MI0033 – SOFTWARE ENGINEERING ASSIGNMENT - SET- 1

Q1. Quality and reliability are related concepts but are fundamentally different in a number of

ways. Discuss them. ANSWER:

Quality focuses on the software's conformance to explicit and implicit requirements. Reliability focuses on the ability of

software to function correctly as a function of time or some other quantity. Safety considers the risks associated with failure of a computer-based system that is controlled by software. In most cases an assessment of quality considers many

factors that are qualitative in nature. Assessment of reliability and to some extent safety is more quantitative, relying on

statistical models of past events that are coupled with software characteristics in an attempt to predict future operation of a program.

Q2. Discuss the Objective & Principles Behind Software Testing.

.ANSWER:

Q3. Discuss the CMM 5 Levels for Software Process. ANSWER:

Software Engineering Institute (SEI) based on a software engineering capabilities, have developed a model, to address the

various levels of maturity levels present in an organization called Capability Maturity Model (CMM). SEI used a five point grading scheme to assess the maturity level.

The five levels are as follows -

Level 1: Initial level – It is to address the initial processes where there is a tendency of one or more processes getting chaotic.

Some of the issues are identified and steps are taken to bring in clarity in the initial processes.

Level 2:

Repeat level – Based on the successes of certain processes in the past, processes are reviewed and revised. Some of the

processes which are tracked are the process on costing, scheduling and various other related functions.

Level 3: Documentation – Organizations follow a streamed line of software development activities. These activities are

documented procedures developed over years which are used by both the management and development team. Modules

developed are integrated into existing organization software processes.

Level 4:

Managing the processes - It is necessary to measure various product features and processes associated with the software process. Measures are taken to collect data from various processes on various parameter of the software and each one is

measured. The quantification of all such measures is done and used in the performance evaluation of the process and the

product.

Level 5:

Optimization – Continual improvement is one of the major objectives of organization today. It is achieved by means of

some predefined characteristics which are expected from the processes. The measurement methodology can be different for different processes. A quantitative feedback is obtained for various processes and measured. The measurements are

made under constraints under which a process is expected to perform. Hence the measurements have to be optimized

measurements. This helps in taking decisions on the improvement of the process on a continual basis.

Q4. Discuss the Water Fall model for Software Development. ANSWER:

The waterfall model is a sequential design process, often used in software development processes, inwhich progress is seen

as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through the phases of Conception, Initiation, Analysis, Design, Construction, Testing, Production/Implementation and Maintenance.

The waterfall development model originates in the manufacturing and construction industries: highly structured

physical environments in which after-the-fact changes are prohibitively costly, if not impossible. Since no formal software development methodologies existed at the time, this hardware-oriented model was simply adapted for software

development.

The first known presentation describing use of similar phases in software engineering was held by Herbert D. Benington at Symposium on advanced programming methods for digital computers on 29June 1956. This presentation was

about the development of software for SAGE. In 1983 the paperwas republished with a foreword by Benington pointing

out that the process was not in fact performed in strict top-down, but depended on a prototype.

The first formal description of the waterfall model is often cited as a 1970 article by Winston W.Royce, though Royce did not use the term "waterfall" in this article. Royce presented this model as anexample of a flawed, non-working

model.[4] This, in fact, is how the term is generally used in writingabout software development - to describe a critical view

of a commonly used software practice. In Royce's original waterfall model, the following phases are followed in order:

Requirements specification

Design Construction (AKA implementation or coding)

Integration

Testing and debugging (AKA Validation)

Installation Maintenance

Thus the waterfall model maintains that one should move to a phase only when its preceding phase iscompleted and perfected. However, there are various modified waterfall models (including Royce's finalmodel) that may include slight or

major variations on this process.

Q5. Explain the Advantages of Prototype Model, & Spiral Model in Contrast to Water Fall

model. ANSWER:

Advantages of prototyping

1. May provide the proof of concept necessary to attract funding 2. Early visibility of the prototype gives users an idea of what the final system looks like

3. Encourages active participation among users and producer

4. Enables a higher output for user 5. Cost effective (Development costs reduced). 6. Increases system development speed

7. Assists to identify any problems with the efficacy of earlier design, requirements analysis and codingactivities

8. Helps to refine the potential risks associated with the delivery of the system being developed 9. Various aspects can be tested and quicker feedback can be got from the user

10. Helps to deliver the product in quality easily

11. User interaction available during development cycle of prototype

The spiral model is a software development process combining elements of both design and prototyping-in-stages, in an

effort to combine advantages of top-down and bottom-up concepts. Also known as the spiral lifecycle model (or spiral development), it is a systems development method (SDM) used in information technology (IT). This model of development

combines the features of the prototyping and the waterfall model. The spiral model is intended for large, expensive and

complicated projects.

This should not be confused with the Helical model of modern systems architecture that uses a dynamic programming approach in order to optimize the system's architecture before design decisions are made by coders that

would cause problems.

The spiral model combines the idea of iterative development (prototyping) with the systematic, controlled aspects of the waterfall model. It allows for incremental releases of the product, orincremental refinement through each time around the

spiral. The spiral model also explicitly includes risk management within software development. Identifying major risks,

both technical and managerial, and determining how to lessen the risk helps keep the software development process under

control. The spiral model is based on continuous refinement of key products for requirements definition and analysis,

system and software design, and implementation (the code). At each iteration around the cycle, the products are extensions

of an earlier product. This model uses many of the same phase‟s as the waterfall model, in essentially the same order, separated by planning, risk assessment, and the building of prototypes and simulations.

Documents are produced when they are required, and the content reflects the information necessary at that point in

the process. All documents will not be created at the beginning of the process, nor all at theend (hopefully). Like the product they define, the documents are works in progress. The idea is to have continuous stream of products produced and

available for user review.

The spiral lifecycle model allows for elements of the product to be added in when they become available or known.

This assures that there is no conflict with previous requirements and design. This method inconsistent with approaches that have multiple software builds and releases and allows for making an orderly transition to a maintenance activity. Another

positive aspect is that the spiral model forces early user involvement in the system development effort. For projects with

heavy user interfacing, such asuser application programs or instrument interface applications, such involvement is helpful. 1. Starting at the center, each turn around the spiral goes through several task regions

2. Determine the objectives, alternatives, and constraints on the new iteration.

3. Evaluate alternatives and identify and resolve risk issues. 4. Develop and verify the product for this iteration.

5. Plan the next iteration.

Note that the requirements activity takes place in multiple sections and in multiple iterations, just as planning and risk

analysis occur in multiple places. Final design, implementation, integration, and testoccur in iteration 4. The spiral can be repeated multiple times for multiple builds. Using this method of development, some functionality can be delivered to the

user faster than the waterfall method. The spiral method also helps manage risk and uncertainty by allowing multiple decision points and byexplicitly admitting that all of anything cannot be known before the subsequent activity starts

Q6. Explain the COCOMO Model & Software Estimation Technique. ANSWER: The Constructive Cost Model (COCOMO) is an algorithmic software cost estimation model developed by Barry W.

Boehm. The model uses a basic regression formula with parameters that are derived from historical project data and

current project characteristics. COCOMO was first published in Boehm's 1981 book Software Engineering Economics as a model for estimating effort, cost, and schedule for software projects. It drew on a study of 63 projects at TRW Aerospace

where Boehm was Director of Software Research and Technology. The study examined projects ranging in size from 2,000

to 100,000 lines of code, and programming languages ranging from assembly to PL/I. These projects were based on the waterfall model of software development which was the prevalent software development process in 1981.

References to this model typically call it COCOMO 81. In 1995 COCOMO II was developed and finally published

in 2000 in the book Software Cost Estimation with COCOMO II. COCOMO II is the successor of COCOMO 81 and is

better suited for estimating modern software development projects. It provides more support for modern software development processes and an updated project database. The needfor the new model came as software development

technology moved from mainframe and overnight batch processing to desktop development, code reusability and the use of

off-the-shelf software components. This article refers to COCOMO 81. COCOMO consists of a hierarchy of three increasingly detailed and accurate forms. The first level, Basic

COCOMO is good for quick, early, rough order of magnitude estimates of software costs, but its accuracy is limited due to

its lack of factors to account for difference in project attributes (Cost Drivers).Intermediate COCOMO takes these Cost Drivers into account and Detailed COCOMO additionally accounts for the influence of individual project phases.

The ability to accurately estimate the time and/or cost taken for a project to come in to its successful conclusion is

a serious problem for software engineers. The use of a repeatable, clearly defined and well understood software

development process has, in recent years, shown itself to be the most effective method of gaining useful historical data that can be used for statistical estimation. In particular, the act of sampling more frequently, coupled with the loosening of

constraints between parts of a project, has allowed more accurate estimation and more rapid development times.

Popular Methods

Analysis Effort methodCOCOMO (This model is obsolete and should only be used for demonstration purposes.)

COCOMO™ II COSYSMO

Evidence-based Scheduling

Refinement of typical agile estimating techniques using minimal measurement and total time accounting. Function Point Analysis

Parametric Estimating

PRICE Systems Founders of Commercial Parametric models that estimates the scope, cost, effort and schedule for software projects.

Proxy-based estimating (PROBE) (from the Personal Software Process)

Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)

SEER-SEM Parametric Estimation of Effort, Schedule, Cost, Risk. Mimimum time and staffing conceptsbased on Brooks's lawSLIMThe

Planning Game (from Extreme Programming)

Weighted Micro Function Points (WMFP)

MI0034 – DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM ASSIGNMENT - SET- 1

Q1. Differentiate between Traditional File System & Modern Database System? Describe the

properties of Database & the Advantage of Database? ANSWER:

Traditional File System Modern Database Management Systems

Traditional File system is the system that was followed before the advent of DBMS i.e., it is the

older way.

This is the Modern way which has replaced the older concept of File system

In Traditional file processing, data definition is

part of the application program and works with only specific application.

· Data definition is part of the DBMS

· Application is independent and can be used with any application.

File systems are Design Driven; they require

design/coding change when new kind of data

occurs

. One extra column (Attribute) can be added

without any difficulty

· Minor coding changes in the Application program may be required.

Traditional File system keeps redundant

[duplicate] information in many locations. This

might result in the loss of Data Consistency.

Redundancy is eliminated to the maximum extent

in DBMS if properly defined

In a File system data is scattered in various files,

and each of these files may be in different formats,

making it difficult to write new application programs to retrieve the appropriate

data.

This problem is completely solved here.

Properties of Database:

The following are the important properties of Database:

1. A database is a logical collection of data having some implicit meaning. If the data are not related then it is not called as

proper database. 2. A database consists of both data as well as the description of the database structure and constraints.

3. A database can have any size and of various complexity. If we consider the above example of employee database the

name and address of the employee may consists of very few records each with simple structure. 4. The DBMS is considered as general-purpose software system that facilitates the process of defining, constructing and

manipulating databases for various applications.

5. A database provides insulation between programs, data and data abstraction. Data abstraction is a feature that provides

the integration of the data source of interest and helps to leverage the physical data however the structure is. 6. The data in the database is used by variety of users for variety of purposes. For E.g. when you consider a hospital

database management system the view of usage of patient database is different from the same used by the doctor. In this

case the data are stored separately for the different users. In fact it is stored in a single database. This property is nothing but multiple views of the database.

7. Multiple user DBMS must allow the data to be shared by multiple users simultaneously. For this purpose the DBMS

includes concurrency control software to ensure that the updationdone to the database by variety of users at single time must get updated correctly. This property explains the multiuser transaction processing

Q2. What is the disadvantage of sequential file organization? How do you overcome it? What

are the advantages & disadvantages of Dynamic Hashing? ANSWER:

In sequential file organization records are arranged in physical sequence by the value of some field, called the sequence

field. Often the field chosen is a key field, one with unique values that are used to identify records. The records are simply

laid out on the storage devices, often magnetic tape, in increasing or decreasing order by the value of the sequence field.

For example IBM's sequential Access Method SAM among others, uses this organization. This organization is simple, easy to understand and easy to manage but is best for providing sequential access, retrieving records on faster another in the

same order in which they are stored. It is not good for direct or random access, which means picking out a particular

record; because it generally requires that we pass over prior records in order to find the target record. It is also not possible to insert a new record in the middle of the file. Sequential is the oldest type of file organization and

despite its shortcomings is well suited for certain applications. In sequential file organization records arranged like in

physical positions. Retrieving records take much time. We can physically order the records of a file on disk based on the values of one of their fields called the ordering field. This leads to an ordered or sequential file. Records are placed in an

order in sequential file and that's why it is totally different from unordered files where records are stored in the order in

which they are inserted, it means that if new records are inserted then they took place at the end of file.

Sequential files have many advantages as given below.

* To find a record in the sequential file is very efficient, because all files are stored in an order and no sorting is required.

* Finding the next record from a current record is also very efficient and it does not require additional block access as the next record is in the current record.

* If we use a technique like Binary Search, then it becomes more efficient and easy to search a record. While on the other

hand if we search a record in an unordered file then we have to check the whole file because records are stored in no order in unordered file. Sequential files are also known as Sorted files.

Dynamic Hashing

In dynamic hashing, the access structure is built on the binary representation of the hash value. In this, the number of buckets is not fixed [as in regular hashing] but grows or diminishes as needed. The file can start with a single bucket, once

that bucket is full, and a new record is inserted, the bucket overflows and is slit into two buckets. The records are

distributed among the two buckets based on the value of the first [leftmost] bit of their hash values. Records whose hash values start with a 0 bit are stored in one bucket, and those whose hash values start with a 1 bit are stored in another bucket.

At this point, a binary tree structure called a directory is built.

The directory has two types of nodes. 1. Internal nodes: Guide the search, each has a left pointer corresponding to a 0 bit, and aright pointer corresponding to a 1

bit.

2. Leaf nodes: It holds a pointer to a bucket – a bucket address.

Each leaf node holds a bucket address. If a bucket overflows, for example: a new record is inserted into the bucket for

records whose hash values start with 10 and causes overflow, then all records whose hash value starts with 100 are placed in the first split bucket, and the second bucket contains those whose hash value starts with 101. The levels of a binary tree

can be expanded dynamically.

Advantages of dynamic hashing: 1. The main advantage is that splitting causes minor reorganization, since only the records in one bucket are redistributed

to the two new buckets.

2. The space overhead of the directory table is negligible. 3. The main advantage of extendable hashing is that performance does not degrade as the file grows. The main space

saving of hashing is that no buckets need to be reserved for future growth; rather buckets can be allocated dynamically.

Disadvantages:

1. The index tables grow rapidly and too large to fit in main memory. When part of the index table is stored on secondary

storage, it requires extra access.

2. The directory must be searched before accessing the bucket, resulting in two-block access instead of one in static hashing.

3. A disadvantage of extendable hashing is that it involves an additional level of indirection.

Q3. What is relationship type? Explain the difference among a relationship instance,

relationship type & a relation set? ANSWER

Relationships:

In the real world, items have relationships to one another. E.g.: A book is published by a particular publisher. The

association or relationship that exists between the entities relates data items to each other in a meaningful way. A

relationship is an association between entities.

A collection of relationships of the same type is called a relationship set.

A relationship type R is a set of associations between E, E2…..En entity types mathematically, R is a set of relationship

instances ri.

E.g.: Consider a relationship type WORKS_FOR between two entity types – employee anddepartment, which associates each employee with the department the employee works for. Each relationship instance in WORKS_FOR associates one

employee entity and one department entity, where each relationship instance is ri which connects employee and department

entities that participate in ri.

Employee el, e3 and e6 work for department d1, e2 and e4 work for d2 and e5 and e7 work for d3. Relationship type R is a

set of all relationship instances.

Figure 5.4: Some instances of the WORKS_FOR relationship

Degree of relationship type:

The number of entity sets that participate in a relationship set.A unary relationship exists when an association is maintained

with a single entity.

A binary relationship exists when two entities are associated.

A tertiary relationship exists when there are three entities associated.

Figure 5.5: Degree of relationship type

Role Names and Recursive Relationship

Each entry type to participate in a relationship type plays a particular role in the relationship. The role name signifies the

role that a participating entity from the entity type plays in each relationship instance, e.g.: In the WORKS FOR

relationship type, the employee plays the role of employee or worker and the department plays the role of department or employer. However in some cases the same entity type participates more than once in a relationship type in different roles.

Such relationship types are called recursive.

E.g.: Employee entity type participates twice in SUPERVISION once in the role of supervisor and once in the role of supervisee.

Employee

Working for

Department

Q4. What is SQL? Discuss. ANSWER

Structured Query language is used for programming the database. It is a non-procedural language, meaning that SQL

describes what data to retrieve delete or insert, rather than how to perform the operation. It is the standard command set used to communicate with the RDBMS.

The SQL statement can be grouped into following categories. 1. DDL (Data Definition Language)

2. DML (Data Manipulation Language)

3. DCL (Data Control Language)

4. TCL (Transaction Control Language)

DDL: Data Definition Language

The DDL statement provides commands for defining relation schema i.e for creating tables, indexes, sequences etc. and commands for dropping, altering, renaming objects.

DML: (Data Manipulation Language) The DML statements are used to alter the database tables in some way. The UPDATE, INSERT and DELETE statements

alter existing rows in a database tables, insert new records into a database table, or remove one or more records from the

database table.

DCL: (Data Control Language)

The Data Control Language Statements are used to Grant permission to the user and Revoke permission from the user,

Lock certain Permission for the user.

TCL: (Transaction Control Language)It is used to control transactions.

Eg: Commit Rollback: Discard/Cancel the changes up to the previous commit point.

Q5. What is Normalization? Discuss various types of Normal Forms?

ANSWER

Normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database.

There are two goals of the normalization process: 1. Eliminating redundant data (for example, storing the same data in morethan one table)

2. Ensuring data dependencies make sense (only storing related data in a table).

Both of these are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database consumes and ensure that data is logically

stored.

The Normal Forms

The database community has developed a series of guidelines for ensuring that databases are normalized. These are referred to as normal forms and are numbered from one (the lowest form of

normalization, referred to as first normal form or 1NF) through five (fifth normal form or 5NF). In practical applications,

you'll often see 1NF, 2NF, and 3NF along with the occasional 4NF. Fifth normal form is very rarely seen.

First Normal Form (1NF)

First normal form (1NF) sets the very basic rules for an organized database: Eliminate duplicative columns from the same table.

Create separate tables for each group of related data and identify each row with a unique column or set of columns

(the primary key).

Second Normal Form (2NF) Second normal form (2NF) further addresses the concept of removing duplicative data:

• Meet all the requirements of the first normal form.

• Remove subsets of data that apply to multiple rows of a table and place them in separate tables. • Create relationships between these new tables and their predecessors through the use of foreign keys.

Third Normal Form (3NF) Third normal form (3NF) goes one large step further:

• Meet all the requirements of the second normal form.

• Remove columns that are not dependent upon the primary key.

Fourth Normal Form (4NF)

Finally, fourth normal form (4NF) has one additional requirement:

• Meet all the requirements of the third normal form. • A relation is in 4NF if it has no multi-valued dependencies.

Q6. What do you mean by Shared Lock & Exclusive lock? Describe briefly two phase locking

protocol?

ANSWER

Shared Lock: It is used for read only operations, i.e., used for operations that do not change or update the data.

E.G., SELECT statement:, Shared locks allow concurrent transaction to read (SELECT) a data. No other transactions can modify the data while

shared locks exist. Shared locks are released as soon as the data has been read.

Exclusive Locks:

Exclusive locks are used for data modification operations, such as UPDATE, DELETE and INSERT. It ensures that

multiple updates cannot be made to the same resource simultaneously. No other transaction can read or modify data when

locked by an exclusive lock.

Exclusive locks are held until transaction commits or rolls back since those are used for write operations.

There are three locking operations: read_lock(X), write_lock(X), and unlock(X). A lock associated with an item X,

LOCK(X), now has three possible states: "read locked", "write-locked", or "unlocked". A read-locked item is also called

share-locked, because other transactions are allowed to read the item, whereas a write-locked item is called exclusive-locked, because a single transaction exclusive holds the lock on the item.

The Two- Phase Locking protocol is a process to access the shared resources as their own without creating deadlocks. This

includes two phases: 1. Growing Phase: In this phase a transaction may acquire lock, but may not release any locks. Thus this is also

known as resource acquisition activity.

2. Shrinking Phase : In this a transaction may release locks but may not acquire any new locks. There is also a concept called strict two phase locking in which the acquired by transaction are kept on hold until the

transaction commits.

MI0035 – COMPUTER NETWORKS ASSIGNMENT - SET- 1

Q.1 Explain all design issues for several layers in Computer. What is connection – oriented

and connectionless service? ANSWER:

Design issues for the layers: The various key design issues are present in several layers in computer networks. The important design issues are:

1. Addressing: Mechanism for identifying senders and receivers, on the network need some form of addressing. There are multiple

processes running on one machine. Some means is needed for a process on one machine to specify with whom it wants to communicate.

2. Error Control: There may be erroneous transmission due to several problems during communication. These are due to problem in

communication circuits, physical medium, due to thermal noise and interference. Many error detecting and error

correcting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on which one being used. In addition, the receiver must have some mechanism of telling the sender which messages have been received correctly and which has

not.

3. Flow control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver, then there must be flow control mechanism to control

the loss of data by slow receivers. There are several mechanisms used for flow control such as increasing buffer size at

receivers, slowdown the fast sender, and so on. Some process will not be in position to accept arbitrarily long messages. Then, there must be some mechanism to disassembling, transmitting and then reassembling messages.

4. Multiplexing / de-multiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on transmission media separately, it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate

connection for each pair of communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in the physical layer at sender end and

demultiplexing is need at the receiver end.

5. Routing: When data has to be transmitted from source to destination, there may be multiple paths between them. An optimized

(shortest) route must be chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing algorithms, which chooses

optimized route to the destination.

Connection Oriented and Connectionless Services:

Layers can offer two types of services namely connection oriented service and connectionless service.

Connection oriented service: The service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection and then releases the connection. Once the connection

is established between source and destination, the path is fixed. The data transmission takes place through this path

established. The order of the messages sent will be same at the receiver end. Services are reliable and there is no loss of data. Most of the time, reliable service provides acknowledgement is an overhead and adds delay.

Connectionless Services: In this type of services, no connection is established between source and destination. Here there is no fixed path. Therefore, the messages must carry full destination address and each one of these messages are sent independent of each

other. Messages sent will not be delivered at the destination in the same order. Thus, grouping and ordering is required at

the receiver end, and the services are not reliable. There is no acknowledgement confirmation from the receiver.

Unreliable connectionless service is often called datagram service, which does not return an acknowledgement to the sender. In some cases, establishing a connection to send one short messages is needed. But reliability is required, and

then acknowledgement datagram service can be used for these applications. Another service is the request-reply service.

In this type of service, the sender transmits a single datagram containing a request from the client side. Then at the other end, server reply will contain the answer. Request-reply is commonly used to implement communication in the client-

server model.

Q.2 Discuss OSI Reference model. ANSWER:

The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization as a first step towards

international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. The model is called the ISO – (International

Standard Organization – Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting open systems – that is, systems that follow the standard are open for communication with other systems, irrespective of a manufacturer. Its

main objectives were to:

1. Allow manufacturers of different systems to interconnect equipment through a standard interfaces.

2. Allow software and hardware to integrate well and be portable on different systems. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:

1. Each layer should perform a well-defined function.

2. The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally standardized protocols. 3. The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.

The Physical Layer

The Physical layer coordinates the function required to carry a bit (0s and 1s) stream over a physical medium. It defines electrical and mechanical specifications of cables, connector sand signaling options that physically link two nodes on a

network.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to provide error free transmission. It accomplishes this task by having the sender

configure the input data into data frames, transmit the frames sequentially, between network devices and process the acknowledgement frames sent back by the intermediate receiver. The data link layer creates and recognizes frame

boundaries. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit pattern to the beginning and end of the frame. Since these

bit patterns can accidentally occur in the data, special care must be taken to make sure these patterns are not incorrectly

interpreted as frame boundaries.

The Network Layer

Whereas the data link layer is responsible for delivery on a hop, the network layer ensures that each packet travels from

its sources and destination successfully and efficiently. A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes can be based on static tables that are “wired into” the network and rarely changed. They can

also be determined at the start of each conversation, for example, a terminal session. Finally, they can be highly dynamic,

being determined a new for each packet, to reflect the current network load. When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get its destination, many problems can arise. The addressing used by the second network may be

different from the first one. The second network may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols

may differ, and so on. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be

interconnected.

The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units if need be,

pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at other end. Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently, and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology.

Transport layer provides location and media independent end-to-end data transfer service to session and upper layers.

The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. A session allows ordinary data transport, as does the transport layer, but it also provides enhanced services useful in some applications. A session might

by used to allow a user to log into a remote timesharing systems or to transfer a file between two machines. One of the

services of the session layer is to manage dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a time. If

traffic cans only way at a time (analogous to a single railroad track), the session layer can help keep track of whose turn

it is. A related session service is token management. For some protocols, it is essential that both sides do not attempt the same operation at the same time. To manage these

activities, the session layer provides tokens that can be exchanged. Only the side holding the token may perform the

desired operation. Another session service is synchronization. Consider the problem that might occur when trying to do a

2 hour file transfer between two machines with an one hour mean time between crashes. After each transfer was aborted, the whole transfer would have to start over again and would probably fail again the next time as well. To eliminate this

problem, the session layer provides a way to insert markers after the appropriate checkpoints.

The Presentation Layer Unlike all the lower layers, which are just interested in moving bits reliably from here to there, the presentation layer is

concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. A typical example of a presentation service is

encoding data in standard agreed upon way. Most user programs do not exchange random binary bit strings, they exchange things such as people‟s names, dates, amounts of money and invoices. These items are represented as character

strings, integers, floating-point number, and data structures composed of several simpler items. Different computers have

different codes for representing character strings(e.g., ASCII and Unicode), integers (e.g., one‟s complement and two‟s complement), and soon. In order to make it possible for computers with different representations to communicate, the

data structure to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be used “on the

wire”. The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and converts from the representation used inside the

computer to the network standard representation and back.

The Application Layer

Application layer supports functions that control and supervise OSI application processes such as start/maintain/stop

application, allocate/ de allocate OSI resources, accounting, and check point and recovering. It also supports remote job execution, file transfer protocol, message transfer and virtual terminal.

Q.3 Describe different types of Data transmission modes. ANSWER:

Serial and Parallel: Serial Transmission

In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel rather than n to transmit data

between two communicating devices. The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel, serial transmission reduces cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n. Since

communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the interface between the sender and the line

(parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the receiver (serial-to-parallel). Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.

Parallel Transmission

Binary data, consisting of 1 s and 0 s, may be organized into groups of n bits each. Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use spoken language in the form of words rather than letters. By grouping,

we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel transmission. The mechanism for parallel transmission

is a simple one: Use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can

be transmitted with each clock tick from one device to another. The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor on n over serial transmission. But there is a

significant disadvantage: cost. Parallel transmission requires n communication lines just to transmit the data stream.

Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.

Simplex, Half duplex and Full duplex

There are three modes of data transmission that correspond to the three types of circuitsavailable. These are:

a) Simplex b) Half-duplex

c) Full-duplex

Simplex

Simplex communications imply a simple method of communicating, which they are. Insimplex communication mode,

there is a one-way communication transmission. Television transmission is a good example of simplex communications. The main transmitter sends out a signal (broadcast), but it does not expect a reply as the receiving units cannot issue a reply

back to the transmitter. A data collection terminal on a factory floor or a line printer (receive only). Another example of

simplex communication is a keyboard attached to a computer because the keyboard can only send data to the computer. At

first thought it might appear adequate for many types of application in which flow of information is unidirectional. However, in almost all data processing applications, communication in both directions is required. Even for a “one-way”

flow of information from a terminal to computer, the system will be designed to allow the computer to signal the terminal

that data has been received. Without this capability, the remote used might enter data and never know that it was not received by the other terminal. Hence, simplex circuits are seldom used because a return path is generally needed to send

acknowledgement, control or error signals.

Half-duplex In half-duplex mode, both units communicate over the same medium, but only one unit can send at a time. While one is in

send mode, the other unit is in receiving mode. It is like two polite people talking to each other – one talks, the other

listens, but neither one talks at the same time. Thus, a half duplex line can alternately send and receive data. It requires two wires. This is the most common type of transmission for voice communications because only one person is supposed to

speak at a time. It is also used to connect a terminal with a computer. The terminal might transmit data and then the

computer responds with an acknowledgement. The transmission of data to and from a hard disk is also done in half duplex mode.

Full – duplex

In a half-duplex system, the line must be “turned around” each time the direction is reversed. This involves a special

switching circuit and requires a small amount of time (approximately150 milliseconds). With high speed capabilities of the computer, this turn-around time is unacceptable in many instances. Also, some applications require simultaneous

transmission in both directions. In such cases, a full-duplex system is used that allows information to flow simultaneously

in both directions on the transmission path. Use of a full-duplex line improves efficiency as the line turn-around time required in a half-duplex arrangement is eliminated. It requires four wires.

Synchronous and Asynchronous transmission Synchronous Transmission

In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer “frames”, which may contain multiple bytes. Each

byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission link without a gap between it and the next one. It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purpose. In other words, data are transmitted as an unbroken sting of 1s and

0s, and the receiver separates that string into the bytes, or characters, it needs to reconstruct the information. Without gaps

and start and stop bits, there is no built-in mechanism to help the receiving device adjust its bits synchronization midstream. Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the received information is completely

dependent on the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come in. The advantage of

synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits or gaps to introduce eat the sending end and remove at the receiving

end, and, by extension, with fewer bits to move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission of data from one computer to another. Byte synchronization is accomplished in the data link layer.

Isochronous Transmission

In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not acceptable, synchronous transmission fails. For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30images per second; they must be viewed at the same rate. If each

image is send by using one or more frames, there should be no delays between frames. For this type of application,

synchronization between characters is not enough; the entire stream of bits must be synchronized. The isochronous

transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.

Q.4 Define Switching. What is the difference between circuit switching and Packet Switching? ANSWER:

A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we have the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication possible. One of the better solutions is switching. A switch is network consists of a

series of interlinked nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections between two

or more devices linked to the switch. In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems (computers or telephones). Others are used only for routing. Switched networks are divided, as shown in the figure.

Circuit switching

A circuit switched network consists of a set of switches connected by physical links. A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or more links. It is mainly used for telephones to call from one to one.

Packet switching

In packet switching, we transfer the messages in terms of small block fixed sizes called packets. In packet switching, there

is no path; packets are routed independently by sharing the network at time to time, by following the best path to the destination. Packets can be in order to the destination. Packet switching is more fault tolerant than circuit switching. The

store-and-forward transmission is used to route to the destination, while storing the packet in the routers main memory.

Congestion may occur when more packets are sending from the various hosts.

Comparison of switching techniques

ITEM CIRCUIT SWITCHED PACKET SWITCHED

What is sent Voice Message (divided)

Dedicated physical path Yes No

Each packet follows the same route Yes No

Packets arrive in order Yes No

Is a switch crash fatal Yes No

Bandwidth available Yes No

Time of possible congestion At set up time On every packet

Store and forward No yes

Q.5 Classify Guided medium (wired).Compare fiber optics and copper wire. ANSWER:

Guided Transmission Medium Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit form one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable,

and fiber-optic cable. A single traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the

medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport signals on the form of

electric current. Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Comparison of fiber optics and copper wire

Fiber has many advantages over copper wire as a transmission media.

These are: It can handle much higher band widths than copper. Due to the low attenuation, repeaters are needed only about

every 30 km on long lines, versus about every 5 km for copper.

Fiber is not being affected by the power surges, electromagnetic interference, or power failures. Nor it is affected by corrosive chemicals in the air, making it ideal for harsh factory environment.

Fiber is lighter than copper. One thousand twisted pairs copper cables of 1 km long weight8000 kg. But two fibers

have more capacity and weigh only 100 kg, which greatly reduces the need for expensive mechanical support

systems that must be maintained. Fibers do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap. This gives them excellent security against potential wire

tappers.

If new routes designed, the fiber is the first choice because of lower installation cost.

Fibers have the following disadvantages over copper wire:

Fiber is an unfamiliar technology requiring skills most engineers do not have.

Since optical transmission is inherently unidirectional, two-way communication requires either two fibers or two frequency bands on one fiber.

Fiber interfaces cost more than electrical interfaces.

Fibers can be damaged easily by being bent too much.

Q.6 What are different types of satellites?

ANSWER:

Four different types of satellite orbits can be identified depending on the shape and diameter of the orbit:

GEO (Geostationary orbit)

LEO (Low Earth Orbit) MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit)

HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) elliptical orbits

Geostationary orbit: Altitude:

ca. 36000 km above earth surface

Coverage: Ideally suited for continuous, regional coverage using a single satellite. It can also be used equally effectively for global

coverage using a minimum of three satellites.

Visibility: Mobile to satellite visibility decreases with increased latitude of the user. Poor Visibility in built-up, urban regions.

Low Earth orbit: Altitude: ca. 500 - 1500 km

Coverage:

Multi-satellite constellations of upwards of 30-50 satellites are required for global, continuous coverage. Single satellites

can be used in store and forward mode for localized coverage but only appears for short periods of time. Visibility:

The use of satellite diversity, by which more than one satellite is visible at any given time, can be used to optimize the link.

This can be achieved by either selecting the optimum link or combining the reception of two or more links. The higher the guaranteed minimum elevation angle to the user, the more satellites is needed in the constellation.

Medium Earth orbit: Altitude:

ca. 6000 - 20000 km

Coverage:

Multi-satellite constellations of between 10 and 20 satellites are required for global coverage Visibility:

Good to excellent global visibility, augmented by the use of satellite diversity techniques

Highly elliptical orbit: Altitude:

Apogee: 40 000–50 000 km, Perigee: 1000–20 000 km.

Coverage:

Three or four satellites are needed to provide continuous coverage to a region Visibility:

Particularly designed to provide high guaranteed elevation angle to satellite for Northern and Southern temperate latitudes.

Geostationary Satellites: Features of GEO:

Orbit ca. 36000 km distance to earth surface, orbit in equatorial plane (inclination 0°).

Complete rotation takes exactly one day; satellite is synchronous to earth rotation.

Fixed antenna positions, adjusting is not necessary.

High transmit power is needed.

High latency due to long distance (ca. 275 ms).

Not useful for global coverage for small mobile phones and data transmission, typically used for radio and TV

transmission.

Advantage:

Three GEO satellites are enough for complete coverage of almost any spot on earth. Senders and receivers can use

fixed antenna positions.

Disadvantage:

Northern/Southern regions of the earth have more problems receiving these satellites due to low elevation above

latitude .ie., larger antennas are needed.

Transferring a GEO into orbit is very expensive.

Medium-Earth Orbit Satellites

Features of MEO:

Orbit ca. 6000 - 20000 km above earth surface.

Slower moving satellites.

Fewer satellites are needed.

Simpler system design.

For many connections no hand-over needed.

higher latency, ca. 70 - 80 ms.

Higher sending power needed.

Special antennas for small footprints needed.

Example:

ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit, Inmarsat) start ca. 2000

Advantage:

Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger population, so requires few handovers.

Simpler system design.

Requires fewer satellites when compared to LEO.

Disadvantage:

Delay is more.

Needs high transmit power.

Special antennas are needed for smaller foot prints.

Low Earth Orbit Satellites: Features of LEO:

Orbit : ca. 500 - 1500 km above earth surface

Global radio coverage is possible.

latency comparable with terrestrial long distance connections, ca. 5-10 ms.

Many satellites necessary for global coverage.

More complex systems due to moving satellites.

Examples:

Iridium (start 1998, 66 satellites)

Globalstar (start 1999, 48 satellites)

Advantage:

Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bps is enough for voice communication.

LEO‟s provides much higher elevation in Polar Regions and so better global coverage.

Disadvantage:

Concept of LEO needs many satellites if global coverage is to be reached.

Life time of LEO is short for about 5-8 years.

MI0036 – BUSINESS INTELLIGENCE TOOLS ASSIGNMENT - SET- 1

Q.1 Define the term business intelligence tools? Briefly explain how the data from one end

gets transformed into information at the other end? ANSWER:

Business intelligence tools: The various tools of this suite are:

Data Integration Tools:

These tools extract, transform and load the data from the source databases to the target database. There are two categories;

Data Integrator and Rapid Marts. Data Integrator is an ETL tool with a GUI. Rapid Marts is a packaged ETL with pre-built

data models for reporting and query analysis that makes initial prototype development easy and fast for ERP applications. The important components of Data Integrator include;

Graphical designer:

This is a GUI used to build and test ETL jobs for data cleansing, validation and auditing. Data integration server:

This integrates data from different source databases.

Metadata repository: This repository keeps source and target metadata and the transformation rules.

Administrator:

This is a web-based tool that can be used to start, stop, schedule and monitor ETL jobs.

BI Platform:

This platform provides a set of common services to deploy, use and manage the tools and applications. These

services include providing the security, broadcasting, collaboration, metadata and developer services. Reporting Tools and Query & Analysis Tools: These tools provide the facility for standard reports generation,

ad hoc queries and data analysis.

Performance Management Tools: These tools help in managing the performance of a business by analyzing and

tracking key metrics and goals. Business intelligence tools: these are a type of application software designed to help in making better business

decisions. These tools aid in the analysis and presentation of data in a more meaningful way and so play a key role

in the strategic planning process of an organization. They illustrate business intelligence in the areas of market research and segmentation, customer profiling, customer support, profitability, and inventory and distribution

analysis to name a few.

Various types of BI systems viz. Decision Support Systems, Executive Information Systems (EIS), Multidimensional

Analysis software or OLAP (On-Line Analytical Processing) tools, data mining tools are discussed further. Whatever is the type, the Business Intelligence capabilities of the system is to let its users slice and dice the information from

their organization‟s numerous databases without having to wait for their IT departments to develop complex queries

and elicit answers.

Although it is possible to build BI systems without the benefit of a data warehouse, most of the systems are an integral

part of the user-facing end of the data warehouse in practice. In fact, we can never think of building a data warehouse without BI Systems. That is the reason; sometimes, the words „data warehousing‟ and „business intelligence‟ are being

used interchangeably.

Q. 2 what do you mean by data ware house? What are the major concepts and terminology

used in the study of data warehouse? ANSWER:

In simple terms, a data warehouse is the repository of an organization‟s historical data (also termed as the corporate memory). For example, an organization would get the information that is stored in its data warehouse to find out what day

of the week they sold the most number of gadgets in May 2002, or how employees were on sick leave for a specific week.

A data warehouse is a database designed to support decision making in an organization. Here, the data from various production databases are copied to the data warehouse so that queries can be forwarded without disturbing the stability or

performance of the production systems. So the main factor that leads to the use of a data warehouse is that complex queries

and analysis can be obtained over the information without slowing down the operational systems. While operational systems are optimized for simplicity and speed of modification (online transaction processing, or OLTP), the data

warehouse is optimized for reporting and analysis (online analytical processing, or OLAP).

Apart from traditional query and reporting, a data warehouse provides the base for the powerful data analysis techniques such as data mining and multidimensional analysis(discussed in detail in later Units). Making use of these

techniques will result in easier access to the information you need for informed decision making.

Characteristics of a Data Warehouse: According to Bill Inmon, who is considered to be the Father of Data warehousing, the data ina Data Warehouse consists of

the following characteristics:

Subject oriented

The first feature of DW is its orientation toward the major subjects of the organization instead of applications. The subjects are categorized in such a way that the subject-wise collection of information helps in decision-making. For example, the

data in the data warehouse of an insurance company can be organized as customer ID, customer name, premium, payment

period, etc. rather auto insurance, life insurance, fire insurance, etc.

Integrated

The data contained within the boundaries of the warehouse are integrated. This means that all inconsistencies regarding naming convention and value representations need to be removed in a data warehouse. For example, one of the applications

of an organization might code gender as „m‟ and „f‟ and the other application might code the same functionality as „0′

and„1′. When the data is moved from the operational environment to the data warehouse environment, this will result in

conflict. Time variant

The data stored in a data warehouse is not the current data. The data is a time series data as the data warehouse is a place

where the data is accumulated periodically. This is in contrast to the data in an operational system where the data in the databases are accurate as of the moment of access.

Non-volatility of the data

The data in the data warehouse is non-volatile which means the data is stored in a read-only format and it does not change

over a period of time. This is the reason the data in a dataware house forms as a single source for all decision system support processing.

Keeping the above characteristics in view data warehouse can be defined as a subject-oriented, integrated, non-volatile,

time-variant collection of data designed to support the decision-making requirements of an organization.

Q.3 what are the data modeling techniques used in data warehousing environment?

ANSWER:

There are two data modeling techniques that are relevant in a data warehousing environment. They are Entity Relationship

modeling (ER modeling) and dimensional modeling.

ER modeling produces a data model of the specific area of interest, using two basic concepts: Entities and the Relationships between them . A detailed ER model may also contain attributes, which can be properties of either

the entities or the relationships. The ER model is an abstraction tool as it can be used to simplify, understand and

analyze the ambiguous data relationships in the real business world. Dimensional modeling uses three basic concepts: Facts, Dimensions and Measures. Dimensional modeling is

powerful in representing the requirements of the business user in the context of database tables and also in the area

of data warehousing.

Entity- Relationship (E-R) Modeling

Basic Concepts:

An ER model is represented by an ER diagram, which uses three basic graphic symbols to conceptualize the data: entity, relationship, and attribute.

Entity:

An entity is defined to be a person, place, thing, or event of interest to the business or the organization. It represents a class of objects, which are things in the real business world that can be observed and classified by their properties and

characteristics.

Relationship:

Relationships represent the structural interaction and association among the entities in amodel and they are represented with lines drawn between the two specific entities. Generally,a relationship is named grammatically by a verb (such as

owns, belongs, and has) and the relationship between the entities can be defined in terms of the cardinality. Cardinality

represents the maximum number of instances of one entity that are related to a single instance in another table and vice versa. Thus the possible cardinalities include one-to-one (1:1), one-to-many (1:M), and many-to-many (M:M). In a detailed

normalized ER model, any M:M relationship is not shown because it is resolved to an associative entity.

Attributes: Attributes describe the characteristics of properties of the entities. The ProductID, Description, and Picture are attributes of

the PRODUCT entity in Figure 4.1. The name of an attribute has to be unique in an entity and should be self-explanatory to

ensure clarity. For example, rather naming date1 and date2, you may use the names; order date and delivery date. When an instance has no value for an attribute, the minimum cardinality of the attribute is zero, which means either nullable or

optional.

Dimensional Modeling Dimensional modeling is a relatively new concept compared to ER modeling. This method is simpler, more expressive, and

easier to understand. This technique is mainly aimed at conceptualizing and visualizing data models as a set of measures

that are described by common aspects of the business. It is useful for summarizing and rearranging the data and presenting views of the data to support data analysis. Also, the technique focuses on numeric data, such as values, counts, and

weights.

Q.4 Discuss the categories in which data is divided before structuring it into data ware house?

ANSWER:

The Data Warehouses can be divided into two types: Enterprise Data Warehouse

Data Mart

Enterprise Data Warehouse

The Enterprise data warehouse consists of the data drawn from multiple operational systems of an organization. This data

warehouse supports time-series and trend analysis across different business areas of an organization and so can be used for

strategic decision-making. Also, this data warehouse is used to populate various data marts.

Data Mart As data warehouses contain larger amounts of data, organizations often create „data marts‟ that are precise, specific to a

department or product line. Thus data mart is a physical and logical subset of an Enterprise data warehouse and is also

termed as a department-specific data warehouse. Generally, data marts are organized around a single business process.

There are two types of data marts; independent and dependant. The data is fed directly from the legacy systems in case of an independent data mart and the data is fed from the enterprise data warehouse in case of a dependent data mart. In the

long run, the dependent data marts are much more stable architecturally than the independent data marts.

Advantages and Limitations of a DW System

Use of a data warehouse brings in the following advantages for an organization:

End-users can access a wide variety of data. Management can obtain various kinds of trends and patterns of data.

A warehouse provides competitive advantage to the company by providing the data andtimely information.

A warehouse acts as a significant enabler of commercial business applications viz., Customer Relationship

Management (CRM) applications.

However, following are the concerns that one has to keep in mind while using a dataware house:

The scope of a Data warehousing project is to be managed carefully to attain the defined content and value.

The process of extracting, cleaning and loading the data and finally storing it into a dataware house is a time-

consuming process. The problems of compatibility with the existing systems need to be resolved before building a data warehouse.

Security of the data may become a serious issue, especially if the warehouse is web accessible.

Building and maintenance of the data warehouse can be handled only through skilled resources and requires huge

investment.

Q.5 Discuss the purpose of executive information system in an organization?

ANSWER:

An Executive Information System (EIS) is a set of management tools supporting the information and decision-making needs of management by combining information available within the organisation with external information in an

analytical framework. EIS are targeted at management needs to quickly assess the status of a business or section of

business. These packages are aimed firmly at the type of business user who needs instant and up to date understanding of

critical business information to aid decision making.

The idea behind an EIS is that information can be collated and displayed to the user without manipulation or further

processing. The user can then quickly see the status of his chosen department or function, enabling them to concentrate on decision making. Generally an EIS is configured to display data such as order backlogs, open sales, purchase order

backlogs, shipments, receipts and pending orders. This information can then be used to make executive decisions at a

strategic level.

The emphasis of the system as a whole is the easy to use interface and the integration with a variety of data sources. It

offers strong reporting and data mining capabilities which can provide all the data the executive is likely to need.

Traditionally the interface was menu driven with either reports, or text presentation. Newer systems, and especially the newer Business Intelligence systems, which are replacing EIS, have a dashboard or scorecard type display.

Before these systems became available, decision makers had to rely on disparate spreadsheets and reports which slowed down the decision making process. Now massive amounts of relevant information can be accessed in seconds. The two

main aspects of an EIS system are integration and visualization. The newest method of visualisation is the Dashboard and

Scorecard. The Dashboard is one screen that presents key data and organizational information on an almost real time and integrated basis. The Scorecard is another one screen display with measurement metrics which can give a percentile view

of whatever criteria the executive chooses.

Behind these two front end screens can be an immense data processing infrastructure, or a couple of integrated databases, depending entirely on the organization that is using the system. The backbone of the system is traditional server hardware

and a fast network. The EIS software itself is run from here and presented to the executive over this network. The

databases needs to be fully integrated into the system and have real-time connections both in and out. This information then needs to be collated, verified, processed and presented to the end user, so a real-time connection into the EIS core is

necessary.

Executive Information Systems come in two distinct types: ones that are data driven, and ones that are model driven. Data driven systems interface with databases and data ware houses. They collate information from different sources and present

them to the user in an integrated dashboard style screen. Model driven systems use forecasting, simulations and decision

tree like processes to present the data.

As with any emerging and progressive market, service providers are continually improving their products and offering new

ways of doing business. Modern EIS systems can also present industry trend information and competitor behaviour trends if needed. They can filter and analyze data; create graphs, charts and scenario generations; and offer many other options for

presenting data.

There are a number of ways to link decision making to organisational performance. From a decision maker's perspective these tools provide an excellent way of viewing data. Outcomes displayed include single metrics, trend analyses,

demographics, market shares and a myriad of other options. The simple interface makes it quick and easy to navigate and

call the information required.

For a system that seems to offer business so much, it is used by relatively few organisations. Current estimates indicate

that as few as 10% of businesses use EIS systems. One of the reasons for this is the complexity of the system and support infrastructure. It is difficult to create such a system and populate it effectively. Combining all the necessary systems and

data sources can be a daunting task, and seems to put many businesses off implementing it. The system vendors have

addressed this issue by offering turnkey solutions for potential clients. Companies like Actuate and Oracle are both offering

complete out of the box Executive Information Systems, and these aren't the only ones. Expense is also an issue. Once the initial cost is calculated, there is the additional cost of support infrastructure, training, and the means of making the

company data meaningful to the system.

Q.6 Discuss the challenges involved in data integration and coordination process? ANSWER:

In general, most of the data that the warehouse gets is the data extracted from a combination of legacy mainframe systems, old minicomputer applications, and some client/server systems. But these source systems do not conform to the same set of

business rules. Thus they may often follow different naming conventions and varied standards for data representation. Thus

the process of data integration and consolidation plays a vital role. Here, the data integration includes combining of all relevant operational data into coherent datastructures so as to make them ready for loading into data warehouse. It

standardizes the names and data representations and resolves the discrepancies. Some of the challenges involved in the data

integration and consolidation process are as follows.

Identification of an Entity: Suppose there are three legacy applications that are in use in your organization; one is the order entry system, second is customer service support system, and the third is the marketing system. Each of these systems might have their own

customer file to support the system. Even most of the customers will be common to all these three files, the same customer

on each of these files have a different unique identification number .

As you need to keep a single record for each customer in a data warehouse, you need to get the transactions of each customer from various source systems and then match them up to load into the data warehouse. This is an entity

identification problem in which you do not know which of the customer records relate to the same customer. This problem

is prevalent where multiple sources exist for the same entities and the other entities that are prone to this type of problem include vendors, suppliers, employees, and various products manufactured by a company. In case of three customer files,

you have to design complex algorithms to match records from all the three files and groups of matching records. But this is

a difficult exercise. If the matching criterion is too tight, then some records might escape the groups. Similarly, a particular

group may include records of more than one customer if the matching criterion designed is too loose. Also, you might have to involve your users or the respective stakeholders to understand the transaction accurately. Some of the companies

attempt this problem in two phases. In the first phase, the entire records, irrespective whether they are duplicates or not, are

assigned unique identifiers and in the second phase, the duplicates are reconciled periodically ether through automatic algorithms or manually.

Existence of Multiple Sources Another major challenge in the area of data integration and consolidation results from a single data element having more

than one source. For instance, cost values are calculated and updated at specific intervals in the standard costing

application. Similarly, your order processing application also carries the unit costs for all products. Thus there are two sources available to obtain the unit cost of a product and so there could be a slight variation in their values. Which of these

systems needs to be considered to store the unit cost in the dataware house becomes an important question. One easy way

of handling this situation is to prioritize the two sources, or you may select the source on the basis of the last update date.

Implementation of Transformation: The implementation of data transformation is a complex exercise. You may have to go beyond the manual methods, usual methods of writing conversion programs while deploying the operational systems. You need to consider several other

factors to decide the methods to be adopted. Suppose you are considering automating the data transformation functions,

you have to identify, configure and install the tools, train the team on these tools, and integrate them into the data warehouse environment. But a combination of both methods proves to be effective. The issues you may face in using

manual methods and transformation tools are discussed below.

Manual Methods

These are the traditional methods that are in practice in the recent past. These methods are adequate in case of smaller data

warehouses. These methods include manually coded programs and scripts that are mainly executed in the data staging area. Since these methods call for elaborate coding and testing and programmers and analysts who possess the specialized

knowledge in this area only can produce the programs and scripts. Although the initial cost may be reasonable, ongoing

maintenance may escalate the cost while implementing these methods. Moreover these methods are always prone to errors.

Another disadvantage of these methods is about the creation of metadata. Even if the in-house programs record the metadata initially, the metadata needs to be updated every time the changes occur in the transformation rules.

Transformation Tools The difficulties involved in using the manual methods can be eliminated using the sophisticated and comprehensive set of transformation tools that are now available. Use of these automated tools certainly improves efficiency and accuracy. If the

inputs provided into the tools are accurate, then the rest of the work is performed efficiently by the tool. So you have to

carefully specify the required parameters, the data definitions and the rules to the transformation tool. Also, the

transformation tools enable the recording of metadata. When you specify the transformation parameters and rules, these values are stored as metadata by the tool and this metadata becomes a part of the overall metadata component of the data

warehouse. When changes occur to business rules or data definitions, you just have to enter the changes into the tool and

the metadata for the transformations get adjusted automatically. But relying on the transformation tools alone without using the manual methods is also not practically possible.

Transformation for Dimension Attributes Now we consider the updating of the dimension tables. The dimension tables are more stable in nature and so they are less

volatile compared to the fact tables. The fact tables change through an increase in the number of rows, but the dimension

tables change through the changes to the attributes. For instance, we consider a product dimension table. Every year, rows are added as new models become available. But what about the attributes that are within the dimension table. You might

face a situation where there is a change in the product dimension table because a particular product was moved into a

different product category. So the corresponding values must be changed in the product dimension table. Though most of the dimensions are generally constant over a period of time, they may change slowly.

MI0050 – RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ASSIGNMENT - SET- 1

Q1. How is a research problem formulated? ANSWER:

Formulating the Problem The selection of one appropriate researchable problem out of the identified problems requires evaluation of those

alternatives against certain criteria, which may be grouped into:

Internal Criteria Internal Criteria consists of:

1. Researcher‟s interest: The problem should interest the researcher and be a challenge to him. Without interest and

curiosity, he may not develop sustained perseverance. Even a small difficulty may become an excuse for discontinuing the study. Interest in a problem depends upon the researcher‟s educational background, experience,

outlook and sensitivity.

2. Researcher‟s competence: A mere interest in a problem will not do. The researcher must be competent to plan and

carry out a study of the problem. He must have the ability to grasp and deal with int. he must possess adequate knowledge of the subject-matter, relevant methodology and statistical procedures.

3. Researcher‟s own resource: In the case of a research to be done by a researcher on his won, consideration of his own

financial resource is pertinent. If it is beyond his means, he will not be able to complete the work, unless he gets some external financial support. Time resource is more important than finance. Research is a time-consuming

process; hence it should be properly utilized.

External Criteria

1. Research-ability of the problem: The problem should be researchable, i.e., amendable for finding answers to the questions involved in it through scientific method. To be researchable a question must be one for which observation

or other data collection in the real world can provide the answer.

2. Importance and urgency: Problems requiring investigation are unlimited, but available research efforts are very much limited. Therefore, in selecting problems for research, their relative importance and significance should be

considered. An important and urgent problem should be given priority over an unimportant one.

3. Novelty of the problem: The problem must have novelty. There is no use of wasting one‟s time and energy on a problem already studied thoroughly by others. This does not mean that replication is always needless. In social

sciences in some cases, it is appropriate to replicate (repeat) a study in order to verify the validity of its findings to a

different situation.

4. Feasibility: A problem may be a new one and also important, but if research on it is not feasible, it cannot be selected. Hence feasibility is a very important consideration.

5. Facilities: Research requires certain facilities such as well-equipped library facility, suitable and competent guidance,

data analysis facility, etc. Hence the availability of the facilities relevant to the problem must be considered. 6. Usefulness and social relevance: Above all, the study of the problem should make significant contribution to the

concerned body of knowledge or to the solution of some significant practical problem. It should be socially relevant.

This consideration is particularly important in the case of higher level academic research and sponsored research. 7. Research personnel: Research undertaken by professors and by research organizations require the services of

investigators and research officers. But in India and other developing countries, research has not yet become a

prospective profession. Hence talent persons are not attracted to research projects.

Each identified problem must be evaluated in terms of the above internal and external criteria and the most appropriate one may be selected by a research scholar.

Q2. What are the characteristics of good research design? ANSWER:

Design research investigates the process of designing in all its many fields. It is thus related to Design methods in general or for particular disciplines. A primary interpretation of design research is that it is concerned with undertaking research

into the design process. Secondary interpretations would refer to undertaking research within the process of design. The

overall intention is to better understand and to improve the design process. Throughout the design construction task, it is important to have in mind some endpoint, some criteria which we

should try to achieve before finally accepting a design strategy. The criteria discussed below are only meant to be

suggestive of the characteristics found in good research design. It is worth noting that all of these criteria point to the need to individually tailor research designs rather than accepting standard textbook strategies as is Theory-Grounded. Good

research strategies reflect the theories which are being investigated. Where specific theoretical expectations can be

hypothesized these are incorporated into the design. For example, where theory predicts a specific treatment effect on one measure but not on another, the inclusion of both in the design improves discriminant validity and demonstrates the

predictive power of the theory.

Situational: Good research designs reflect the settings of the investigation. This was illustrated above where a particular

need of teachers and administrators was explicitly addressed in the design strategy. Similarly, intergroup rivalry,

demoralization, and competition might be assessed through the use of additional comparison groups who are not in direct

contact with the original group.

Feasible: Good designs can be implemented. The sequence and timing of events are carefully thought out. Potential

problems in measurement, adherence to assignment, database construction and the like, are anticipated. Where needed, additional groups or measurements are included in the design to explicitly correct for such problems.

Redundant.: Good research designs have some flexibility built into them. Often, this flexibility results from duplication of essential design features. For example, multiple replications of a treatment help to insure that failure to implement the

treatment in one setting will not invalidate the entire study.

Efficient. :Good designs strike a balance between redundancy and the tendency to overdesign. Where it is reasonable, other, less costly, strategies for ruling out potential threats to validity are utilized.

Q3. How case study method is useful to Business Research? ANSWER

Savvy case study writers increase their chances of success by following these ten proven techniques for writing an effective

case study:

Involve the customer throughout the process. Involving the customer throughout the case study development process helps

ensure customer cooperation and approval, and results in an improved case study. Obtain customer permission before writing the document, solicit input during the development, and secure approval after drafting the document.

Write all customer quotes for their review. Rather than asking the customer to draft their quotes, writing them for

their review usually results in more compelling material.

Case Study Writing Ideas

Establish a document template. A template serves as a roadmap for the case study process, and ensures that the

document looks, feels, and reads consistently. Visually, the template helps build the brand; procedurally, it

simplifies the actual writing. Before beginning work, define 3-5 specific elements to include in every case study, formalize those elements, and stick to them.

Start with a bang. Use action verbs and emphasize benefits in the case study title and subtitle. Include a short

(less than 20-word) customer quote in larger text. Then, summarize the key points of the case study in 2-3 succinct

bullet points. The goal should be to tease the reader into wanting to read more.

Organize according to problem, solution, and benefits. Regardless of length, the time-tested, most effective

organization for a case study follows the problem-solution-benefits flow. First, describe the business and/or technical problem or issue; next, describe the solution to this problem or resolution of this issue; finally, describe

how the customer benefited from the particular solution (more on this below). This natural story-telling sequence

resonates with readers.

Use the general-to-specific-to-general approach. In the problem section, begin with a general discussion of the

issue that faces the relevant industry. Then, describe the specific problem or issue that the customer faced. In the

solution section, use the opposite sequence. First, describe how the solution solved this specific problem; then

indicate how it can also help resolve this issue more broadly within the industry. Beginning more generally draws

the reader into the story; offering a specific example demonstrates, in a concrete way, how the solution resolves a commonly faced issue; and concluding more generally allows the reader to understand how the solution can also

address their problem.

Quantify benefits when possible. No single element in a case study is more compelling than the ability to tie quantitative benefits to the solution. For example, “Using Solution X saved Customer Y over $ZZZ, ZZZ after just

6 months of implementation;” or, “Thanks to Solution X, employees at Customer Y have realized a ZZ% increase

in productivity as measured by standard performance indicators.” Quantifying benefits can be challenging, but not

impossible. The key is to present imaginative ideas to the customer for ways to quantify the benefits, and remain flexible during this discussion. If benefits cannot be quantified, attempt to develop a range of qualitative benefits;

the latter can be quite compelling to readers as well.

Use photos. Ask the customer if they can provide shots of personnel, ideally using the solution. The shots need not

be professionally done; in fact, “homegrown” digital photos sometimes lead to surprisingly good results and often

appear more genuine. Photos further personalize the story and help form a connection to readers.

Reward the customer. After receiving final customer approval and finalizing the case study, provide a pdf, as

well as printed copies, to the customer. Another idea is to frame a copy of the completed case study and present it to the customer in appreciation for their efforts and cooperation.

Writing a case study is not easy. Even with the best plan, a case study is doomed to failure if the writer lacks the exceptional writing skills, technical savvy, and marketing experience that these documents require. In many cases, a

talented writer can mean the difference between an ineffective case study and one that provides the greatest benefit. If a

qualified internal writer is unavailable, consider outsourcing the task to professionals who specialize in case study writing.

Q4. Distinguish between Schedules and questionnaires. ANSWER

There is a difference between a schedule and a questionnaire. A schedule is a form that the investigator fills himself through surveying the units or individuals. A questionnaire is a form sent (usually mailed) by an investigator to

respondents. The respondent has to fill it and then send it back to the investigator.

Questionnaires

Often, information is collected through questionnaires. The questionnaires are filled with questions pertaining to the

investigation. They are sent to the respondents with a covering letter soliciting cooperation from the respondents

(respondents are the people who respond to questions in the questionnaire). The respondents are asked to give correct information and to mail the questionnaire back. The objectives of investigation are explained in the covering letter together

with assurance for keeping information provided by the respondents as confidential.

Good questionnaire construction is an important contributing factor to the success of a survey. When questionnaires are properly framed and constructed, they become important tools by which statements can be made about specific people or

entire populations.

This method is generally adopted by research workers and other official and non-official agencies. This method is used to cover large areas of investigation. It is more economical and free from investigator‟s bias. However, it results in many

“non-response” situations. The respondent may be illiterate. The respondent may also provide wrong information due to

wrong interpretation of questions.

Schedule Filled By Investigators

Information can be collected through schedules filled by investigators through personal contact. In order to get reliable information, the investigator should be well trained, tactful, unbiased and hard working.

A schedule is suitable for an extensive area of investigation through investigator‟s personal contact. The problem of non-

response is minimised.

There is a difference between a schedule and a questionnaire. A schedule is a form that the investigator fills himself through surveying the units or individuals. A questionnaire is a form sent (usually mailed) by an investigator to

respondents. The respondent has to fill it and then send it back to the investigator.

Q5. What are the contents of research reports? ANSWER

Contents of the Research Report The outline of a research report is given below:

I. Prefatory Items

Title page

Declaration

Certificates Preface/acknowledgements

Table of contents

List of tables List of graphs/figures/charts

Abstract or synopsis

II. Body of the Report

Introduction

Theoretical background of the topic

Statement of the problem Review of literature

The scope of the study

The objectives of the study Hypothesis to be tested

Definition of the concepts

Models if any Design of the study

Methodology

Method of data collection

Sources of data Sampling plan

Data collection instruments

Field work Data processing and analysis plan

Overview of the report

Limitation of the study

Results: findings and discussions Summary, conclusions and recommendations

III. Reference Material Bibliography

Appendix

Copies of data collection instruments Technical details on sampling plan

Complex tables

Glossary of new terms used.

Q6. Write short notes on the following:

a. Median

b. Standard Deviation ANSWER

Median:

The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpointof a distribution: the same

numbers of scores are above the median as below it. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there

are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th

percentile.

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3,the median is 2. For this dataset, your

score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution.

Standard Deviation:

Standard deviation is the most important measure of dispersion. It satisfies most of the properties of a good measure of dispersion. It was introduced by Karl Pearson in 1893. Standard deviation is defined as the mean of the squared deviations

from the arithmetic mean.

Mean deviation and standard deviation are calculated from deviation of each and every item. Standard deviation is different

from mean deviation in two respects. First of all, algebraic signs are ignored in calculating mean deviation. Secondly, signs are taken into account in calculating standard deviation whereas, mean deviation can be found from mean, median or

mode. Whereas, standard deviation is found only from mean.

Standard deviation can be computed in two methods

1. Taking deviation from actual mean

2. Taking deviation from assumed mean.

Formula for finding standard deviation is Ö S (x-x)2 / N

Steps

1. Calculate the actual mean of the series S x / N

2. Take deviation of the items from the mean ( x-x) 3. -x)2 / N

4. Sum the squares of the deviations S ( x-x)2

5. Find the average of the squares of the deviations S ( x-x)2 / N

6. Take the square root of the average of the sum of the deviation.

MI0051 – LEGAL ASPECTS OF BUSINESS ASSIGNMENT - SET- 1

Q1. “All agreements are not contracts, but all contracts are agreements”. Comment ANSWER:

Contract A contract is an agreement, enforceable by law, made between at least two parties by which rights are acquired by one and obligations are created on the part of another. If the party, which had agreed to do something, fails to do that, then the other

party has a remedy.

Example: D Airlines sells a ticket on 1 January to X for the journey from Mumbai to Bangalore on 10 January. The

Airlines is under an obligation to take X from Mumbai to Bangalore on 10 January. In case the Airlines fail to fulfill its

promise, X has a remedy against it. Thus, X has a right against the Airlines to be taken from Mumbai to Bangalore on 10 January. A corresponding duty is imposed on the Airlines. As there is a breach of promise by the promisor (the Airlines),

the other party to the contract (i.e., X) has a legal remedy.

Agreement Sec.2(e) defines an agreement as “every promise and every set of promises forming consideration for each other”. In this

context, the word „promise‟ is defined by Sec.2(b). In a contract there are at least two parties. One of them makes a

proposal (or an offer) to the other, to do something, with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such act. When the person to whom the proposal is made signifies his assent thereto, the proposal is said to be accepted. A proposal, when

accepted becomes a promise (Sec.2(b)).

Enforceability by law: The agreement must be such which is enforceable by law so as to become a contract. Thus, there are certain agreements

which do not become contracts as this element of enforceability by law is absent.

Essentials of a contract

Sec.10 provides that all agreements are contracts, if they are made by free consent of parties, competent to contract, for a

lawful consideration, and with a lawful object, and are not expressly declared by law to be void. To constitute a contract, there must be an agreement between two or more than two parties. No one can enter into a contract with himself. An

agreement is composed of two elements – offer or proposal by one party and acceptance thereof by the other party.

Effect of absence of one or more essential elements of a valid contract: If one or more essentials of a valid contract are missing, then the contract may be either voidable, void, illegal or

unenforceable.

Classification of contracts

Contracts may be classified as follows:

Classification of contracts according to formation: A contract may be (a) Made in writing (b) By words spoken and (c) Inferred from the conduct of the parties or the circumstances of the case.

Formal and informal contracts:

This is another way of classifying contracts on the basis of their formation. A formal contract is one to which the law gives special effect because of the formalities or the special language used in creating it. The best example of formal contracts is

negotiable instruments, such as cheques. Informal contracts are those for which the law does not require a particular set of

formalities or special language. Classification according to validity: Contracts may be classified according to their validity as

i. Valid,

ii. Voidable,

iii. Void, iv. Unenforceable.

A contract to constitute a valid contract must have all the essential elements discussed earlier. If one or more of these

elements are missing, the contract is voidable, void, illegal or unenforceable. As per Sec.2(i) A voidable contract is one which may be repudiated (i.e., avoided) at the will of one or more of the parties, but not by others.

Q2. What are the essentials of a contract of sale under the sale of Goods Act, 1930? ANSWER: Following are the essentials of the contract:

1. There must be at least two parties. A sale has to be bilateral because the property in goods has to pass from one person to another. The seller and the buyer

must be different persons. A person cannot buy his own goods. However, a part-owner may sell to another part-owner.

Examples: A partnership firm was dissolved and the surplus assets, including some goods, were divided among the

partners in specie. The sales-tax officer sought to tax this transaction. Held, this transaction did not amount to sale. The partners were themselves the joint owners of the goods and they could not be both sellers and buyers. Moreover, no

money consideration was promised or paid by any partner to the firm as consideration for the goods allotted to him.

2. Transfer or agreement to transfer the ownership of goods. In a contract of sale, it is the ownership that is transferred

(in the case of sale), or agreed to be transferred (in the case of agreement to sell), as against transfer of mere possession

or limited interest (as in the case of bailment or pledge).

3. The subject matter of the contract must necessarily be goods. The sale of immovable property is not covered under

Sale of Goods Act. The expression „goods‟ is defined in Sec.2(7).

4. Price is the consideration of the contract of sale. The consideration in a contract of sale has necessarily to be „money‟,

(i.e., the legal tender money). If for instance, goods are offered as the consideration for goods, it will not amount to sale.

It will be called a „barter‟. Payment by installments. In the case of sale of goods, the parties may agree that the price will be payable by installments.

Also, the terms may stipulate some amount by way of down payment and the balance by installments. Q3. Describe the main features of Consumer Protection Act 1986. ANSWER: Salient features of the Act

It applies to all goods and services unless specifically exempted by the Central Government.

It covers all sectors whether private, public or co-operative. It confers certain rights on consumers.

It envisages establishment of consumer protection councils at the Central and State levels whose main object shall

be to promote and protect the rights of the consumers.

The provisions of this Act are in addition to and not in derogation of the provisions of any other Act.

Q4. What are the duties and powers of an „authorized person‟ under FEMA, 1999? ANSWER:

Authorised person Sec.10 provides that the Reserve Bank may, on an application made to it in this behalf, authorise any person to be known as authorised person to deal in foreign exchange or in foreign securities, as an authorised dealer,

money changer or offshore banking unit or in any other manner as it deems fit. The authorization shall be in writing and

shall be subject to the conditions laid down therein.

An authorization so granted may be revoked by the Reserve Bank at any time if it is satisfied that (a) it is in public interest to do so; or

(b) the authorised person has failed to comply with the condition subject to which the authorization was granted or has

contravened any of the provisions of the Act or any rule, regulation, notification, direction or order made there under.

Duties of an authorised person The duties of an authorised person as provided in the Act are summarised here under: 1. To comply with RBI directions [Sec.10(4)]. An authorised person shall, in all his dealings in foreign exchange or foreign

security, comply with such general or special direction or order as the Reserve Bank may, from time to time, think fit to

give.

2. Not to engage in unauthorized transactions [Sec.10(4)]. Except with the previous permission of the Reserve Bank, an authorised person shall not engage in any transaction involving any foreign exchange or foreign security which is not in

conformity with the terms of authorization under this section.

3. To ensure compliance of FEMA provisions [Sec.10(5)]. An authorised person shall, before undertaking any transaction in foreign exchange on behalf of any person, require that person to make such declaration and to give such information, as

will reasonably satisfy him that the transaction will not involve and is not designed for the purpose of any contravention or

evasion of the provisions of this Act or of any rule, regulation, notification, direction or order made thereunder. Where the said person refuses to comply with any such requirement or makes only unsatisfactory compliance therewith, the

authorised person shall refuse in writing to undertake the transactions and shall, if he has reason to believe that any such

contravention or evasion as aforesaid is contemplated by the person, report the matter to the Reserve Bank.

Powers of the authorised person

1. To deal in or transfer any foreign exchange or foreign security to any person [Sec.3(a)] 2. Receive any payment by order or on behalf of any person resident outside India in any name. [Sec.3(c)]

However, an authorised person is not allowed to credit the account of any person without any corresponding

remittance from any place outside India. 3. To open NRO, NRE, NRNR, NRSR and FCNR accounts.

4. To sell or purchase foreign exchange for current account transactions. [Sec.5]

5. To sell or purchase foreign exchange for permissible capital account transactions. [Sec.6].

Q5. What do you mean by Memorandum of Association? What does it contain? ANSWER:

Memorandum of Association

1. Meaning and purpose

The Memorandum of Association of a company is its charter which contains the fundamental conditions upon which

alone the company can be incorporated. It tells us the objects of the company‟s formation and the utmost possible scope of its operations beyond which its actions cannot go. Thus, it defines as well as confines the powers of the

company. If anything is done beyond these powers, that will be ultra vires (beyond powers of) the company and so

void. The memorandum serves a two-fold purpose. It enables shareholders, creditors and all those who deal with the company to know what its powers are and what is the range of its activities. Thus, the intending shareholder can find

out the field in, or the purpose for which his money is going to be used by the company and what risk he is taking in

making the investment. Also, any one dealing with the company, say, a supplier of goods or money, will know

whether the transaction he intends to make with the company is within the objects of the company and not ultra virus its objects.

2. Form and contents

Sec.14 requires that the memorandum of a company shall be in such one of the Forms in Tables B, C, D and E in

Schedule I to the Act, as may be applicable in the case of the company, or in Forms as near thereto as circumstances

admit. Sec.15 requires the memorandum to be printed, divided into paragraphs, numbered consecutively and signed by at least seven persons (two in the case of a private company) in the presence of at least one witness, who will attest

the signature. Each of the members must take at least one share and write opposite his name the number of shares he

takes. Sec.13 requires the memorandum of a limited company to contain: (i) the name of the company, with „limited‟ as the last word of the name in the case of a public company and „private limited‟ as the last words in the case of a

private company; (ii) the name of the State, in which the registered officer of the company is to be situated; (iii) the

objects of the company, stating separately „Main objects‟ and „other objects‟; (iv) the declaration that the liability of the members is limited; and (v) the amount of the authorised share capital, divided into shares of fixed amounts.

These contents of the memorandum are called compulsory clauses and are explained below:

The name clause. The promoters are free to choose any suitable name for the company provided:

a. the last word in the name of the company, if limited by shares or guarantee is „limited‟ unless the company is

registered under Sec.25 as an „association not for profit‟ [Sec.13(1) (a) & Sec.25].

b. In the opinion of the Central Government, the name chosen is not undesirable [Sec.20(1)].

Too similar name. In case of too similar names, the resemblance between the two names must be such as to be

calculated to deceive. A name shall be said to be calculated to deceive where it suggests some connection or

association with the existing company.

Publication of name (Sec.147). Every company shall: (a) paint or affix its name and the address of its registered office

and keep the same painted or affixed, on the outside of every office or place of business in a conspicuous position in letters easily legible and in the language in general use in the locality.

3. 3 Alteration of memorandum

Sec.16 provides that the company cannot alter the conditions contained in memorandum except in the cases and in the mode and to the extent express provision has been made in the Act. These provisions are explained herein below:

Change of name. Sec.21 provides that the name of a company may be changed at any time by passing a special resolution at a general meeting of the company and with the written approval of the Central Government. However,

no approval of the Central Government is necessary if the change of the name involves only the addition or deletion

of the word „private‟ (i.e., when public company is converted into a private company or vice versa).

The change of name must be communicated to the Registrar of Companies within 30 days of the change. The

Registrar shall then enter the new name on the register in the place of the old name and shall issue a fresh certificate

of incorporation with necessary alterations [Sec.23(1)]. The change of name becomes effective on the issue of fresh certificate of incorporation.

Change of registered office. The procedure depends on whether the change is within the jurisdiction of same registrar of companies (Sec.146) or whether the shifting is to the jurisdiction of another registrar of companies in the same state

(Sec.146 and Sec.17A).

This may include:

a. Change of registered office from one premises to another premises in the same city, town or village. The company may do so anytime. A resolution passed by the Board of directors shall be sufficient. However, notice of the change

should, within 30 days after the date of the change, be given to the Registrar who shall record the same (Sec.146).

b. Change of registered office from one town or city or village to another town or city or village in the same State (Sec.146). In this case, the procedure is:

i. a special resolution is required to be passed at a general meeting of the shareholders;

ii. a copy of it is to be filed with the Registrar within 30 days.

iii. Within 30 days of the removal of the registered office, notice of the new location has to be given to the Registrar who shall record the same.

c. Shifting of the registered office from one place to another within the same state (Sec.17A): The shifting of the registered office by a company from the jurisdiction of one registrar of companies to the jurisdiction of another

registrar of companies within the same state shall (in addition to requirements under Sec.146) also require

confirmation by the Regional Director. For this purpose, an application is to be made in the prescribed form and the confirmation shall be communicated within four weeks. Such confirmation is required to be field within two months

with the registrar of companies who shall register and certify the same within one month. Such certificate shall be

conclusive evidence of the compliance of all requirements under the Act.

Q6. Write a note on the following:

a. Copy Right Act

b. Pledge ANSWER:

Copy Right Act Copyright, its Ownership and Term : This part enumerates works in which copyright subsists and works in which it does

not subsist. Further, it gives the meaning of copyright. Also, the term and ownership of copyright are discussed.

1. 1 Works in which copyright subsists (Sec.13)Copyright subsists throughout India in the following classes of work:(a) original, literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works; (b) cinematograph films; and (c) sound recordings.

The terms „literary works‟, „dramaticwork‟ and „musical work‟ have already been defined in Part -1.

i. However, copyright shall not subsist in any work specified above (other than foreign works or works of certain international organisations) unless –(i) in the case of a published work, the work is first published in

India, or where the work is first published outside India, the author was a citizen of India on the date of

publication, and if dead on that date, on the date of his death; ii. (ii) in the case of an unpublished work (other than a work of architecture), the author is at the date of making

of the work, a citizen of India or domiciled in India, and

iii. (iii) in the case of a work of architecture,the work is located in India. The copyright in a cinematograph film

or a sound recording shall not affect the separate copyright in any work in respect of which or substantialpart of which, the film, or as the case may be, the sound recording is made.

2. Meaning of copyright (Sec.14)

The term „copyright‟ means the exclusive right, by virtue of, and subject to the provision of the Act: i. in the case of literary, dramatic or musical work, not being a computer programme – (i) to reproduce the

work in any material form including thestoring of it in any medium by electronic means; (ii) to issue copies

of the work to the public not being copies already in circulation; (iii) to performthe work in public, or communicate it to the public; (iv) to make any cinematograph film or sound recording in respect of the

work;(v) to make any translation of the work; (vi) to make any adaptation of the work; (vii) to do, in relation

to a translation or an adaptation of the work,any of the acts specified in relation to the work in (i) to (vi);

ii. in the case of computer programme – (i) to do any of the acts specified in clause (a) above; (ii) to sell or give on hire, or offer for sale or hire anycopy of the computer programme, regardless of whether such copy has

been sold or given on hire on earlier occasions;

iii. in the case of an artistic work – (i) to reproduce the work in any material form including depiction in three dimensions of a two – dimensionalwork or in two dimensions of a three – dimensional work; (ii) to

communicate the work to the public; (iii) to issue copies of the work to the publicnot being copies already in

circulation; (iv) to include the work in any cinematograph film; (v) to make any adaptation of the work; (vi)

to do inrelation to an adaptation of the work any of the acts specified in relation to the work in (i) to (iv) above;

iv. in the case of a cinematograph film – (i) to make a copy of the film, including a photograph of any image

forming part thereof; (ii) to sell or giveon hire; or offer for sale or hire, any copy of the film, regardless of whether such copy has been sold or given on hire on earlier occasions; (iii) tocommunicate the film to the

public.

v. In the case of a sound recording – (i) to make any other sound recording embodying it; (ii) to sell or give on hire, or offer for sale or hire, anycopy of the sound recording regardless of whether such copy has been sold

or given on hire on earlier occasions; (iii) to communicate the soundrecording to the public.

3. Ownership of copyright (Sec.17)

The author of the work is recognised to be the first owner of the copyright therein. This is however, subject to some exceptions given below:

i. In the case of a literary, dramatic or artistic work made by the author in the course of his employment or

apprenticeship under the proprietor of anewspaper, magazine or similar periodical, for the purpose of publication, the said proprietor shall be the first owner of the copyright in the work (inthe absence of any

agreement to the contrary) insofar as the copyright relates to the publication in the newspaper, magazine or

other periodical.Except in such cases, the author will be the first owner of the copyright in the work. ii. If the photograph is taken or a painting or portrait is drawn or an engraving or cinematograph film is made

on payment at the instance of anyperson, such person, in the absence of any agreement to the contrary, shall

be the first owner of the copyright therein.

iii. If a work is made in the course of the author‟s employment under a contract of service or apprenticeship, the employer (not being the proprietorof a newspaper, magazine or periodical) in the absence of any agreement

to the contrary, the employer shall be the first owner of the copyrighttherein.

iv. If any person has delivered any address or speech in public, then he shall be the first owner of the copyright. However, if the address or speech isdelivered on behalf of any other person, then such other person shall be

the owner of the copyright therein.

v. In the case of government work, the government is the owner of the copyright in the absence of any

agreement to the contrary. vi. In the case of a work made or first published by or under the direction or control of any public undertaking,

such public undertaking shall, in theabsence of any agreement to the contrary, be the first owner of the

copyright therein.

4. Term of copyright Sec.22 provides that copyright shall subsist in any literary, dramatic, musical or artistic work (other than a

photograph) published within the lifetimeof the author until 60 years from the beginning of the calendar year next

following the year in which the author dies. Sec.23 provides for the term of copyright in anonymous and pseudonymous works. In the case of a literary,

dramatic, musical or artistic work (other than a photograph), which ispublished anonymously or pseudonymously,

copyright shall subsist until 60 years from the beginning of the calendar year next following the yearin which the work is first published.

Sec.24 provides for term of copyright in posthumous works. Where copyright subsists at the date of death of the

author and adaptation of which hasnot been published before that date, the copyright will subsist until 60 years of

from the beginning of the calendar year next following the year inwhich the work is first published.

Pledge

Sec.172, defines a pledge as the bailment of goods as security for payment of a debt or performance of a promise. The person, who delivers the goods as security, is called the „pledgor‟ and the person to whom the goods are so delivered is

called the „pledgee‟. The ownership remains with the pledgor. It is only a qualified property that passes to the pledge . He

acquires a special property, and lien which is not of ordinary nature and so long as his loan is not repaid, no other creditor or „authority‟ can take away the goods or its price. Thus, in Bank of Bihar v. State of Bihar and Ors.(1971) Company

Cases 591, where sugar pledged with the Bank was seized by the Government of Bihar, the Court ordered the State

Government of Bihar to reimburse the bank for such amount as the Bank in the ordinary course would have realised by the

sale of sugar seized. Delivery essential.

A pledge is created only when the goods are delivered by the borrower to the lender or to someone on his behalf with

theintention of their being treated as security against the advance. Delivery of goods may, however, be actual or constructive. It is constructive deliverywhere the key of a godown (in which the goods are kept) or documents of title to the

goods are delivered. The owner of the goods can create a validpledge by transferring to the creditor the documents of title

relating to the goods.

Example: A businessman pledged a railway receipt to a bank, duly endorsed. Later he was declared bankrupt. The Official Assignee

contended thatthe pledge of the railway receipt was not valid. Held, that the railway receipts in India are title to goods, and

that the pledge of the railway receipt tothe bank, duly endorsed, constituted a valid pledge of the goods.Similarly, where the goods continue to remain in the borrower‟s possession but are agreed to be held as a „bailee‟ on behalf of the pledgee

andsubject to the pledgee‟s order, it amounts to constructive delivery, and is a valid pledge.

Advantages of pledge. To a creditor, pledge is perhaps the most satisfactory mode of creating a charge on goods. It offers the following

advantages:

a. The goods are in the possession of the creditor and therefore, in case the borrower makes a default in

payment, they can be disposed of after a reasonable notice. b. Stocks cannot be manipulated as they are under the lender‟s possession and control.

c. In the case of insolvency of the borrower, lender can sell the goods and prove for the balance of the debt, if

any. There is hardly any possibility of the same goods being charged with some other party if actual possession of the goods is

taken by the lender.