Smoke Control

Technology

Dr. John H. Klote, PE

john@SmokeControlExpert.com

April 29, 2015

ICB Conference Austin, TX

Contents

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Basics of Smoke Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Analysis of Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Fire & Smoke Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Stairwell Pressurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Elevator Pressurization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Zoned Smoke Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Atrium Smoke Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Commissioning & Periodic Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Design Fires & Smoke Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Appendix A – Example Testing Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A1

4/8/2015

1

Smoke Control Smoke Control Smoke Control Smoke Control

TechnologyTechnologyTechnologyTechnology

Dr. John H. Klote, PEjohn@SmokeControlExpert.com

April 29, 2015

ICB Conference Austin, TX

Copyright Materials

This workshop is protected by U.S. and International copyright laws. Reproduction, distribution, display, and use of the educational activity without written permission of the presenter is prohibited.

© 2015 John H. Klote

Smoke is Major Killer

• Smoke Major Killer – about 70% of Fire Fatalities due to Smoke Inhalation• Berl, W.C., and B.M. Halpin. Human Fatalities from

Unwanted Fires. Johns Hopkins APL, 1980.• Harland, W.A., and W.D. Woolley, W.D. Fire Fatality

Study. BRE, Univ. Glasgow, 1979.

• Smoke Migrates Far From Fire Floor -Threatens Life at Remote Locations

• Smoke control provides significant protection from the threat of smoke.

Sprinklers Not Total Answer

• Sprinklers Important for Life Safety – Not Total Answer

• Sprinkler Failure Rate about 10% - Data of National Fire Incident Reporting System• Koffel’s Study, 2005• Hall’s Studies, 2006 & 2011

• Even in fully sprinklered buildings, smoke control provides protection from the threat of smoke

RRRREFERENCESEFERENCESEFERENCESEFERENCES

References

• International Building Code (IBC), ICC 2015• NFPA 5000 – Building Construction and

Safety Code, NFPA 2015 • NFPA 92 – Standard for Smoke Control

Systems, NFPA 2015.• A Guide to Smoke Control in the 2006 IBC,

ICC, 2007.• Handbook of Smoke Control Engineering,

ASHRAE 2012

4/8/2015

2

• New Edition Every 3 Years (2000, … 2009, 2012, 2015).

• Used Throughout U.S.

• Smoke Control –Section 909.

• New Edition Every 3 Years

• Not Used Much in U.S.

• Used in Mid-East• Smoke Control –

Section 909.

• New Edition Every 3 Years

• IBC states that atrium smoke control systems (“exhaust method”) shall be designed in accordance with NFPA 92.

• By Klote & Evans • For 2006 IBC• Many Provisions

Unchanged• Provides Code

Interpretations

• By Klote, Milke, Turnbull, Kashef & Ferreira

• In this presentation, when a chapter or figure is referred to, it is in this handbook unless otherwise noted.

4/8/2015

3

BBBBASICSASICSASICSASICS OFOFOFOF SSSSMOKEMOKEMOKEMOKE

CCCCONTROLONTROLONTROLONTROL

Purposes of Smoke Control

• Maintain Tenable Environment for Evacuation or Relocation of Occupants (IBC 909.1)

• Control & Reduce Smoke Movement Between Fire Area & Adjacent Spaces

• Provide Conditions to Help Fire Service• Reduce Property Damage

• Aid In Post-Fire Smoke Removal

Smoke Control Systems

• Pressurization Systems• Stairwell Pressurization• Elevator Pressurization• Zoned Smoke Control

• Atrium Systems• Smoke Exhaust• Smoke Venting (Gravity Venting)• Smoke Filling

Note: The word “Atrium” used here to mean any large volume space.

Two Kinds of Systems• Conventional System: Goal is to keep smoke

away from occupants during evacuation.• There is always some amount of smoke that

comes into contact with occupants.• The intent is that smoke contact is slight.

• Tenability System: Goal is to maintain a tenable environment during evacuation or relocation.• A tenable environment is one in which smoke and

heat are limited such that exposure is not life threatening.

• Systems are analyzed to provide confidence that a tenable environment is maintained.

Tenability Systems

• Tenability Systems – Evaluate Threats to Life • Exposure to Toxic Gases • Exposure to Heat • Exposure to Thermal Radiation • Reduced Visibility (indirect Threat –

Prolonged Exposure & Falls)

4/8/2015

4

Physical Mechanisms of Smoke Control

• Compartmentation• Dilution

• Pressurization• Airflow

• Buoyancy

Compartmentation

• Barriers w/ Fire Endurance – Long History • Barriers – Some Smoke Protection

• Compartmentation Alone – Passive Smoke Protection• Compartmentation by itself can be evaluated

by tenability analysis (see Chapter 19).

• Compartmentation w/ Pressurization• Discussed Later

Dilution• Dilution of Fire Space – Not Recommended

except for Atrium Tenability Systems• Dilution sometimes called

• Smoke Purging*• Smoke Removal*• Smoke Extraction*

• Dilution Used for Atrium Smoke Filling• Dilution Useful for Post Fire Smoke Removal*These terms are not recommended. They imply a high level of performance that can be misleading.

4/8/2015

5

Airflow

• Airflow can be used to control smoke flow in atria, corridors, tunnels, and doorways.

• Equations for Different Applications (see Chapter 15 & 17)

• Caution: Oxygen to Fire – Use with Great Care

• Except for transportation tunnels, airflow is not used very much.

Buoyancy

• Buoyancy – Hot Smoke Rises

• Used in Atria Smoke Control (Discussed Later)

Theory & Experimental Verification

• Scientific Method - a method of research in which a problem is identified, relevant data are gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested.• Used in Science & Engineering

• Theory Based on Accepted Principles of Engineering

• Experimental Verification – Full Scale Fire Tests

Some Fire Tests – Pressurization

• Henry Grady Hotel Tests (1973) • 30 Church Street Tests (1973)

• Plaza Hotel Tests (1989)• NRCC Experimental Fire Tower Tests (Mid

1980s to Present)• Pressurized Stairwells, Pressurized Elevators,

etc.Note: The above tests are a few of the full scale fire tests that have been done that verify pressurization smoke control.

• In Atlanta, GA• Bldg. Scheduled

for Demolition• Fires – Hotel

Rooms (bed, chair, draperies, lamps & chest of drawers)

• Verified Stair & Elevator Pressurization

4/8/2015

6

• In New York City• Bldg. Scheduled

for Demolition• Fires – Office

Materials• Verified Stair &

Elevator Pressurization

• In Washington DC

• Building Scheduled for Demolition

• Fires – Wood Cribs

• Verified Zoned Smoke Control & Stair Pressurization

• Geometrically Arranged Sticks

• Reproducible Fire• Crib at Right -

Peak 470 Btu/s• Crib at Plaza

Hotel - Peak 940 Btu/s

• Near Ottawa• 10 Story Tower

Built for Fire Research

• Fires – Mostly Gas Burners

• Verified Zoned Stair & Elevator Pressurization, etc.

Atrium Fire Research

• Austrian Society of Engineers - Scale Model Fire Tests of Theater Smoke Venting (1881)

• Atrium Smoke Control – Full Size Fire Tests & Scale Model Fire Tests• United Kingdom (BRI)• Canada (NRCC)• Australia (BHP)

AAAANALYSISNALYSISNALYSISNALYSIS OFOFOFOF SSSSYSTEMSYSTEMSYSTEMSYSTEMS

4/8/2015

7

Engineering Analysis• An engineering analysis is needed to

determine that a smoke control system can be balanced to work for the design fire or fires.

• Methods of Analysis • Logical Reasoning• Rules of Thumb• Algebraic Equations• Computer Programs

• Engineering Analysis – More than One Method

Engineering Analysis

• Rational Analysis of Smoke Control Systems Required (IBC 909.4)• Stack Effect

• Temperature of Fire • Wind Effect

• HVAC Systems • Climate

• Duration of Operation • Smoke Control System Interaction

Stack Effect

• Stack Effect – Upward Flow in Shafts • Cold Outdoors

• Reverse Stack Effect – Downward Flow in Shafts • Hot Outdoors

• Stack Effect is More Significant for Tall Buildings

Note: For outdoor design temperatures, see Chapter 2

4/8/2015

8

• Stack Effect & Smoke Buoyancy– Forces Smoke into Shaft– Smoke Flows up Shaft– Smoke Flows into Floors

above Neutral Plane

• Buoyancy – Some Smoke Flow through Floor Leakage

• When Stack Effect Dominates Smoke Buoyancy– No Smoke into Shaft– No Smoke Flow through

Shaft

• Buoyancy – Smoke Flow through Floor Leakage

• When Smoke Buoyancy Dominates Stack Effect – Smoke into Shaft– Smoke Flow through Shaft– Smoke Flow to Upper Floors

• Buoyancy – Smoke Flow through Floor Leakage

• Airflow Down & Hot Smoke Flows UP

• Where Does Smoke Flow?

• Smoke Mix in Shaft?• No Simple Answers

• Analyze with CFD

• Simple Stack Effect – One Shaft or Similar Shafts

• Complex Stack Effect– Shafts at Different

Temperatures

– Shafts of Different Heights

• Analysis: Network Computer Model (CONTAM)

4/8/2015

9

Temperature of Fire • Buoyancy and Expansion of Design Fire –

Not Adversely Effect System • Pressurization Systems

• Buoyancy - Minimum Design Pressure Difference

• Expansion – Need Paths to Outdoors

• Atrium Systems - Buoyancy and Expansion Addressed in Normal Design Methods

• Design Fires Discussed Later

• Design – Consider Adverse Effects of Wind• Prevent Smoke Feedback

into Air Intakes• Prevent Excessive Makeup

Air Velocity in Atrium Smoke Control (Discuss Later)

• Wind Data – Chapter 2

• Arrows – Wind Velocity

• Wind Velocity Increases with Height

• Wind Profile Changes with Terrain

• Airport Wind Data –Adjusted for Project Site

HVAC Systems

• Design Consider HVAC • Transport of Fire & Smoke• All modes of System Status• Effects of Fire on HVAC

Systems

• During Building Fire• HVAC System Shut Down

(Dates to 1930s)• HVAC Smoke Control Mode

(Dates to 1970s)

Climate

• Consider Effects of Low Temperatures on: • System • Property • Occupants

• Location of Inlets & Exhaust – Prevent Snow & Ice Blockage

4/8/2015

10

Duration of Operation

• Smoke Control Systems – Capable of Operating for (IBC 2015, 909.4.7):• 20 Minutes, or • 1.5 Times Calculated Egress Time,• Whichever is Greater

Smoke Control System Interaction

• Design Consider Interaction of Smoke Control Systems – All Design Scenarios

• A pressurization system results in airflow throughout the building and to the outdoors.

• Flow to the outside usually goes through building leakage.

• One system may work by itself, but there may not be enough building leakage for all the systems to work together at the same time.

• Systems need to be designed for interaction.

FFFFIREIREIREIRE & S& S& S& SMOKEMOKEMOKEMOKE DDDDAMPERSAMPERSAMPERSAMPERS

Dampers

• Types of Dampers: • Balancing• Control • Fire (resist the passage of fire – UL555)• Smoke (resist the passage of smoke –

UL555S)

4/8/2015

11

Smoke Dampers

SSSSTAIRWELLTAIRWELLTAIRWELLTAIRWELL

PPPPRESSURIZATIONRESSURIZATIONRESSURIZATIONRESSURIZATION

Stairwell Pressurization

• IBC 2015 (909.20.5):• Minimum Pressure Difference: 0.10 in. w.g.• Maximum Pressure Difference: 0.35 in. w.g.

• Acceptable Pressurization – Between Min & Max

4/8/2015

12

Stairwell Pressurization Systems

• Single and Multiple Injection• Compartmentation

• Vestibules• System with Fire Floor Exhaust (With a

Type of Zoned Smoke Control –Discussed Later)

• Not for Tall Stairwells (For stairwell heights more than 100 feet, single injection systems need a design analysis.)

• Propeller Fan Flow Impacted by Wind – Use in Walls Needs Engineering Analysis

• Not for Tall Stairwells (For stairwell heights more than 100 feet, single injection systems need a design analysis.)

• Not for Tall Stairwells (For stairwell heights more than 100 feet, single injection systems need a design analysis.)

• For Tall Stairwells• Duct Distributes Air

in Stairwell• Fan Locations:

• Top• Bottom• In Between

• Can Use Multiple Fans

• This system is not used much today.

• Each compartment has one or more supply injection points.

• Caution: This system is not good for total building evacuation.

4/8/2015

13

Simple & Complicated Buildings

• Simple Building• Not Excessively Tall• Floor Plan & Leakage Similar Floor to Floor

• Complicated Building • Floor Plan & Leakage Different Floor to Floor• Acceptable Pressurization - Challenging• CONTAM Analysis Often Needed

Stairwells & Open Doors

• Non-Compensating Systems• Door Opens – Pressure Drops• Simple System – Air Supplied at “Constant”

Flow Rate

• Compensating Systems• Door Opens – Pressure Adjusted• Not Required by IBC• Most are Complicated Systems

Stairwells & Open Doors• ASHRAE Research Project RP-1203 (Klote

2003)• Study of Impact Propped Open Stairwell Doors• Analytical Study (Computer Study) • No Experimental Verification

• Expected Result of RP-1203: • With stair door propped open on fire floor, smoke

filled the stairwell. (Major Failure Mode)• Incidental Finding of RP-1203:

• With stair door closed on fire floor & other doors open, conditions in the stairwell were tenable. Further study is needed.

Pressure Compensating Systems

• Open Exterior Door System• Outside Overpressure Relief System

• Building Barometric Damper System• Bypass System

• Variable Air Volume (VAV) System

4/8/2015

14

EEEELEVATORLEVATORLEVATORLEVATOR PPPPRESSURIZATIONRESSURIZATIONRESSURIZATIONRESSURIZATION

Pressurized Elevators

• Purpose of Elevator Shaft Pressurization• Prevent Smoke Migration through Hoistway• Protect Fire Service when Using Elevators

• Smoke Control for Elevator Evacuation • Not Discussed Here (see Chapter 12)

• Pressurization Range: 0.10 to 0.25 inches water

Pressurized Elevators

• More Challenging than Pressurized Stairwells• Large Amounts of Pressurization Air• Building Leakage may not be Enough

• Computer Network Analysis (CONTAM) -Recommended

Elevator Piston Effect

• Piston Effect: Elevator car results in building flows.

• Adverse Impacts - Considered For Elevator Pressurization Systems

• Results in Building Flows • Interact with

Smoke Control Systems

• Move Smoke in Building

• Piston Effect -Should be Considered

Elevator Piston Effect

• Results in Building Flows• Theory Developed by Klote & Tamura

• Experiments done in US & Canada• Concern – Single Car Shaft

• Equations in Smoke Control Handbook, Chapter 3

4/8/2015

15

Pressurized Elevators

• Large Air Supply – Challenge for Basic System

• Alternate Pressurized Elevator Systems • Exterior Vent (EV) System• Floor Exhaust (FE) System• Ground Floor Lobby (GFL) System

• Systems Illustrated with Example Building

4/8/2015

16

Elevator Pressurization – EV System• Vents in exterior walls increase building

leakiness.• With vents, building leakage is high enough

for successful pressurization. • The vents are usually closed, but they open

when the pressurization system is activated.• The vents should be located to minimize

adverse wind effects. • Vents may need fire dampers depending on

code requirements.

4/8/2015

17

Elevator Pressurization – FE System

• The exhaust shaft has a fan (not shown) located in the mechanical penthouse, and the dampers are closed on all floors when the system is not operating.

• On system activation, the dampers open on the floors to be exhausted, and the exhaust fan is activated.

Elevator Pressurization – FE System• The FE system deals with the building

envelope issue by reducing the amount of supply air used.

• A relatively small amount of air is supplied to the elevator shafts and the stairwells.

• The fire floor is exhausted such that acceptable pressurization is maintained on the fire floor where it is needed.

• It is common to also exhaust one or two floors above and below the fire floor.

Elevator Pressurization – GFL System• Enclosed elevator lobby on the ground floor

reduces the tendency of open exterior doors to cause high pressure differences across the elevator shaft at the ground floor.

• The GFL system often has a vent between the enclosed lobby and the building, with the intent of preventing excessive pressure differences across the lobby doors.

• The lobby doors are the doors between the enclosed lobby and the building.

Elevator Pressurization – GFL System

• The floor leakage can have a significant impact on the performance of a GFL system.

Buildings with Corridors

• Discussion has been for Open Plan Offices

• What about Interior Partitions?• Interior Partitions add to flow resistance

from elevators to outdoors.• The Floor Exhaust (FE) and the Exterior

Vent (EV) systems can be adapted for buildings with corridors.

4/8/2015

18

ZZZZONEDONEDONEDONED SSSSMOKEMOKEMOKEMOKE CCCCONTROLONTROLONTROLONTROL

Zoned Smoke Control

• A building is divided into a number of zones, each separated from the others by barriers.

• The zone with the fire is the smoke zone.• Surrounding zones border on the smoke zone.• Passive smoke protection or pressurization is

used to limit the extent of smoke spread beyond the smoke zone.

• It is beyond the capability of smoke control to maintain tenable conditions in the smoke zone, and it is intended that occupants evacuate the smoke zone as soon as possible.

4/8/2015

19

Most General Concept of Zoned Smoke Control

• Smoke Zone• Fan Powered Exhaust,• Smoke Vents to Outside,• Smoke Shafts, or • Smoke Shafts & Makeup Air Shafts

• Surrounding Zones• Fan Powered Pressurization• Outside Air Vents• Rely on Compartmentation

• Fire floor & floors directly above and below are exhausted.

• Other floors rely on passive protection.

• Fire floor exhaust can be used for challenging stairwell pressurization systems.

AAAATRIUMTRIUMTRIUMTRIUM SSSSMOKEMOKEMOKEMOKE CCCCONTROLONTROLONTROLONTROL

Atrium Systems

• Mechanical Smoke Exhaust• Common in US & Elsewhere

• Natural Smoke Venting• Common in Britain, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong &

Australia• Sustainable – Eliminates Fans

• Atrium Smoke Filling• Useful for Very Large Atria• Sustainable – Eliminates Fans & All Other Smoke

Control Equipment

4/8/2015

20

Definitions• Large-Volume Space: An uncompartmented

space, generally two or more stories in height. (atrium, sports arena, etc.) • In this talk, “atrium” is used to mean any

large-volume space.

• Communicating Space: A space within a building that has an open pathway to a large-volume space such that smoke from a fire in either the communicating space or the large-volume space can move from one to another without restriction. (NFPA 92)

Definitions – Continued

• Separated Spaces: Spaces within a building that are isolated from large-volume spaces by smoke barriers. (NFPA 92)

• Note: NFPA 92 defines a smoke barrier as one that is designed to work with a smoke control system.

• Plume Entrains Air• Mass Flow Increases with

Height• Temperature Drops with

Height• Temperature Drop Impacts:

• Smoke Detection

• Design Fires

4/8/2015

21

Smoke Exhaust for Fire in Atrium

• Smoke Exhaust through a Plenum with a Suspended Ceiling Not Recommended:– Exhaust Flow through Plenum Can Lift Ceiling

Tiles out of Frames – Possible Adverse Impact on System

Performance – Ceiling Repair May Be Needed After Periodic

Testing

Fire Locations • Fire in Atrium (Large-Volume Space)

• Axisymmetric Plume• Common Design Fire

• Fire in Communicating Space – Sprinklered• Balcony Spill Plume • Common Design Fire

• Fire in Communicating Space – Unsprinklered• Not Common

• Fire in Separated Space• Not Part of Atrium Smoke Control

Common Methods of Analysis• Algebraic Equations

• Steady & Unsteady Smoke Exhaust

• AtriumCalc – Excel Application from ASHRAE (Uses NFPA 92 Equations)

• CFD Modeling• Divide Space into Cells (20,000 to 200,000) &

Solve Governing Equations for Each Cell• Very Powerful Analytical Tool

• Hours or Days of Computer Time

• Often Used for Tenability Systems

Governing Equations

• The governing equations are:• Conservation of Mass• Conservation of Momentum• Conservation of Energy• Conservation of Species (optional)

• These are non-linear partial differential equations.

Example: Momentum – X Direction

• The governing equations are solved by numerical routines not a spreadsheet (like Excel).

4/8/2015

22

CFD Examples• Example in 3 Story Atrium• Two Examples:

• Shielded Fire in 2nd Floor Conference Room (20% PU foam)

• Shielded Fire in 1st Floor Toy Store (80% PU foam)

• Smoke Exhaust Sized for Fire in Atrium Space• (not balcony spill plumes)

• Purpose of Examples - Show CFD & Balcony Spill Plumes

Spill Plume from 2 nd Floor

• Simulated by Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS)

• Fire in Conference Room• Shielded Fire (500 kW Peak)

• Fuel: 80% Cellulosic Material & 20% PU Foam

• Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)

Spill Plume from Second FloorConference Room

Spill Plume from 1st Floor

• Simulated by FDS• Fire in Toy Store

• Shielded Fire (1000 kW Peak)• Fuel: 20% Cellulosic Material & 80% PU

Foam• Video Speeded Up (3 X Real Time)

4/8/2015

23

Spill Plume from First Floor Toy Store Spill Plume from First FloorToy Store• Smoke Exhaust Sized for:

• Fire in Atrium• Not Toy Store Fire

• Simulation of System Failure• Design should be modified for the toy

store fire.• This demonstrates the importance of

balcony spill plumes.

Atrium Issues

• Smoke Layer Depth• Makeup Air Velocity

• Wind Impact• Plugholing

• Smoke Stratification

Atrium Smoke Control – Minimum Smoke Layer Depth • Minimum Smoke Layer Depth: 20% of

Floor-to-Ceiling Height• Unless Analysis Shows Otherwise

• Full Scale Data • Scale Modeling • CFD Modeling

The minimum makeup air velocity is 200 fpm at locations where it could contact the plume.

4/8/2015

24

Makeup Air

• Makeup Air:• Natural (Thru Openings) or• Fan-Powered

• 200 fpm Limitation at the Plume (NFPA 92)• Prevent Plume Disruption• Confirmed by NRCC Canada Research

• Hadjisophocleous & Zhou 2008

Makeup Air

• Fan Powered• Usually 85% to 95% of Exhaust Mass Flow

• Natural thru Openings• Open Doors, Vents, etc.• Concern About Wind• Complex Paths

• Can be analyzed by a network flow program (CONTAM)

• For information about CONTAM, see Chapter 14

Wind

• Design to Minimize Potential Wind Impact• Velocity Limit 200 fpm• Smoke Feedback into Makeup Air

• Makeup Air Openings Facing Different Directions – Velocity can Exceed 200 fpm• Evaluate by Wind Analysis (CFD or Wind

Tunnel Tests)• Eliminate Problem with

• Openings Facing One Direction • Fan Powered Makeup Air

Plugholing

• Plugholing is pulling lower layer air into the exhaust.

• If the exhaust flow is relatively low, there will be no plugholing.

• The approach to prevent plugholing is to keep the exhaust flow low enough.

• Analysis• Equations – Design to Eliminate Plugholing• CFD Modeling

4/8/2015

25

Stratification

• Stratification can prevent smoke from reaching ceiling mounted smoke detectors.

• Solution: Beam Smoke Detectors Below Hot Air Layer

Smoke Venting

• If areas Av & Ai are large enough, smoke can be vented to maintain the desired smoke layer for the design fire.

• CFD Suggested for Analysis of Smoke Venting• Wind• Tenability

• Not in the IBC – May Need Approval

Smoke Filling• Conventional System

• Evacuation time must be less than filling time.

• Use Smoke Filling Equations (Discussed Later)

• Tenability System• Tenable environment must be maintained.• CFD analysis is recommended.• Evacuation time can be more than filling time.

• Tenability System Recommended• Alternate to Most Codes – May Need

Approval

4/8/2015

26

CCCCOMMISSIONINGOMMISSIONINGOMMISSIONINGOMMISSIONING & & & &

PPPPERIODICERIODICERIODICERIODIC TTTTESTINGESTINGESTINGESTING

Commissioning & Periodic Testing

• To have confidence that life safety systems including smoke control will work as intended, they need to have commissioning, acceptance testing and periodic testing.

• Life safety systems are different from most other systems (HVAC, pluming, electrical power, etc.).• In Normal Operation: Life Safety Problems

Not Apparent• In an Emergency: Too Late to Fix Problems

Commissioning

• Definition: Commissioning is the process for verifying and documenting that the performance of facilities, systems and assemblies meets defined objectives and criteria.

Commissioning Process• Commissioning Process: From Start to End

of Project• ASHRAE Guideline 1.5 (2012) The

Commissioning Process for Smoke Control Systems

• Performance Verified with Respect to Design• AHJ Uses Special Inspections to Verify Code

Compliance • For a simple project, AHJ may waive

requirement for special inspection.

Special Inspections

• International Building Code (IBC) has requirements for the special inspection and the qualifications of the special inspector.

• Special Inspection – Not Always Required

• Special Inspection – Considered Part of Commissioning

• Rest of this Discussion - Focuses on Special Inspections

4/8/2015

27

Test Documentation• Project Plan (Done Before Testing):

• Outline • Description of Testing • State of Construction Needed for Tests • Sample Data Sheets

• Test Report (Done After Testing):• Summary of Test Results • Compilation of All Inspection Reports & Any Non-

Compliance Issues • Collection of Testing and Inspection Logs • Data Sheets for All of Inspected Components • Signatures of Special Inspection Team Members

Two Phases of Special Inspection

• Inspection Phase: To determine that the specified system components have been installed, and that the installation of these components is according to the manufacturer’s instructions.

• Testing Phase: To establish that the system achieves the accepted performance criteria.

• Inspection and testing usually are done in many stages.

Firefighter’s Smoke Control Station (FSCS)

• An FSCS is a system for use by the fire service that provides graphical monitoring and manual overriding capability over smoke control systems and equipment.

• Typically an FSCS is designed and built specifically for each building.

• The FSCS is also called the Firefighter's Smoke Control Panel and the Firefighter's Control Panel.

End-to-End Verification• End-to-end verification: a self-testing

method that provides positive confirmation that the desired result has been achieved when a controlled device has been activated, such as during smoke control, testing, or manual override operations (NFPA 92).

• Lights on FSCP – Based on End-to-End Verification (Airflow, Damper Position, etc.)

Inspection & Equipment Functional Testing

• Smoke Barriers• Fans

• Dampers• Operable Doors and Windows

• Verification of Self-Test Feature• Firefighter’s Smoke Control Station

(FSCS)

4/8/2015

28

Sequence of Operations Testing• The sequence of operations is the

documented sequence of component actions that are programmed to happen in the response to a given change of state event.

• Purpose: To verify that the automatic functions of the smoke control system operate as designed.

• A testing matrix (also called an activation schedule in some standards) is often created to facilitate the process, and a testing matrix needs to include all of the components to be tested.

See Appendix A for a larger copy of this slide.

System Performance Testing

• Testing and Balancing before Formal Acceptance Testing

• Systems Tested:• Zoned Smoke Control• Pressurized Stairwells• Pressurized Elevators• Atrium Smoke Control

4/8/2015

29

• Methods:• Push Gauge

against Door (take care to only disengage latch, see Figure)

• Push Gauge against Push-Bar (not shown)

• Method should be approved by AHJ.

Chemical Smoke • Chemical smoke from smoke bombs is very

different from real smoke. • Visibility is very different.• Buoyancy is very different.

• Zoned Smoke Control: Because they are subjective and tend to give occupants a false sense of security, smoke bomb tests are not recommended.

• Atrium Demonstration Testing: Because of lack of buoyancy, smoke bomb tests are not recommended.

• Other Use for Smoke Bombs: Leakage Test

DDDDESIGNESIGNESIGNESIGN FFFFIRESIRESIRESIRES & S& S& S& SMOKEMOKEMOKEMOKE

PPPPRODUCTIONRODUCTIONRODUCTIONRODUCTION

Design Fires

• Design Fire for Smoke Control System• Based on Rational Analysis by Design

Engineer & Approved by Fire Code Official (IBC 909.9)

More Information – See Chapter 5

Stages of Fire Development

• Ignition• Growth

• Flashover• Fully Developed (sometimes called post

flashover)• Decay (fuel burns out or fire is

suppressed)

Note: Not all fires go through all of these stages.

4/8/2015

30

Growth Time, tg

• Growth Times: NFPA 92• Slow: tg = 600 s

• Medium: tg = 300 s• Fast: tg = 150 s

• Ultra Fast: tg = 75 s

Note: NFPA 72 has different values

Flashover• Flashover – “Fast” Change:

• From: Apparent Steady Fire at Limited Location

• To: Room Totally on Fire

• Flashover takes from about 20 seconds to 2 minutes.

• Cause - Objects Ignited by Radiation from Hot Fire Gases

Flashover Video

• Christmas Tree Fire

• Living Room Fire

Available from NIST

4/8/2015

31

Christmas Tree Fire

Living Room Fire Measurement of HRR

• Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter (Developed in 1980s)

• Heat Released in Fire is Constant (~ 6%)• (13.1 MJ per kg of Oxygen)

• Concept:• Burn Object & Collect All Gases• Measure Temperature, Flow, Oxygen• Calculate HRR

4/8/2015

32

HRR of Objects

• Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter:• Measured HRR of Many Objects (see Chapter

5)

• A few HRRs are discussed below.

HRR of Automobiles• American Iron and Steel Institute (Cohn 1973)

• Burning Car did not Spread to Adjacent Cars

• CTICM in France (Joyeux 1997) • Burning Car Spread to Adjacent Car

• BRE in the UK (Shipp et al. 2006, BRE 2010)• Fires Generally Larger than Other Tests

4/8/2015

33

Sprinklered Fires• Unshielded Fires

• No Obstructions Blocking Sprinkler Spray• Sprinkler Activation Time – Calculated by

Some Zone Fire Models (But Not in Atrium)

• Shielded Fires • Obstruction Blocking Sprinkler Spray • Evaluated by Fire Tests

• Sprinkler Action Causes Smoke Mixing• 1 story Spaces – Smoke Fills Space• Atrium – Usually “Smoke Free” Lower Layer

4/8/2015

34

Unshielded Fire with Sprinkler Operation• Growth Stage up to Sprinkler Activation

• Fire Test Data• Idealized Growth Curve

• Activation Calculated by Zone Fire Model (CFAST)

• After Sprinkler Activation – Decay Stage

Shielded Fires

• Shielded fires are important for balcony spill plume applications.

• Sprinkler activation models and zone fire models (CFAST, etc.) are not appropriate for predicting the sprinkler activation time with shielded fires.

• Research at NIST and NRC Canada provide useful information.

4/8/2015

35

Smoke Production

• Successfully Sprinklered Fires (Expected)• Normally Small Smoke Production• Sometimes High Smoke Production

• Unsuccessfully Sprinklered Fires (Unusual)• High HRR• High Smoke Production

The Misconception of Smoke• Smoke - Often Visually Black & Deadly• Most People Don’t Know This.• Today, People Don’t See Much Smoke• EPA Air Pollution Regulations:

• Practically No Smoke from Factories, Fire Research Laboratories, Fire Fighting Schools, Movie Studios, etc.

• TV & Movies:• Flames - Exciting Footage• Almost No Smoke

• Fire Laboratories - Almost No Smoke• EPA Regulations & Burning Under Hoods

4/8/2015

36

Smoke Production Videos

• Unusual Videos – Show Smoke• Clothing Store Fire (BHP Lab)• Toy Store Fire (BHP Lab)• Mobile Shelving Fire (NRC Canada)

Clothing Store Fire Toy Store Fire

• Test at BHP Laboratory, Melbourne, Australia (Bennetts, et al. 1997)

• 16 ft Ceiling• Stuffed Animals on Steel Shelves

• 4 Normal (Standard) Response Sprinklers• Activation at 3 minutes

• Successful Sprinkler Operation• High Smoke Production

Toy Store Fire

4/8/2015

37

Mobile Shelving Fire

• Test at NRC Canada (Lougheed, Mawhinney and O’Neill 1994) • Storage Design – Major Building in Canada

• Paper in Cardboard Boxes• 12 Quick (Fast) Response Sprinklers• Sprinklers Not in Conformance w/ Code

• Sprinkler Failure• High Smoke Production

Mobile Shelving Fire Mobile Shelving Fire

• If Fire in Mobile Storage of Actual Building:• Fire Spread Throughout Basement • Smoke Spread Throughout Building• Likely Multiple Deaths (Smoke Inhalation)• Loss of Valuable Historical Material

• NRC Canada – Hired Sprinkler Expert & Developed Alternate Design

• Successful Tests of Alternate Design

4/8/2015

38

Questions?

Dr. John H. Klote PEjohn@SmokeControlExpert.com

A1

Appendix A – Example Testing Matrix

A2