Skripta ESP 4

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I N S T I T U T E O F F O R E I G N L A N G U A G E S

Port - the side of the ship which lies to the left when an observer within the ship faces

forward. (A mnemonic to distinguish port and starboard notes that leftand portboth have

four letters. Another incorporates the navigation light:Is there any red port left?)

(Navigation) Bridge - A structure above the weather deck, extending the full width of the

vessel, which houses a command centre, itself called by association, the bridge. A bridge

usually extends a little beyond the ship's side to enable observation of boats alongside, or the

proximity of adock orlock gate; these projections are called bridge wings. In big vessels,

a docking bridge used to be found aft. (See Lord, Walter. A Night to Remember(1976) p.96).

It enabled an officer to observe docking manoeuvres before giving orders. RMS Titanic had

one but they have been superseded by Closed-circuit television cameras.

Bulkheads - internal "walls" in a ship. Bulkheads are the vertical equivalent of decks. They

have a structural function as well as dividing spaces. They serve to prevent collapse of the

hull under stress, to maintain stability(remain afloat on water by sub-division

method,Naval architecture), in the event of flooding and damage, and to contain fire.

Many bulkheads feature watertight doors which, in the case of certain types of ships, the

crew may close remotely. An internal "wall" that is not load-bearing is usually referred to as

a "partition". It is to a bulkhead as a flat is to a deck.

Cabin - an enclosed room on a deckor flat.

Capstan - a winch with a vertical axis.

Centre-line structure - The keel, stem, sternpost and the keelson, deadwoods, apron etc.

or their modern equivalents.

Coaming - The raised edges of hatches and deck house's opening on decks for keeping

water and articles free on the deck from falling into the hold, cabin or compartment. In the

view of Naval Architect, Shipping authority orClassification society, the

coaming is one of the critical criteria for the damage stability. In addition, the coaming can

strengthen the structure of deck openings too.

Decks - the structures forming the approximately horizontal surfaces in the ship's general

structure. In a modern ship, they may be flat but used to be cambered. Unlike flats, they are a

structural part of the ship.

Deck Head - The under-side of the deck above. Sometimes panelled over to hide the pipe

work. This panelling, like that lining the bottom and sides of the holds, is the ceiling.

Another common Naval term for a Deck Head is "Overhead"

Draft - The vertical distance from the current waterline to the lowest point of the ship or in

the part of the ship under consideration.

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Figurehead - carved decoration at the head of a traditional sailing ship or early steamer.

Flat - A horizontal division inserted between decks or in the superstructure, to provide

smaller accommodation such as cabins.

Forecastle - a partial deck, above the upper deck and at the head of the vessel; traditionallythe sailors' living quarters.

Freeboard - The vertical distance from the current waterline to the highest continuous

watertight deck. This usually varies from one part to another.

Freeboard deck - The uppermost complete deck with permanent means of closing all

openings in those parts which are open to the weather. In a large ship this will be the upper

deck and in a smaller one, the main deck. Decks above this are superstructure.

Galley - the kitchen of the ship

Gunwale - Formerly a fabricated band placed for strengthening around the ship at the main

or upper deck level to accommodate the stresses imposed by the use of artillery. In later use it

is the angle between the ships side and upper deck. It remained as a structural member, in

wooden boats where it was mounted inboard of the sheer strake regardless of the need for

gunnery.

Bulwark - the extension of the ship's side above the level of the weather deck.

Hold - In earlier use, below the orlop deck, the lower part of the interior of a ship's hull,

especially when considered as storage space, as for cargo. In later merchant vessels it

extended up through the decks to the underside of the weather deck.

Hull - the shell and framework of the basic flotation-oriented part of a ship

Keel - the central structural basis of the hull

Keelson - the timber immediately above the keel of a wooden ship.

Mast - a spar (in a ship, a very heavy one stepped in the keelson) formerly designed for the

support of one or more sails. In modern ships, it is a steel or aluminium fabrication which

carries navigation lights, radar antennae etc.

Prow - a poetical alternative term for bows.

Scupper - a drainage waterway at the edge of a deck, is drained by a pipe or, on the

weather deck, a small opening in the bulwarks, leading overboard. It is called a scupper

which is distinct from larger openings with hinged covers on the bulwarks, designed for

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relieving the ship of large quantities of water in a seaway. These are called freeing ports or

wash ports.

Stem - the upright part of the centre-line structure at the fore end of the ship.

Stern tube - the tube through the after end of the centre-line structure, through which thepropeller shaft passes.

Superstructure - The decked structure built above the freeboard deck (main or upper

deck); that is, above the hull.

Tail shaft - a shaft (a rod or tube of metal) which transmits the power by rotary motion,

from the engine to the propeller.

a transom is a vertical (or near-vertical) flat or flattish surface that forms the stern of a

vessel.

Weather deck - a deck which is exposed to the weather usually either the main deck or,

in larger vessels, the upper deck and forecastle and poop decks as well as parts of promenade

decks, boat decks and so on in the superstructure.

Windlass - A winch mechanism, usually with a horizontal axis. It is used where mechanical

advantage greater than that obtainable by block and tackle was needed.

Measuring ships

One canmeasure ships in terms of overall length, length of the waterline, beam (breadth), depth

(distance between the crown of the weather deck and the top of the keelson), draft (distancebetween the highest waterline and the bottom of the ship) and tonnage. A number of different

tonnage definitions exist; most measure volumerather than weight, and are used when describing

merchant ships for the purpose of tolls, taxation, etc.

In Britain until the Samuel Plimsoll Merchant Shipping Act of 1876, ship-owners could

load their vessels until their decks were almost awash, resulting in a dangerously unstable condition.

Additionally, anyone who signed onto such a ship for a voyage and, upon realizing the danger, chose

to leave the ship, could end up inPrison jail.

Samuel Plimsoll, a member of Parliament, realised the problem and engaged someengineersto derive a fairly simple formulato determine the position of a line on the side of any

specific ship's hull which, when it reached the surface of the water during loading of cargo, meant

the ship had reached its maximum safe loading level. To this day, that mark, called the " Plimsoll

Mark", exists on ships' sides, and consists of a circle with a horizontal line through the centre.

Because different types of water, (summer, fresh, tropical fresh, winter north Atlantic) have different

densities, subsequent regulations required painting a group of lines forward of the Plimsoll mark to

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indicate the safe depth (or freeboard above the surface) to which a specific ship could load in water

of various densities. Hence the "ladder" of lines seen forward of the Plimsoll mark to this day.

Propulsion

Pre-mechanisation

Until the application of thesteam engine to ships in the early 19th century, oars propelled

galleys or the wind propelled sailing ships. Before mechanisation, merchant ships always used

sail, but as long as naval warfare depended on ships closing to ram or to fight hand-to-hand,

galleys dominated in marine conflicts because of their maneuverability and speed. The Greek

naviesthat fought in thePeloponnesian War used triremes, as did the Romans contesting

the Battle of Actium. The use of large numbers ofcannon from the 16th century meant that

maneuverability took second place to broadside weight; this led to the dominance of the sail-

powered warship.

Steam propulsion

The development of the steamship became a complex process, the first commercial success

accruing to Robert Fulton'sNorth River Steamboat(often called Clermont) in the US in 1807,

followed inEuropeby the 45-foot Cometof1812. Steam propulsion progressed considerably

over the rest of the 19th century. Notable developments included the condenser, which reduced

the requirement for fresh water, and the multiple expansion engine, which improved efficiency. As

the means of transmitting the engine's power, the paddle wheel gave way to the more efficient

screw propeller. The marine steam turbine developed by SirCharles Algernon Parsons,

brought the power to weight ratio down. He had achieved publicity by demonstrating it unofficiallyin the 100-foot Turbinia at the Spitheadnaval review in 1897. This facilitated a generation

of high-speed liners in the first half of the 20th century and rendered the reciprocating steam

engine out of date, in warships.

Most new ships since around1960 have been built with diesel engines. Rising fuel costs have

almost lead to the demise of the steam turbine, with many ships being re-engined to improve fuel

efficiency. One high profile example was the 1968 built Queen Elizabeth 2 which had her

turbines replaced with a diesel-electric propulsion plant in 1986. The last major passenger ship built

with steam turbines was the Fairsky, launched in 1984. Some specialised merchant ships have also

been built with steam turbines since then, notably Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) and coalcarriers where part of the cargo has been used as fuel for the boilers.

LNG Carriers

LNG carriers in particular have remained a stronghold for steam , and new ships continue to be

built with steam turbines in this high growth area of shipping. This is because the Natural Gas is

stored in a liquid state in cryogenic vessels onboard these ships. A small amount of "boil off" of

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gas is required to maintain the pressure and temperature inside the vessels to within operating limits.

The "boil off" gas provides the fuel for the ship's boilers, which provide steam for the turbines- the

simplest method of dealing with the gas. Technology to operate internal combustion engines

(modified marine two stroke diesel engines) on this gas has improved however, so these

engines are beginning to appear in LNG carriers; with their greater thermal efficiency, less gas is

burnt. Also, developments have been made in the process of re-liquefying "boil off" gas, enabling it

to be returned to the cryogenic tanks. The financial returns on LNG are potentially greater than the

cost of the marine grade fuel oil burnt in conventional diesel engines, so the re-liquefaction process

is starting to be used on diesel engine propelled LNG carriers. Another factor driving the switch

from turbines to diesel engines for LNG carriers is the shortage of steam turbine qualified sea going

engineers. With the lack of turbine powered ships in other shipping sectors, and the rapid increase in

size of the worldwide LNG fleet, not enough have been trained to meet the demand. It may be that

the days of the last stronghold for steam turbine propulsion systems are numbered, despite all but

sixteen of the orders for new LNG carriers at the end of 2004 being for steam turbine propelled

ships. [1]

Diesel propulsion

The marine diesel engine first came into use around1912: either theVulcanus or the Selandia

(depending upon who you talk to) first deployed it. It soon offered even greater efficiency than the

steam turbine but for many years had an inferior power-to-space ratio. About this period too, heavy

fuel oil came into more general use and began to replace coal as the fuel of choice in steamships.

Its great advantages were the convenience, the reduction in manning owing to the removal of the

need for trimmers and stokers, and the reduction in space required for fuel bunkers. Diesel engines

today are broadly classified according to their operating cycle (two-stroke orfour-stroke), theirconstruction (crosshead, trunk, or opposed piston) and their speed (slow speed, medium

speed or high speed). Most modern larger merchant ships use either slow speed, two stroke,

crosshead engines, or medium speed, four stroke, trunk engines. Some smaller vessels may operate

high speed diesel engines. The operating ranges of the different speed types are as follows;

Slow speed- any engine with a maximum operating speed up to 300 revs/minute, although

most large 2 stroke slow speed diesel engines operate below 120 revs/minute. Some very

long stroke engines have a maximum speed of around 80 revs/minute. The largest, most

powerful engines in the world are slow speed, two stroke, crosshead diesels.

Medium speed- any engine with a maximum operating speed in the range 300- 900 revs/

minute. Many modern 4 stroke medium speed diesel engines have a maximum operating

speed of around 500 rpm.

High speed- any engine with a maximum operating speed above 900 revs/ minute

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As modern ships' propellers are at their most efficient at the operating speed of most slow speed

diesel engines, ships with these engines do not generally require gearboxes. Usually such propulsion

systems consist of either one or two propeller shafts each with its own direct drive engine. Ships

propelled by medium or high speed diesel engines may have one or two (sometimes more)

propellers, commonly with one or more engines driving each propeller shaft through a gearbox.

Where more than one engine is geared to a single shaft, each engine will most likely drive through a

clutch, allowing engines not being used to be disconnected from the gearbox while others continue to

operate. This arrangement allows maintenance to be carried out while under way at sea. Diesel

electric is another propulsion system that has been around for a long time, but is becoming more

common. By having the engines drive alternators, which supply electricity to motors driving the

propellers, gearboxes and clutches can be dispensed with and greater flexibility gained in the

positioning of the engines, while still providing the step down in speed required for a medium speed

engine to efficiently drive a ships propeller.

The size of the different types of engines is an important factor in selecting what will be installed in

a new ship. Slow speed two stroke engines are much taller, but the foot print required- length and

width- is smaller than that required for four stroke medium speed diesel engines. As space higher up

in passenger ships and ferries is at a premium, these ships tend to use multiple medium speed

engines resulting in a longer, lower engine room than that required for two stroke diesel engines.

Multiple engine installations also gives greater redundancy in the event of mechanical failure of one

or more engines and greater efficiency over a wider range of operating conditions.

Other propulsion systems

Many warships built since the 1960s have used gas turbines for propulsion, as have a few

passenger ships, like thejetfoil. Most recently, the Queen Mary 2 has had gas turbines installedin addition to diesel engines. Due to their poor thermal efficiency, it is common for ships using

them to have diesel engines for cruising with gas turbines reserved for when higher speeds are

required. Some warships and a few modern cruise ships have also utilised steam turbines to improve

the efficiency of gas turbines in a combined cycle. In such a combined cycle, where waste heat

from a gas turbine is used to create steam for driving a steam turbine, thermal efficiency can be the

same or slightly greater than that of diesel engines. However, the grade of fuel required for gas

turbines is much more expensive than that required for diesel engines so running costs are higher.

A few ships have used nuclear reactors (like Arktika class icebreaker with 75,000 hp

power), but this is not a separate form of propulsion; the reactor heats steam to drive the turbines.

Nonetheless, it has caused concerns about safety and waste disposal. It has become usual only in

large aircraft carriers, where the space previously used for ship's bunkerage could then be used

instead to bunker aviation fuel, and in submarines, where the ability to run submerged at high

speed and in relative quiet for long periods holds obvious advantage.

General terminology

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Ships may occur collectively as fleets, squadrons orflotillas. Convoys of ships commonly

occur.

A collection of ships for military purposes may compose a navy or a task force.

In the past, people counting or grouping disparate types of ship may refer to the individual vessels asbottoms, but this generally refers only to merchant vessels. Groups of sailing ships could

constitute, say, a fleet of 40 sail. Groups of submarines (particularly GermanU-boats in the 1940s)

hunt in wolf packs.

Some types of ships and boats

Semi-submersibleMV Blue Marlin carryingUSS Cole

Semi-submersible The Zhen Hua 1 in Astoria, Oregon

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3 D Printing

Like Life

Proponents say it's the next step in rapid prototyping: systems that reproduce their own kind

and evolve.

When it first came on the scene some 10 years ago, the ability to print your digital design in three

dimensions seemed like a technology straight from the pages of science fiction. The shape stored in

your computer assembled itself from a claylike material right before your eyes and you could hold

that design in your handoften that same day.

Now, efforts are under way that will try to take the technology a significant step farther.

A research group at Brandeis University in Waltham, Mass., is at work on a scheme to devise robots

that would evolve both their electronic brains and their bodies to meet each user's prescribed needs.

The robots would then build themselves by a rapid production method similar to 3-D printing or

rapid prototyping, a method of manufacturing objects, usually by depositing and curing successive

layers of material.

There is also Adrian Bowyer. A senior lecturer in mechanical engineering at the University of Bath

in England, he and his team have given a preliminary demonstration of RepRap, a device that they

hope will one day use 3-D printing to replicate itself and manufacture a variety of consumer

products. According to Bowyer, RepRap is an attempt to democratize the manufacturing process by

bringing an easy and inexpensive means of production to individuals and to developing countries.

Prototype parts of this lawn sprinkler are produced by a method

called 3-D printing through which engineers can literally print a

CAD design.

These machines are intended to reproduce themselves, and that is a

characteristic they would share with animals and plants. The idea is

hardly foreign to technology. As Bowyer pointed out, "After all, ouroldest technology agriculturedeals entirely with self-replicating

objects and with selective breeding."

According to the researchers, the machines won't have to be built on

an assembly line and thus have the potential to replicate

exponentially, bringing down their production costs and making them more readily available.

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Robot Age Upon Us

The program at Brandeis is under the lead of a computer science professor, Jordan Pollack. The

research program is called the Genetically Organized Lifelike Electro Mechanic, or Golem, Project.The original golem is an automaton of Jewish folklore.

Pollack is trying to use rapid prototyping technology that will someday build a robot that can create

itself.

"What I've been interested in is how do we get to the robotics age we've been waiting for now for

many years," Pollack said.

That promised age, in which cheaply produced robots perform tasks, has been delayed by economic

factors, Pollack claims. Robots are still designed laboriously and constructed by teams of human

engineers.

"That's why we don't have a robotics industry, other than pick-and-place, where you have to sell a

million robots to justify production," Pollack said. "Most of the time, engineering and design

produces something to be mass produced and manufactured at the cost of human creative talent and

labor, which can be amortized over many copies of something for sale."

That scenario doesn't hold true for robotics, he added. The number of robots that can be sold is

limited. To justify their costs, mass-produced robots are really feasible only for toys, weapons, and

oft-used machines.

"We have to get the design and manufacturing costs down to where one or two copies of a robot can

make a return on investment," Pollack said.

But Pollack and his team say they have a way to make robots more affordable and, at the same time,

to custom-tailor them to particular

applications.

Researchers have built robots like this onethat evolve from software and print

themselves in 3-D.

A robot in the Golem Project starts out as a

computer program. This program contains

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the designs for the plastic pipes, joints, motors, and electronic circuits that will eventually become

the robot. The computer also is programmed to understand the physics of movement.

The software cycles through matching parts, looking for the combination that will allow the robot to

best move on its own for its intended application. The successful matches continue to mutate and

improve. The computer search can be compared roughly to the process of natural selection.

Once evolved, the robots build themselves using the same methods that 3-D printers use to construct

a prototype from a digital model. For this operation, Pollack and his team use rapid manufacturing

technology from Stratasys Inc. of Eden Prairie, Minn.

Bowyer at the University of Bath said he has always believed that taking 3-D printing to its logical

conclusionthat is, creating a printer that can print its own doublecould revolutionize the

marketplace. Now he'd like a chance to prove that.

Bowyer said RepRap will be a self-replicating printer that can make a 3-D part from any digital

model.

"If it could only make copies of itself, it'd just be an interesting curiosity, of course," Bowyer said.

"But we intend it to also be able to manufacture a wide range of consumer goods, from coat hooks to

MP3 players."

He added that, because RepRap will be able to create copies of itself, it will essentially give the

means of production to the masses. RepRap, which was discussed in an article in the March issue,

"The Free Range," is offered on an open-source basis through the World Wide Web, at reprap.org.

Working Out the Bugs

The University of Bath printer is still in the early stages of development. Bowyer's team is not yet

two years into the four-year development project. The group expects to have the first demonstration

machine ready in about a year, although that model won't be able to print its own electrical circuits,

which are so vital to the machine's functioning. Circuit-printing capability should be included by the

time the project is complete, Bowyer said.

If it is to print copies of itself, the little machine can't rely on a laser to fuse layersas the laser can't

be copieda problem Bowyer has yet to address. Material choice is also an issue. The parts must bemade of a sturdy material yet one simple enough to be fabricated by the small machine, Bowyer said.

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Most 3-D parts, preliminary parts, or prototypes, like

this one, can be printed in less than a day on a

machine that attaches to a desktop computer.

To further borrow an analogy from the natural world,

Bowyer expects the machine to evolve, much as plants and animals do, over time. He'll make the

software behind the self-replicator open source for that reasonso that it, too, can evolve and

become more user-friendly. He expects that, as more and more people download the freely available

software and tinker with it, making necessary improvements, they drive software development.

Bowyer expects the printer to eventually retail for $500, including a few components commonly

available that would have to be purchased separately. The printer would be affordable even in the

developing world. For the professor, RepRap holds out hope that impoverished people can at leastget a foothold on the manufacturing ladder.

"Indeed, in my more fanciful moments, I like to imagine it ultimately making money itself

redundant," Bowyer said. "But I rather think that's unlikely."

Decades Away

Consultant Terry Wohlers said that RepRap's realization is still decades away. He follows the rapid

prototyping industry closely as head of the rapid prototyping consulting firm Wohlers Associates ofFort Collins, Colo.

"The way it was presented initially is that it can build itselfelectronics, circuit boards, everything,"

Wohlers said. "But I had an extensive e-mail conversation with the creator, and we're really talking

about a plastic shell; the standard parts would still be bought and assembled."

As the device stands currently, Wohlers said, users who are seeking to print in three dimensions

could purchase the RepRap's components separately and assemble them for much less than it would

cost to have the replicator print a copy of itself.

"Still, it's an interesting concept, and maybe in 20 to 50 years we'll have something like that," he

said.

The 3-D printing industry has grown quickly in the past decade. Now researchers are trying to

take the technology several steps farther like designing a printer that prints itself.

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If the RepRap were to mimic the surge in popularity 3-D printers have seen since their introduction,

there'd be self-replicating printers in high schools in the not-too-distant future.

"The companies initially buying these machines were Fortune 500 companies or service providersthat served large groups of people," Wohlers said. "Whereas now we're seeing companies that you

and I have never heard of with them. And a lot of schools and high schools."

The 3-D printing industry saw revenues double in 2004, while unit sales grew by 91 percent,

Wohlers said.

Companies like Z-Corp. of Burlington, Mass., which sells 3-D printers, attributed increased sales to

printer price, which has dropped by more than half in five years, and to better resolution and quality.

A unit that sold for $55,000 in 2000 now goes for around $20,000, said Tom Clay, the company's

chief executive officer.

"The customer wants the part to look exactly as it does in their mind's eye," Clay said. "It's a constant

battle for us to make the part look like that and to factor in ease of use. That's an important factor."

Previously, to use one of the expensive printers, customers needed a special room with a controlled

environment and a dedicated operator. No more, Clay said.

"Now you can buy a small printer and generally plug it into a work station," he said.

Terminator Too?

But with all this talk of evolving machines that can replicate themselves aren't we blatantly

overlooking another obvious sci-fi scenario? Robots run amok? Terrorizing the very humans who

started them on their path of mad spawning?

If you consider it logically, Pollack said, such a scene couldn't happen without a great deal of

funding.

"I make fun of the fear of out-of-control robotics," he said. "If you thought about it, you'd need a

corporation with the resources of Exxon for energy, of General Motors for manufacturing, of Sony

for electronics, and of Windows for software.

"And Microsoft is not going to let robots control that much software property any time soon," he

added.

Of course, neither the self-replicating printer, nor the Golem robots will come to fruition any time

soon. Still, Pollack and Bowyer say we can look one day for such means of manufacturing to be as

commonplace, as non-sci-fi, as 3-D printing has become today.

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Strain (materials science)

In any branch of science dealing with materials and their behaviour, strain is the geometrical

expression of deformation caused by the action of stress on a physical body. Strain therefore

expresses itself as a change in size and/or shape. In the case ofgeological action of the earth, if the

release of stress through strain in rocks is sufficiently large, earthquakes may occur.

If strain is equal over all parts of a body, it is referred to as homogeneous strain; otherwise, it is

inhomogeneous strain. In its most general form, the strain is a symmetric tensor.

Quantifying strain

Given that strain results in the deformation of a body, it can be measured by calculating the change

in length of a line or by the change in angle between two lines (where these lines are theoretical

constructs within the deformed body). The change in length of a line is termed the stretch, absolute

strain, or extension, and may be written as . Then the (relative) strain, , is given by

where is the original length of the material. The extension ( ) is positive if the material has

gained length (in tension) and negative if it has reduced length (in compression). Because is

always positive, the sign of the strain is always the same as the sign of the extension.

Strain has no units of measure because in the formula the units of length are cancelled. Dimensions

ofmetres/metre orinches/inch are sometimes used for convenience, but generally units are left

off and the strain sometimes is given as a percentage.

Engineering strain vs. true strain

The above definition (known technically as engineering strain) is not linear, in that strains cannot

be totalled. Imagine that a body is deformed twice, first by and then by (cumulative

deformation). The final strain

is slightly different from the sum of the strains:

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and

As long as , it is possible to write:

and thus

True strain, however, can be totalled. This is defined by:

and thus

The engineering strain formula is the series expansion of the true strain formula.

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Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics (from the Greek thermos meaning heat and dynamis meaning power) is a

branch ofphysics that studies the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, andvolumeon physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their

particles using statistics. Roughly, heat means "energy in transit" and dynamics relates to

"movement"; thus, in essence thermodynamics studies the movement of energy and how energy

instills movement. Historically, thermodynamics developed out of the need to increase the

efficiency of early steam engines.

Typicalthermodynamic system - heat moves

from hot (boiler) to cold (condenser) and work is

extracted.

Overview

The starting point for most thermodynamic

considerations are the laws of thermodynamics,

which postulate that energy can be exchanged

between physical systems as heat orwork. They also

postulate the existence of a quantity named entropy,

which can be defined for any system. In thermodynamics, interactions between large ensembles of

objects are studied and categorized. Central to this are the concepts ofsystem and surroundings.

A system is composed of particles, whose average motions define its properties, which in turn arerelated to one another through equations of state. Properties can be combined to express

internal energy andthermodynamic potentials are useful for determining conditions for

equilibrium andspontaneous processes.

With these tools, thermodynamics describes how systems respond to changes in their surroundings.

This can be applied to a wide variety of topics in science andengineering, such as engines,

phase transitions,chemical reactions, transport phenomena, and evenblack holes.

The results of thermodynamics are essential for other fields of physics and for chemistry,

chemical engineering, cell biology (cytology),biomedical engineering, and materials

science, to name but few.

History

Sadi Carnot(1796-1832): the "father" of thermodynamics

A short history of thermodynamics begins with the German scientist Otto

von Guericke, who in 1650 built and designed the world's first vacuum

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pump and created the world's first evervacuum known as theMagdeburg hemispheres. He

was driven to make a vacuum in order to disprove Aristotle's long-held supposition that 'Nature

abhors a vacuum'. Shortly thereafter, Irish physicist and chemist Robert Boyle had learned of

Guericke's designs and in 1656, in coordination with English scientist Robert Hooke, built an air

pump. Using this pump, Boyle and Hooke noticed the pressure-temperature-volume correlation. Intime, the ideal gas law was formulated.

Later designs implemented a steam release valve to keep the machine from exploding. By watching

the valve rhythmically move up and down, Papin conceived of the idea of a piston and cylinder

engine. He did not however follow through with his design. Nevertheless, in 1697, based on Papin's

designs, engineerThomas Savery built the first engine. Although these early engines were crude

and inefficient, they attracted the attention of the leading scientists of the time. One such scientist

was Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", who in 1824 published Reflections on the

Motive Power of Fire, a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency. This marks the start of

thermodynamics as a modern science.

Classical thermodynamics

Classical thermodynamics is the original early 1800s variation of thermodynamics, concerned with

thermodynamic states, and properties as energy, work, and heat, and with the laws of

thermodynamics, all lacking an atomic interpretation. In precursory form, classical thermodynamics

derives from physicist Robert Boyles 1662 postulate that the pressurePof a given quantity of

gas varies inversely as its volume V at constant temperature; i.e. in equation form: PV = k, a

constant. From here, a semblance of a thermo-science began to develop with the construction of the

first successful atmospheric steam engines in England byThomas Savery in 1697 andThomas

Newcomen in 1712. The first and second laws of thermodynamics emerged simultaneously in

the 1850s, primarily out of the works ofWilliam Rankine, Rudolf Clausius, and William

Thomson (Lord Kelvin). The latter coined the term thermodynamics in his 1849publication An

Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat. The first thermodynamic textbook was

written in 1859 by William Rankine, a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the

University of Glasgow.

Thermodynamic systems

An important concept in thermodynamics is the system. A system is

the region of the universe under study. A system is separated from theremainder of the universe by a boundary which may be imaginary or

not, but which by convention delimits a finite volume. The possible

exchanges of work, heat, or matter between the system and the

surroundings take place across this boundary. There are five dominant

classes of systems:

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1. Isolated Systems matter and energy may not cross the boundary.

2. Adiabatic Systems heat may not cross the boundary.

3. Diathermic Systems - heat may cross boundary.

4. Closed Systems matter may not cross the boundary.

5. Open Systems heat, work, and matter may cross the boundary.

For isolated systems, as time goes by, internal differences in the system tend to even out; pressures

and temperatures tend to equalize, as do density differences. A system in which all equalizing

processes have gone practically to completion, is considered to be in a state ofthermodynamic

equilibrium.

In thermodynamic equilibrium, a system's properties are, by definition, unchanging in time. Systems

in equilibrium are much simpler and easier to understand than systems which are not in equilibrium.Often, when analyzing a thermodynamic process, it can be assumed that each intermediate state in

the process is at equilibrium. This will also considerably simplify the situation. Thermodynamic

processes which develop so slowly as to allow each intermediate step to be an equilibrium state are

said to be reversible processes.

Thermodynamic parameters

The central concept of thermodynamics is that ofenergy, the ability to do work. As stipulated by

thefirst law, the total energy of the system and its surroundings is conserved. It may be transferred

into a body by heating, compression, or addition of matter, and extracted from a body either by

cooling, expansion, or extraction of matter. For comparison, in mechanics, energy transfer results

from a force which causes displacement, the product of the two being the amount of energy

transferred. In a similar way, thermodynamic systems can be thought of as transferring energy as the

result of a generalized force causing a generalized displacement, with the product of the two being

the amount of energy transferred. These thermodynamic force-displacement pairs are known as

conjugate variables. The most common conjugate thermodynamic variables are pressure-

volume (mechanical parameters), temperature-entropy (thermal parameters), and chemical potential-

particle number (material parameters).

Thermodynamic instruments

There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic

meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases,

the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For

example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they

are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in

1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealizedthermometer is a sample of

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an ideal gas at constant pressure. From the ideal gas lawPV=nRT, the volume of such a sample

can be used as an indicator of temperature; in this manner it defines temperature. Although pressure

is defined mechanically, a pressure-measuring device, called a barometer may also be constructed

from a sample of an ideal gas held at a constant temperature. A calorimeter is a device which is

used to measure and define the internal energy of a system.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that it does not appreciably alter its state

parameters when brought into contact with the test system. It is used to impose a particular value of a

state parameter upon the system. For example, a pressure reservoir is a system at a particular

pressure, which imposes that pressure upon any test system that it is mechanically connected to. The

earth's atmosphere is often used as a pressure reservoir.

It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct. A meter does not perform its task

accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable it is trying to measure. If, for example, a

thermometer were to act as a temperature reservoir it would alter the temperature of the system being

measured, and the reading would be incorrect. Ideal meters have no effect on the state variables of

the system they are measuring.

Thermodynamic states

When a system is at equilibrium under a given set of conditions, it is said to be in a definite state.

The state of the system can be described by a number of intensive variables and extensive

variables. The properties of the system can be described by an equation of state which

specifies the relationship between these variables. State may be thought of as the instantaneous

quantitative description of a system with a set number of variables held constant.

Thermodynamic processes

A thermodynamic process may be defined as the energetic evolution of a thermodynamic system

proceeding from an initial state to a final state. Typically, each thermodynamic process is

distinguished from other processes, in energetic character, according to what parameters, as

temperature, pressure, or volume, etc., are held fixed. Furthermore, it is useful to group these

processes into pairs, in which each variable held constant is one member of a conjugate pair. The

six most common thermodynamic processes are shown below:

1. Anisobaric process occurs at constant pressure.

2. Anisochoric process, orisometric/isovolumetric process, occurs at constant volume.

3. Anisothermal process occurs at constant temperature.

4. Anisentropic process occurs at constant entropy.

5. Anisenthalpic processoccurs at constant enthalpy.

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6. Anadiabatic process occurs without loss or gain of heat.

The laws of thermodynamics

In thermodynamics, there are four laws of very general validity, and as such they do not depend on

the details of the interactions or the systems being studied. Hence, they can be applied to systemsabout which one knows nothing other than the balance of energy and matter transfer. Examples of

this include Einstein's prediction of spontaneous emission around the turn of the 20th

century and current research into the thermodynamics ofblack holes.

The four laws are:

Zeroth law of thermodynamics, stating that thermodynamic equilibrium is an

equivalence relation.

If two thermodynamic systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third, they are also in thermal

equilibrium with each other.

First law of thermodynamics, about the conservation of energy

The increase in the energy of a closed system is equal to the amount of energy added to the system

by heating, minus the amount lost in the form of work done by the system on its surroundings.

Second law of thermodynamics, about entropy

The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching a

maximum value.

Third law of thermodynamics, about absolute zerotemperature

As a system asymptotically approaches absolute zero of temperature all processes virtually cease

and the entropy of the system asymptotically approaches a minimum value.

Thermodynamic potentials

As can be derived from the energy balance equation on a thermodynamic system, there exist

energetic quantities called thermodynamic potentials, being the quantitative measure of the

stored energy in the system. The four most well known potentials are:

Potentials are used to measure energy changes in systems as they evolve from an initial state to a

final state. The potential used depends on the constraints of the system, such as constant temperature

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or pressure. Internal energy is the internal energy of the system, enthalpy is the internal energy of the

system plus the energy related to pressure-volume work, and Helmholtz and Gibbs free energy are

the energies available in a system to do useful work when the temperature and volume or the

pressure and temperature are fixed.

Urban planning

Urban planning is concerned with the ordering and design of settlements, from the smallest towns to

the world's largest cities.

Urban, city, ortown planning is the discipline of land use planning which explores several

aspects of the built and social environments of municipalities and communities. Other professions

deal in more detail with a smaller scale of development, namely architecture, landscape

architecture and urban design. Regional planning deals with a still larger environment, at

a less detailed level.

In the nineteenth century, urban planning became influenced by the newly formalised disciplines of

architecture and civil engineering, which began to codify both rational and stylistic

approaches to solving city problems through physical design. However since the 1960's the domain

of urban planning has expanded to include economic development planning, community social

planning and environmental planning.

In the 20th century, part of the task of urban planning became urban renewal, and re-invigoratinginner cities by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities, some with much long-term

infrastructural decay.

History

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Excavated ruins ofMohenjo-daro.

Tenochtitlan, looking east. From the mural painting at the National Museum of

Anthropology, Mexico City. Painted in 1930 byDr Atl.

Examples of deliberately planned, or at least managed cities and settlements permeate antiquity:

By 2600 BC, some Harappan settlements of the Indus Valley civilizationhad grown into cities

containing thousands of people. Some of these cities appear to have been built based on a well-

developed plan. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro andHarappa were paved and

laid out at right angles (and aligned north, south, east or west) in a grid pattern with a hierarchy of

streets (commercial boulevards to small residential alleyways), somewhat comparable to that of

present day New York. The houses were protected from noise, odours, and thieves, and had their

ownwells, and sanitation. And the cities had drainage, large granaries,water tanks, and well-

developed urban sanitation[2]

The GreekHippodamus (c. 408 BC) is often considered the father of city planning in the West,

for his design ofMiletus.[citation needed] The ancient Romansused a consolidated scheme for city23 | P a g e
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planning, developed for military defence and civil convenience. The basic plan is a central plaza

with city services, surrounded by a compact grid of streets and wrapped in a wall for defence. To

reduce travel times, two diagonal streets cross the square grid corner-to-corner, passing through the

central square. A river usually flows through the city, to provide water and transport, and carry away

sewage, even in sieges.[citation needed] Effectively, many European towns still preserve the essence of

these schemes, as inTurin.

Muslims are thought to have originated the idea of formal zoning (see haram and himaand the

more general notion of khalifa, or "stewardship" from which they arise),[citation needed] although

modern usage in the West largely dates from the ideas of the Congrs Internationaux

d'Architecture Moderne.

Many cities in Latin American civilizations also engineered urban planning in their cities including

sewage systems and running water. Mexico-Tenochtitlan, was the capital of the Aztec empire, built

on an island in Lake Texcoco in what is now the Federal District in central Mexico. At its height,

Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities in the world, with close to 250,000 inhabitants. [citation needed]

During the last two centuries in the Western world (Western Europe, North America, Japan and

Australasia) planning and architecture can be said to have gone through various stages of general

consensus. Firstly there was the industrialised city of the 19th Century, where control of building

was largely held by businesses and the wealthy elite. Around the turn of the 20th Century there

began to be a movement for providing people, and factory workers in particular, with healthier

environments. The concept of garden cities arose and some model towns were built, such as

Letchworth and Welwyn Garden Citythe world's first garden cities, inHertfordshire, UK.

However, these were principally small scale in size, typically dealing with only a few thousand

residents.[3]

It wasn't until the 1920s when modernism began to surface. A modernist city was to be a sort of

efficient, workable utopia. There were plans for large scale rebuilding of cities, such as Paris in

France, though nothing major happened until the devastation caused by the Second World War.

After this, some modernist buildings and communities were built. However they were cheaply

constructed and became notorious for their social problems.

Modernism can be said to have ended in the 1970s when the construction of the cheap, uniform

tower blocks ended in many countries, such as Britain and France. Since then many have been

demolished and in their way more conventional housing has been built. Rather than makingeverything uniform and perfect, planning now concentrates on individualism and diversity in society

and the economy. This is the post-modernist era.

Planning and aesthetics

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Towns and cities have been planned with aesthetics in mind, here in Bristol (England), 18th century

private sector development was designed to appear attractive.

In developed countries there has been a backlash against excessive man-made clutter in theenvironment, such as signposts, signs, and hoardings. Other issues that generate strong debate

amongst urban designers are tensions between peripheral growth, increased housing density and

planned new settlements. There are also unending debates about the benefits of mixing tenures and

land uses, versus the benefits of distinguishing geographic zones where different uses predominate.

Successful urban planning considers character, of "home" and "sense of place", local identity,

respect for natural, artistic and historic heritage, an understanding of the "urban grain" or

"townscape," pedestrians and other modes of traffic, utilities and natural hazards, such as flood

zones.

Some argue that the medieval piazza and arcade are the most widely appreciated elements of

successful urban design, as demonstrated by the Italian cities ofSiena andBologna.

While it is rare that cities are planned from scratch, planners are important in managing the growth

of cities, applying tools like zoning to manage the uses of land, and growth management to

manage the pace of development. When examined historically, many of the cities now thought to be

most beautiful are the result of dense, long lasting systems of prohibitions and guidance about

building sizes, uses and features. These allowed substantial freedoms, yet enforce styles, safety, and

often materials in practical ways. Many conventional planning techniques are being repackaged

using the contemporary term,smart growth.

There are some cities that have been planned from conception, and while the results often don't turn

out quite as planned, evidence of the initial plan often remains.

Cells

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Some of the most successful planned cities consist of cells that include park-space, commerce and

housing, and then repeat the cell. Usually cells are separated by streets. Often each cell has unique

monuments and

Documents

Skripta ESP 4