra Goman, Nag, Paniadarad E V

Naja naja Spectacled/Common Cobra Goman, Nag E V

Ophiophagus hannah King Cobra Queta, Raj Goman E V

Cryptelytrops albolabris White-lipped Green Pit-viper Harau, Harau Sanp Vip V


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A B

C D

E F

FIGURE 3. Live snakes recorded in vicinity of the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. A: Rhamphotyphlops braminus, Brahminy Worm Snake (photographed by Kapil Pokherel); B: Python bivittatus, Burmese Rock Python (photographed by Bishnu B. Lama); C: Ptyas mucosa, Asiatic Rat Snake (mating; photographed by Deb P. Pandey); D: Coelognathus helena, Common Trinket Snake (juvenile; photographed by Deb P. Pandey); E: Amphiesma stolata, Striped Keelback (unknown photographer); F: Xenochrophis piscator, Checkered Keelback (photographed by Amod Ghimire).


52

FIGURE 4. Snakes found alive in vicinity of the Chitwan National Park, Nepal. A: Oligodon arnensis, Banded Kukri Snake (juvenile; photographed by Deb P. Pandey); B: Cryptelytrops albolabris, White-lipped Green Pit-viper (photographed by Deb P. Pandey); C: Lycodon jara, Yellow-speckled Wolf Snake (photographed by Bishnu B. Lama); D: Oligodon kheriensis, Coral Red Kukri Snake (photographed by Bishnu B. Lama); E: Sinomicrurus macclellandi univirgatus, MaCelland’s Coral Snake (juvenile; photographed by Deb P. Pandey); F: Eryx johnii, Red Sand Boa/Brown Earth Boa (photographed by Deb P. Pandey).

B

D

E

A

F

C


53

FIGURE 5. Preserved snake species that have been recorded in the vicinity of Chitwan National Park, Nepal. A: Typhlops diardii,Diard’s Worm Snake; B: Boiga trigonata, Common Cat Snake; C: Dendrelaphis tristis, Common Bronzeback Tree Snake; D: Enhydris sieboldii, Siebold’s Smooth-scaled Water Snake; E: Lycodon aulicus, Common Wolf Snake; F: Bungarus caeruleus,Common Krait. (All photographed by Deb P. Pandey)

A

C D

E F

AB


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FIGURE 6. Preserved snake species that have been recorded in the vicinity of Chitwan National Park, Nepal. A: Naja naja, Spectacled/Common Cobra; Bungarus fasciatus, Banded Krait; Xenochrophis piscator, Checkered Keelback (photographed by Deb P. Pandey); B: Enhydris sieboldii, Siebold’s Smooth-scaled Water Snake; Bungarus lividus, Lesser Black Krait; Oligodon arnensis, Banded Kukri Snake (photographed by Deb P. Pandey); C: Coelognathus radiatus, Copper-headed Trinket Snake (photographed by Shree R. Tiwari); D: Ophiophagus hannah, King Cobra (photographed by Shree R. Tiwari); E: Ahetulla nasuta,Common Vine Snake (photographed by Bishnu B. Lama); F: Rhabdophis subminiatus, Red-necked Keelback (photographed by Deb P. Pandey).

A B

C D

E F


55

TABLE 3. Comparison of snake species distribution in present studywith other studies in Nepal. The number represents the number ofspecies found from each genus.

Genus

Thi

s st

udy

Zug

and

Mit

chel

l (1

995)

O's

hea

(199

8)

Shr

esth

a (2

001)

Sch

leic

h an

d K

ästl

e

(200

2)

Sha

h et

al.

(200

3)

Sha

h an

d T

iwar

i (2

004)

Shr

esth

a an

d P

iya

(unp

ubl.

repo

rt)

Ramphotyphlops 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Typhlops 1 0 1 2 4 2 3 0

Eryx 1 0 0 2 2 2 2 0

Python 1 1 1 3 2 2 2 0

Ahaetulla 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

Amphiesma 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 1

Boiga 1 2 1 6 6 7 8 1

Coelognathus 2 2 0 5 2 5 5 2

Dendrelaphis 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 0

Enhydris 1 0 1 2 2 2 2 0

Lycodon 2 1 2 2 3 2 3 1

Oligodon 2 1 0 5 5 3 4 1

Ptyas 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1

Rhabdophis 1 0 0 3 2 2 2 0

Xenochrophis 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 1

Bungarus 3 2 1 4 6 5 5 1

Sinumicrurus 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 0

Naja 2 1 1 3 2 2 2 0

Ophiophagus 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0

Cryptelytrops 1 1 0 9 6 8 6 0

Total Species 26 19 13 62 56 56 57 10

Python bivittatus from Chitwan in addition to other parts of Nepal. O’Shea (1998) reported it from Bardia. Of the 14 colubrids I found, Ptyas mucosa and Xenochrophis piscator are in listed in Appendix II and Appendix III of CITES, respectively (IUCN-Nepal 2002).

Zug and Mitchell (1995) and Shah and Tiwari (2004) also reported both of these species from the region. Schleich and Kästle (2002) only gave an imprecise record of P. mucosa and a confirmed record of X. piscator from this area. These species have been reported from many other parts of Nepal (Schleich and Kästle 2002; Shah and Tiwari 2004).

Of the seven elapids I found, IUCN-Nepal (2002) categorized Naja naja and Ophiophagus hannah in Appendix II of CITES, and O. hannah has been recommended to be legally protected in Nepal (Red Data Book of the Fauna of Nepal 1995). These species have been found in the region previously, as have Naja kaouthia, Bungarus caeruleus, B. fasciatus, B. lividus, and Sinomicrurus macclellandii univirgatus (Zug and Mitchell 1995; Schleich and Kästle 2002; Shah and Tiwari 2004).

Other studies in Nepal have recorded as few as 10

species in nine genera (Shrestha and Piya, unpubl. report) to as many as 90 species in 39 genera (Shrestha 2001). I recorded 20 genera from the vicinity of Chitwan National Park (Table 3), compared to others who recorded as many as 62 species from other parts of Nepal. The snakes recorded in my study were also associated with snakes in the Indian-sub-continent and China (Schleich and Kästle 2002; Whitaker and Captain 2004). The habitats used by snakes (e.g., underground decaying root, human residences and local premises, fences, crop-field, garden, shrub, grass, etc.; Appendix 1) that I recorded were comparable to habitats described by Shrestha (2001), Schleich and Kästle (2002), Shah and Tiwari (2004), and Whitaker and Captain (2004).

Checklists and associated ecological notes (e.g., distribution, habit, and habitats) are crucial for protecting snakes in Nepal, as well as for snakebite management. Snakebite is a leading cause of death (annual mortality rate = 162/100,000) in Nepal in rural areas (Sharma et al. 2004). Checklists and notes can help clinicians to identify the snakes brought in by victims (if any), choose the appropriate treatment, anticipate complications and prognosis of snakebites, and to avoid wasting expensive antivenoms and exposing patients to antivenom-induced adverse reactions. Moreover, identifying these snake species would also be helpful to identify appropriate first-aid measures. Extensive study of snakes both in agricul-tural and forest ecosystems should be carried out to ascertain their precise diversity, status, and snake-human interactions to generate new ideas and tools for anti-venom design and its manufacture for this region in the future.

Acknowledgments.—I would like to sincerely thank

Prof. Karan B. Shah, Natural History Museum, Soyambhu, Kathmandu, Tribhuvan University, Prof. Dr. Tej K. Shrestha, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, and Geoff Coombe, Living with Wildlife, Adelaide, Australia for assisting in species identification. I am grateful to Dr. Ulrich Kuch, Biodiversity and Climate Research Center, Frankfurt, Germany, Prof. Dr. Stephen P. Mackessy, School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado, USA, Prof. Dr. Indraneil Das, Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation, Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia, and Matthew J. Goode, School of Natural Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA, for pointing out errors and/or omissions and reviewing several drafts of this manuscript. I would like to thank Dr. Chhabi L. Thapa, Bishnu P. Khanal (Birendra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Bharatpur, Chitwan), Prem Neupane, and Lekhnath Acharya from Nawalparasi; Narayan P. Pandey, Padam Aryal, Yadu Adhikari (Someshor Bufforzone Community Forest), and Ram P. Poudel (Veterinerian, Madi Valley) from southern Chitwan; Bishnu B. Lama, Harka B. Lama


56

(both from Biodiversity Conservation Center, Sauraha), Kapil Pokhrel (senior Nature Guide), and Krishna P. Chaulagai from eastern Chitwan; Sita Poudel and Ramananda Subedi from western Chitwan; Chandra P. Adhikari, Amod Gimire, Sujan Dhakal, and Durga Kuwar (Bharatpur Hospital) from central Chitwan; and many other people in Chitwan and Nawalparasi for their altruistic support in providing snake samples, photographs, and related information. Also, I am grateful to the Association for Nature Conservation and Social Upliftment, Nepal, for monetary support, and Living with Wildlife, Australia, for technical support.

LITERATURE CITED

Bhetwal, B.B., M. O´Shea, and D.A. Warrell. 1998. Snake and snakebite in Nepal. Tropical Doctor 28:193–195.

Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation and Park People Project. 2000. Royal Chitwan National Park and buffer zone, resource profile. Babar Mahal, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Greene, H.W. 2000. Snakes: The Evolution of Mystery in Nature. University of California Press, Berkeley, California, USA.

IUCN-Nepal. 2002. Nepalka samrakshit banyajantu tatha banaspati. CITES ka sandarvama ak chinari. Natural History Museum, Tribhuvan University, and International Union for Conservation of Nature, Kathmandu, Nepal.

O’Shea, M. 1998. Herpetological results of two short field excursions to the Royal Bardia region of western Nepal, including range extensions for Assamese/Indo-Chinese snake taxa. Pp. 306–317 In Biology and Conservation of the Amphibians, Reptiles, and Their Habitats in South Asia. de Silva, A. (Ed.). Amphibia and Reptile Research Organization of Sri Lanka (ARROS), Peradenia, Sri Lanka.

Red Data Book of the Fauna of Nepal. 1995. Biodiversity Profiles Project. Technical Publication No. 4. Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation, His Majesty of Government Nepal.

Schleich, H.H., and W. Kästle. 2002. Amphibians and

Reptiles of Nepal. A.R.G. Gantner Verlag Kommanditgessellschaft, Ruggell, Germany.

Shah, K.B., and S. Tiwari. 2004. Herpetofanuna of Nepal. A Conservation Companion. International Union for Conservation of Nature, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Shah, K.B., J.M. Shrestha, and C.L. Thapa. 2003. Snakebite Management Guideline. Ministry of Health, Epidemiology Disease Control Division (EDCD), Zoonoses Control Sub-section, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Shah, K.B. 1995. Enumeration of the Amphibians and Reptiles of Nepal. Biodiversity Profiles Project, Technical Publication No. 2. Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Sharma, S.K., F. Chappuis, N. Jha, P.A. Bovier, L. Loutan, and S. Koirala. 2004. Impact of snake bites and determinants of fatal outcomes in southeastern Nepal. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 71:234–238.

Shrestha, T.K. 2001. Herpetology of Nepal. A Field Guide to Amphibians and Reptiles of Trans-Himalayan Region of Asia. Mrs. Bimala Shrestha, Kathmandu, Nepal.

Smith, M.A. 1981. The Fauna of British India, Ceylon and Burma, Including the Whole of the Indo-Chinese Sub-region. Reptilia and Amphibia, Vol. III. Today and Tomorrow´s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, India.

Swan, L.W., and A.E. Leviton. 1962. The herpetology of Nepal: a history, checklist and zoogeographical analysis of the herpetofauna. Proceeding of the California Academy of Sciences 32:103–147.

Vogel, G. 2006. Venomous Snakes of Asia. Terralog. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt am Main, Germany.

Wall, F. 1923. A hand-list of snakes of the Indian Empire. Part two. Journal of Bombay Natural History Society 29:598–632.

Whitaker, R. 1978. Common Indian Snakes. A Field Guide. Macmillan India Limited, New Delhi, India.

Whitaker, R., and A. Captain. 2004. Snakes of India. Draco Books, Chennai, India.

Zug, G.R., and J.C. Mitchell. 1995. Amphibians and reptiles of the Royal Chitwan National Park, Nepal. Asiatic Herpetological Research 6:172–180.

DEB PRASAD PANDEY was a Teacher at the Birendra Multiple Campus of Tribhuvan University, Bharatpur, Chitwan, Nepal. He began his career as a volunteer bird-watcher in Chitwan National Park and its vicinity while studying for a B.S. in Biology. He received a B.S. in Biology in 2000 and a M.S. inZoology in 2002 from Tribhuvan University, Nepal. Besides teaching, he hasreceived several research, educational (i.e., training), and travel grants pertaining to snake and snakebite management from the University Grant CommissionNepal (2005), the Nepal Health Research Council (2006), the Asia PacificAssociation of Medical Toxicology in Sri Lanka (2006), the America-Nepal Medical Foundation (2006, 2007, and 2008), Trade and Economic Development, Government of South Australia (2007), Living with Wildlife, Adelaide, Australia (2008), the University of New Mexico (2009), and Bioclon in Mexico (2010). Recently, Deb received a German Academic Exchange Service (DeutscherAkademischer Austausch Dienst) scholarship to pursue a Ph.D. in snake ecology,climate change, and snake venom research at Goethe University, Germany.(Photographed by Ulrich Kuch)


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Appendix 1. Study sites in the vicinity of Chitwan National Park, Nepal where I recorded snakes from 2002 to 2008. Days of the same month and same year are separated by a comma.

Study Area Approximate:

Coordinates AltitudeDate of Snake Records

(DD/MM/YY) Description of Habitats Where Snakes Were Caught

S1: Gaidakot, Nawalparasi 27°43’48.23“ N 84°23’24.00’’E 400 m

28/05/2003; 03/07/2004 mud in field prepared for paddy plantation; underground decaying roots (collected while the stump of tree was uprooted)

S2: Bharatpur, Chitwan 27°41’00.09’’N 84°26’00.09’’E 210 m

10,30/09/2003; 21/12/2003; 20,31/08/2007; 01/10/2007 01/11/2007; 13,16/04/2008

residential yard; residential premises; crevices in well rings; bricks pile on Chitwan Hospital premises; indoors; paddy field; nook of water tank; premises of Orchid Science College

S3: Madi Valley (Bagauda, Gardi, Kalyanpur, Ayodhyapuri), Chitwan

27°26’24.00’’N 84°18’36.00’’E 210 m

09,16/08/2002; 01,02/09/2002; 13/10/2002; 20,28/05/2003; 27/06/2003; 02/05/2004; 28/06/2004; 01, 13/01/2005; 17/06/2005; 07,11/07/2007; 03,15/08/2007; 02/09/2007; 24/10/2007; 20/11/2007; 02/08/2008; 09,12/09/2008; 10,13/10/2008

heap of paddy; grazing ground nearby forest; burrow of rat in paddy field; bank of Maheshori River (a day after flooding) nearby Someshor Bufforzone Community Forest; bank of Rewa River; residential yard; fence of maize field; fence nearby resident; forest; fence in field; pile of bricks; paddy field; maize field; garden; indoor; water canal nearby Khairahani Lower Secondary School; premises of Madi Secondary School; inside house of Mitra Sapkota; inside house of Ambika Sapkota; shrub in community forest (snakebite victim: Samjhana Baral)

S4: Pragatinagar, Nawalparasi 27°40’48.27’’N 8411’23.84’’E 190 m

24/05/2005; 11/10/2008 tree in community forest; garden plant

S5: Meghauli area (Gunganagar, Meghauli, Sukranagar), Chitwan

27°34’48.00’’N 84°12’36.00’’E 160 m

06/01/2003; 23/07/2006 yard; community forest aside Meghauli airport; indoors

S6: Devechuli, Nawalparasi 27°40’55.06’’N 84°13’52.79’’E 185 m

25/08/2005; 08/04/2006 indoors; grassy field (snakebite victim: Pulsing Sinjali)

S7: Kawaswoti area (Kawswoti, Shivamandir), Nawalparasi

27°38’39.78’’N 84°07’42.87’’E 190 m

25/08/2003; 28/09/2003; 20/05/2004; 23/08/2004; 25/06/2005; 13/07/2006; 05/05/2007; 01/06/2007

farm; crevices nearby home; bed (snakebite victim: Sarda Khatri); yard (snakebite victim) Shambhu Bhattarai; near water tap (snakebite victim) Byapak Gaudel; yard (snakebite victim) Laxaman Mahato

S8: Rampur area [Mangalpur, Sardanagar Narayanpur (Fulbari)], Chitwan

27°38’24.97’’N 84°22’15.88’’E 200 m

19/06/2007 maize field (copulating); inside abandoned home

S9: Nayabelani, Nawalparasi 27°36’49.39’’N 83°57’02.98’’E 190 m

28,30/06/2007 Door (snakebite victims: Seti M Kumal); bed (snakebite victim: Purna B Kumal)

S10: Ratnanagar Municipality Bachhauli, Kumroj, Pithuwa, Chitwan

27°38’23.44’’N 84°27’38.37’’E 215 m

06/04/2002; 29/06/2006; 20/04/2007; 17/07/2007; 02/04/2008; ?/4/ 2008;

Road side nearby residents; inside poultry farm; garden of resident; side of highway; crop-fields

S11: Patihani, Chitwan 27°35’24.00’’N 84°21’36.00’’E 180 m

30/06/2007 Barandbhar Community Forest

S12: Deurali, Nawalparasi 27°42’12.15’’N 84°01’05.38’’E 965 m

05/08/2007 Agricultural grass field

Documents

SNAKES IN THE VICINITY OF CHITWAN NATIONAL PARK, NEPAL