SITUATING CONSTRUCTIVISM IN LEARNING AND TEACHING …ijsernet.org/uploads/SER_01_68.pdfInformation processing explains the working of the brain in terms of rules and models of information

International Journal of Scientific and Education Research

Vol. 2, No. 06; 2018

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SITUATING CONSTRUCTIVISM IN LEARNING AND TEACHING ARTS

BASED SUBJECTS; FOCUS ON LEARNER ATTITUDE TOWARDS USE

OF COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION IN GEOGRAPHY IN KENYA

Samwel Mwanda1, Ronnie Midigo2 1. Department of educational Communication and Technology, University of Nairobi

2. Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies, University of Nairobi

ABSRACT

The need for suitable teaching strategy for enhanced learner achievement in Kenyan secondary

schools continues to occupy the minds of many educators today. For educators to arrive at a

method of instruction to be adopted by schools there is a need for a systematic study on its

effectiveness. Several researches on computer-assisted instruction (CAI) attest d to the general

effectiveness of computer programs as a method of instruction. The purpose of the study was to

explore possible differences in attitudes that students would have about use of computer

technology for learning geography and use of computers for instruction, being a new technology

in secondary education system. The study adopted non-equivalent case control design and

investigated three modes of instructional practices namely; individualised computer assisted

instructions (CAI), computer assisted instructions supplemented by teachers' supervision (herein

called Integrated Computer Assisted Instructions (ICAI)) and conventional method of instruction

(CM) in the teaching of geography. The study adopted quasi-experimental design. Target

population comprised form one geography students and their subject teachers. A total of 540

students and 115 teachers were used for the study distributed to form both case and control. The

instruments of the study were semi structured questionnaire. Data analysis was done with the

help of a computer program SPSS for statistical analysis. The study found that that attitude of

students towards geography, as a subject was very positive but this did not have a significant

effect in performance of the students using the three modes of study. Equally students that learnt

using computer assisted instruction had positive attitude towards the instructional programme.

The study recommends strong support at the national level towards a systematic planning for the

technology use in the schools.

Keywords: Attitude, Technology, Computer Assisted Learning, education

Introduction

There is a worldwide trend towards a more widespread and diversified use of instructional

resources for learning and teaching (Richards & Rodgers, 2014). In Africa as in other parts of

developing world, formal education is assumed to be the key to modernisation and thus the

allocation of the available scarce resources is in favour of education. Focusing on Kenya in

particular, education is taken to be the cornerstone towards economic and social development

(Lew in & Stuart, 2016).


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Kenya, like any other developing country, is faced with numerous problems in her educational

systems that hinder the acquisition of the desired quality education. Some of these problems

include overcrowding in classrooms, and lack of adequate facilities and equipment in most of the

schools. Also, the number of students in schools keeps on increasing annually thus outnumbering

the output of trained teachers thereby leading to differences in student-teacher ratio. This

situation can be seen to lower quality of education in Kenya secondary schools. This trend

requires that necessary steps be taken in pursuit for innovative approaches to teaching. One such

approach is the use of Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI). According to Collins and Halverson

(2018), computers can be used to enrich the existing school curriculum and improve the way in

which the curriculum is delivered. Malik (2016) pointed out that the aspiration of using

computers is to liberate the teacher’s time and enhance the student’s repertoire of learning skills,

thus enabling greater student’s academic autonomy. This autonomy will enable students to be

active in the learning process and enhance the quality of their learning experiences.

Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is primarily an individualised approach to teaching and is

grounded in the principles of constructivism (Mwanda, Mwanda, Midigo & Maundu, 2017).

Using CAI, students should be allowed to work independently. This self-independence

encourages mastery learning. Muijs and Reynolds (2017)points out that the principle of mastery

learning is that, given enough time and help, about 95 percent of the learners in any group can

come to a complete mastery of the designated instructional objectives. Mastery learning provides

for individualised learning by setting high but attainable standards, and making additional

materials available for students who master objectives more quickly than other learners (Tharp,

2018). Computers can therefore aid mastery learning in the study of geography by providing

students who need additional time and individualised practice with feedback to meet the

objectives. Computer programme can often provide opportunities to study independently.

Learner attitude can alter every aspect of a learner’s, including education. Learner attitudes on

learning determine their ability and willingness to learn. If negative attitudes are not altered, a

student is unlikely to continue his education beyond what is required (Siemens, 2014). Changing

learners' negative attitudes towards learning is a process that involves determining the factors

driving the attitude and using this information to bring about change (Petty, 2018). It is against

this background that cognisance of technology application in teaching and learning geography,

one of the subject disciplines in Kenyan secondary schools is taken. This study is hinged on

application of cognitivism as a pedagogical approach for enhanced learning outcome. In the

learning process, the teacher is not the primary source of information, but his duty is to stimulate

and monitor the learner and reveal the inadequacies in the learning process that may hinder the

learner to arrive at a more general conclusion (Brunner, 1990; Hilgard & Bower, 1975 and

Carey, 1986).

Review of Literature


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Cognitive theory advocates that instruction must be sequenced and discovery method is one

important technique that incorporates learning. Hence, the student must be left to work on

his/her own with the computer. Computer-assisted instruction provides the student with such a

condition where he/she can exploit his/her talents. According to Brunner (1990), the ultimate aim

of teaching a subject is to help children understand its structure: that is, the basic principles that

help define it, give it identity and allow other things to be related to it meaningfully. The

structure of a subject enables a teacher to abstract materials that is suited to the level of

comprehension of the class and that represents coherent, logical, and meaningful elements of the

whole. Thus, the material can be expressed in terms of clear learning objectives that state the

purpose behind each particular lesson (Fontana, 1992). In other words objectives must state

clearly what the student should be able to do at the end of the lesson (Pearson and Tweddle,

1984).

Cognitive theory of learning sees the learner as a mentally active participant in the learning

process. Cognitive theory has two main schools of thought: information processing and

constructivism. Information processing explains the working of the brain in terms of rules and

models of information intake, storage and processing and how these help to explain human

behaviour.

Information- processing theorists are more concerned with the nature of the cognitive process.

These theorists agree with Piaget, that people are active learners and that a person’s prior

knowledge is a critical component of new learning. Accordingly, students learn most effectively

when they relate new knowledge to what they already know. As such this theory explains how

human memory works, how we take in information (encoding), how we organise it in our minds

(storage) and again accede to it when needed (retrieval). Human information – processing

theorists like Posner, 1989; stilling et al, 1987(cited in Thomas K.C 1997) use computers as a

model for understanding how humans think.

It builds on the “constructivist” theory of the child psychologist Jean Piaget, and asserts that

knowledge is not simply transmitted from teacher to students, but rather is actively constructed

in the mind of the learner. This theory suggests a strong connection between doing and learning:

It asserts that activities such as making, building, and programming provide a rich context for

learning. In which case computers for instruction allow students to take charge of their own

learning through direct exploration, expression, and experience. The most integral part of

constructivist theory here is, students shift role from “being taught” to “learning” and the teacher

changes role from “expert “ to “collaborator” or “guide”(Resnick, M, Kafai, Y. 1996).

Use of computers for instruction allows students to take more responsibility for their learning

and put concepts into personally meaningful contexts. Students retain more information and have

more fun learning when material is presented in this way. Another important application of

computer technology is simulation. Computer simulation allows students to explore phenomena

that would otherwise be too expensive or too impractical for the classroom.


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Hawk ridge points out that computer-assisted learning has progressed through many phases, and

through investigation of underlying theoretical frameworks. At any rate, it is possible to

recognise the change of focus from individual accounts of learning to social perspectives. The

theoretical frameworks, which emphasise the social dimensions of learning, are in the works of

Lev Vygotsky, who was highly publicised in 1960 and 1970. Vygotsky (1978) points out that

there should be a link between computers, language use and learning and indicates that

computers must be integrated into the social life of classroom if their pedagogical benefits are to

be realised.

Application of Computers for Instruction in Schools

Research on use of computer-assisted instruction has been conducted in a number of universities

all over the world in the last two decades. A search through the Internet and CD-ROM’s on

dissertation abstracts of humanities and social sciences between the periods of 1980 and 1999

reveal a plethora of those kinds of research in different fields of study. These studies have

yielded numerous findings on use and attitudes towards computers for instruction. Herein is a

review of some of those studies. Hannon (1992) did a study on the effects of computer-assisted

instructional management system on mathematics achievement. The study examined two

methods of instructions; computer assisted and the Governors Remediation Initiative (GRI)

mathematics laboratory as compared to traditional instruction on mathematics achievement.

Student’s achievement was determined by use of Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills (CTBS)

level U, Form J. This test was administered to all students in grades 10 and 11. Dropout rate was

determined from the students' class records.

Wang (1993) compared the relative effectiveness of CAI and conventional methods for teaching

an operations management course in a school of business .She looked at the effectiveness of CAI

against conventional teaching. The study compared the relative effectiveness of the types of

instruction strategies on student’s academic performance and retention level. Students from two

college level operations management class were randomly assigned to a lecture /discussion

/conventional review group or a lecture/ discussion/ computer-assisted review group.

Learner attitude towards Computers for instructional purposes

With this parallelism and the capability of either learner or instructional control, the computer

can be employed for a range of methods that accommodate learner aptitudes. The computer, for

instance, can ‘short-circuit’ learner cognition by taking on a large amount of information

processing burden of the learner. It can dynamically model a process, activate or amplify the

learners’ own processes as well as accommodate a range of tasks (Kozma, 1987). Likewise, the

computer can tutor verbal knowledge, model intellectual skills, activate, or amplify cognitive

strategies. This last possibility may be more promising, for learners may internalize the processes

in which the computer excels and thus become better learners (Saye, 1997; Kozma, 1987).

One of the most deplorable features of the move toward having computers in the classroom has

been the lack of understanding on the part of many professional educators as to what this


Vol. 2, No. 06; 2018



technology could mean to the improvement of learning process (Harper 1987). Majority of

teachers do not know how to use computers to promote educational efficiency and are not being

adequately trained to use technology. Harper (1987) attributed this to the facts that, training

teachers to use computers is complicated, and that many people have a distorted view of what

computers can do for education. Over the last few years, there has been a rapid growth in the

range, sophistication, penetration rate and potential implications of computers in Geography

teaching and learning within the developing economies. This is partly due to the rapid rise in

computing power and fall in microcomputer costs and the rapid emergence and use of the

Internet. The World Wide Web became readily accessible only from 1993 after the appearance

of Mosaic, the first big browser, followed by the transmission of pictures and the founding of

Netscape (Castleford, 1998).

There are already a wide range of computer uses in educational endeavours especially in the

developed economies such as the United Kingdom (UK) and United States of America (USA),

and more uses are being explored. The Internet can be used by staff to support efficient course

administration and to assist students to manage their learning. Even though the majority of

teachers and students may not be using or even aware of the unique potential capabilities of

computer technology in teaching and learning. A study carried out to investigate teachers' and

administrators' perceptions and experiences towards computer use in Kenyan classrooms

revealed that both teachers and administrators viewed the use of computers in Kenyan

classrooms as worthwhile. Teachers reported feeling unprepared by teacher training colleges to

use computers in the classrooms, and expressed the need to provide both practicing and pre-

service teachers with professional development opportunities in technology. This resulted from

in-depth interviews, participant observations and document analysis The study suggested that

teachers' and administrators' perceptions and experiences play a significant role in the use of

computers in Kenyan classrooms and hence the need to provide pre-service and in-service

training programs to enable them to successfully teach using computers in the classrooms

(Wabuyele, 2006).

Using games and simulations in school Geography have been found to encourage fun and

interactive teaching and learning of secondary geography by interspersing geography games and

activities within curriculum teaching. Simulations encourage enthusiastic participation in the

Geography classroom, improve performance using games, which have been proven to be

effective teaching and learning tools, contribute to students’ social and emotional aspects of

learning, developing skills of empathy, decision-making and critical thinking that they can use

across the curriculum and throughout their lives, add to the teacher’s own range of teaching

strategies, particularly those which encourage interaction with students (Wong, 2005; Walford,

1997).

Methodology

The study adopted quasi-experimental design with non-equivalent control- group involving three

groups of study (e two experimental groups and one control group). CAI and ICAI formed the


Vol. 2, No. 06; 2018



experimental groups while the other group using the conventional method (CM) of teaching

formed the control group. Pre-test, post-test and retention tests were administered to all the

students in the experimental groups and the control groups. The performance was measured

against the three teaching approaches, viz: CAI, ICAI and CM. The target population were form

one students taking geography and their subject teachers. Six public schools in Kenya were used

for the study ( three girls schools and three boys schools). Purposive sampling was used to

participating schools due to their use of computers for instructional purposes.

A total of six schools were selected. All the schools selected had three classes .The researcher

organised all the classes to have thirty students. Each class represented a mode of instruction viz:

CM, CAI and ICAI. Thus in each school there were two experimental groups and a one control

group. From each school, therefore, ninety students participated in the research. A total of Five

hundred and forty (540) students participated in the research. There were six control groups that

were taught using conventional method. Each control group consisted of thirty students therefore

giving a total of one hundred and fifty (180) students for the group. The two experimental groups

also had 180 students each thus giving a total of 360 students. There were two schools from Rift

Valley, with one being a girl’s school and the other a boy’s school. Nairobi province had two

girls schools and two boys’ schools. Questionnaires were used for data collection. Computer

assisted instructional program was used by the experimental groups. These were computer-

assisted instruction (CAI) and integrated computer assisted groups (ICAI). The groups were

subjected to the use of CAI program to study a unit on statistical methods as per form one

geography syllabus. The groups used a computer program that had contents on the unit on

statistical methods in geography.

Results

Learner attitudes towards use of computer for instruction in geography

The test of attitudes towards computers was used to find out how students perceived the use of

computers in the instructional process. It was also used to find out if the attitudes they formed

would influence their performance in the achievement tests. Only students in the experiment

groups took the test. The test was given after the students had studied through the program. In

the analysis a response of strongly agree (SA) and agree (A) were all taken as positive responses

strongly disagree (SD) and disagree (D) were as negative responses. However there were

students who could not make a decision and were reported as undecided (U).

In terms of attitude most students indicated a positive attitude towards use of computer for

instructional purposes. 80% and 73% of the students in CAI and ICAI groups respectively agreed

that CAI is an effective method of instruction. Similarly 81% of CAI and 75.5% of ICAI groups

indicated that they wished they would use computers in other classes. More so 85% of CAI and

84% of ICAI reported that school would be a more interesting place if they used computers for

studies. On a different note only 9% of CAI and 6% of ICAI reported that using CAI in classes is

uninteresting and dull. The table below represents cumulative responses of the student’s attitudes

towards use of computers.


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Table 1. Cumulative responses of student’s attitudes towards use of computers.

Attitudes CAI ICAI

SA/A U SD/D SA/

A

U SD/D

1.CAI classes are dull and uninteresting 17 10 153 11 8 161

2.CAI most effective 145 5 30 141 11 29

3.I’m glad of not using CAI in many classes 9 17 154 11 11 158

4.Don’t like working with computers 8 6 168 40 9 131

5.School interesting with computers 153 16 11 152 13 15

6.Wish to use CAI in more classes 146 11 23 136 30 14

7.Using CAI leads to waste of time 15 7 158 40 5 135

8.Using CAI is interesting, keep thinking 142 12 26 147 8 25

9.I like working with classmates than with computers 50 63 67 57 57 61

10.I take a lot of interests in work when using CAI 138 9 33 139 9 32

11.I understand everything when using CAI 65 14 101 103 32 45

12.Rather have the teacher explain the subject than be left with

CAI

69 14 97 72 38 70

TOTAL 957 184 1021 1049 231 876

The graphic illustrations of the results reported in table 1 are presented in figures 1,2, 3, and 4. In

these figures 1 through 4, the bars represent the responses of the sample populations marked in

the two groups of CAI and ICAI to statements that were positive and negative to the use of

computers for instructional purposes. Figures 1 and 2 represent responses on the positive

statements, while figures 8 and 9 represent responses on the negative statements. A blue bar

represents the total number of respondents who strongly agreed with the positive statement on

the use of computers while the yellow bar strongly disagrees and the red bar represents

undecided responses. The left hand vertical axis numbers are the total number of respondents

out of 180, the number of each group of study who responded to a particular positive or negative

statement. In the legend SA/A represents strongly agree and agree responses, U represents

undecided responses and SD/D strongly disagree and disagree responses.


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0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

CAI effective School

interesting with

CAI

Want more CAI CAI interesting I take a lot of

interests in work

when using CAI

understand

using CAI

No. of

Res

pon

ses

Statements

Responses to positive statements on use of computers by CAI

group

SA/A

U

SD/D

Legend

Figure 1. CAI group responses to positive statements on attitudes towards use of

computers for instruction

0

50

100

150

200

CAI effective School interesting with

CAI

Want more CAI

CAI is interesting

I take a lot of interests in work when using CAI

understand using CAI

No

. of

Res

po

nse

s

Statements

Responses to positive statements on use of computers by ICAI group

SA/A U SD/DLegend

Fig.2. ICAI group responses to positive statements on attitudes towards use of


According to the responses, the two groups seem to be very consistent. They strongly agree that

computers are effective, interesting, promote understanding and they wish to use computers in

more other classes as an instructional resource.


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17 9 8 15

5069

10 176 7

63

14

153 154168

158

67

97

020406080

100120140160180

CIA adull glad not using CAI

Don’t like computers

CAI is wasting time

like teamwork likes teacher

No. O

f re

spon

ses

Statements

Responses to negative statements on use of computers by CAI group

SA/A U SD/DLegend

Figure 3. CAI group responses to negative statements on attitudes towards use of


11 11

40 4057

72

8 11 9 5

57

38

161 158

131 135

6170

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

CIA adull glad not using

CAI

Don’t like

computers

CAI is wasting

time

like teamwork likes teacher

No

. Res

po

nse

s

Statements

Responses of negative statements to use of computers by ica i group

SA/A U SD/DLegend

Figure 4. ICAI group responses to negative statements on attitudes towards use of


To determine and clarify further the students positive attitude on the use of computers for

instructional purposes, students consistently and strongly disagreed with the negative statements

indicating that using CAI is dull, waste of time, they don’t like using computers, they are glad for

not using more of computers and that they preferred teacher exposition and working with

classmates in team work. Figures 3 and 4 above illustrate these responses vividly.

These results show a greater positive attitude for use of computers in schools as an instructional

resource. However this positive attitude towards use of computers did not seem to influence


Vol. 2, No. 06; 2018



performance as the two groups mean performances were lower than the conventional methods

group in all the three achievement tests. These results therefore support the null research

hypothesis that “Attitude of students towards CAI method of teaching is not related to

achievement”. Similar to this finding, Machen (1986) in a study of the effects of computer

assisted instruction on GED test achievement, found that students attitude towards

microcomputers did not significantly affect GED post-test achievements.

Attitude towards geography

All students that participated in the research took the test of attitude towards geography. The test

was to find out the influence of the students attitudes towards geography on their performance.

The premise of argument was that attitude of students towards geography would influence their

performance in the achievement tests. The test was given to the students after the study.

From the study it was realised that most students had a positive attitude towards studying

geography. 91% of students in ICAI, 92% of CAI and 77% of CM indicated that they learn

important things in geography. 71% of ICAI, 77% of CAI and 83% of CM groups of students

reported that they like to learn more about geography. Equally 69% of ICAI, 71%of CAI and

63% of CM groups of students opined that they enjoy learning geography as a subject. On the

same note, 77% of ICAI, 65% of CAI and 65% of CM students responded that they enjoy

solving geographical problems. It was quite evident from the responses that students had a

positive attitude towards geography as a subject. However attitude towards geography did not

influence performance as all the three study groups did not perform significantly different. The

table below represents cumulative responses of the students.

Table 2 -Cumulative responses of student’s attitude towards geography

ATTITUDES ICAI CAI CM

SA/

A

U SD/D SA/

A

U SD/

D

SA/

A

U SD/D

1.We do a lot of fun activities in

geography

98 7 77 57 10 113 49 21 110

2.I’m usually scared of geography

tests

49 8 125 84 9 91 87 20 71

3.We learn important things in

geography

164 6 10 166 0 14 139 4 37

4.I enjoy discussing geog. With

classmates

127 2 51 116 10 54 120 18 42


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5.Geog. discourages curiosity in

class.

28 27 125 47 12 111 61 19 100

6.I like to learn more about

geography

128 8 44 138 6 32 150 19 11

7.Geog. Films bore me 25 10 145 14 16 150 38 23 119

8.Geog. Is an enjoyable subject. 125 10 45 128 9 37 113 6 61

9.I hate to go for geog. Field trips 23 15 142 34 12 134 10 10 160

10.I usually look forward to geog.

class

86 15 79 114 14 52 104 33 43

11.There are too many facts to learn

in geography

87 12 81 139 22 23 103 16 61

12.Feel good to share with friends

geog. Facts

108 3 69 92 2 86 119 12 51

13.Not all students need to learn

geog.

46 28 106 62 24 96 82 24 74

14.I wish we didn’t have geog.

Classes so often

22 6 152 22 4 154 39 16 125

15.We cover interesting topics in

geog.

173 5 2 163 0 17 140 40 0

16.I don’t like getting geog. Books

from the library

27 8 145 25 20 135 32 21 127

17.Geog. Class to have more field

activities

114 22 44 116 18 46 102 22 56

18.Geog. Is one of my favourite

subjects

121 3 56 69 10 105 106 24 50

19.I like talking to parents about

geography

79 13 88 74 30 76 91 43 46


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20.Geography is a difficult subject 39 12 129 91 8 81 63 16 103

21.I don’t mind doing geography

problems

62 11 107 81 26 73 93 25 70

22.I hate doing geography

assignments

10 8 162 23 4 153 25 24 133

23.I enjoy solving geographical

problems

140 18 22 118 12 50 118 13 48

24.I don’t like discussing geog. With

my friends out of class

14 13 153 21 13 146 32 28 120

TOTAL 1895 27

0

2159 199

4

29

1

202

9

195

1

49

7

1883

Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations

The study found out that there was no positive direct relationship on students’ attitudes towards

use of computer-assisted instruction could be identified to influence achievement. This was

because all the students in the three study groups nearly performed at the same level based on the

mean scores of the achievement tests. Most students in computer assisted instruction and

integrated computer assisted instruction groups strongly agreed that using computers makes their

work more interesting, most effective, make them keep on thinking actively and they take a lot of

interest in learning when they are using computers. Generally, they agreed that school would be

a more interesting place if computers were used more. The study also found out that most

students favoured studying geography. Attitude towards geography did not therefore influence

performance of the students in the three study groups.

Conclusions from the Study Findings.

Improvements on classroom instruction cannot occur if educators do not concentrate on finding

and ascertaining the effects of new technologies and approaches to instruction. For the last two

decades, there has been a lot of research in the institutionalisation of computers in schools. Many

factors like availability of computers, effectiveness of computer- assisted instruction, teachers

and students’ attitudes towards use of computer, structure and management of computer facilities

and many other such factors have hindered the adoption of the technology in the schools.

However technically, developments have reduced the size and cost of computers thus making it

more affordable and accommodative in schools. Kenyan schools in particular are benefiting from

this technological advancement. Many schools todate are striving to acquire computers for


Vol. 2, No. 06; 2018



instructional purposes. Therefore, the only way forward is to adopt a school-focussed strategy of

computer use whereby teachers identify the problems to which computers are solutions and

acquire the necessary skills and knowledge to utilize this innovative technology.

This study found that the use of computers for instructional purposes is as effective as the

conventional methods of instruction, which predominates our classrooms. As such it would be

imperative that the Ministry of Education sets efficient strategies for encouraging use of

computer- assisted instruction in Kenya.

Recommendations

The following are the recommendations from the study based mainly on findings. The

recommendations should be useful to teachers and curriculum developers.

This study recommends that an additional research concerning the influence of computer –

assisted instruction in other subject areas at the high school level in Kenya is recommended.

More so, additional research is recommended for determining the general attitude of school

administrators, teachers and students on computer use at the secondary school level. Since the

study did not cover private schools, a similar study could be replicated in those schools.

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