Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Gender Equality and Youth Employment: Reflections on Arab States UNDP/UNDESA Sub-Regional Workshop

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO

Gender Equality and Youth Gender Equality and Youth Employment:Employment:

Reflections on Arab StatesReflections on Arab States

UNDP/UNDESA Sub-Regional WorkshopUNDP/UNDESA Sub-Regional WorkshopYouth Policies and Strategies in the Context of Youth Policies and Strategies in the Context of

MDGsMDGs

Sana’a, Yemen, June 22-23, 2005Sana’a, Yemen, June 22-23, 2005


OutlineOutline

Gender Equality, MDGs and YouthGender Equality, MDGs and Youth Global and Regional TrendsGlobal and Regional Trends Trends and Indicators in MENATrends and Indicators in MENA Good PracticesGood Practices Next StepsNext Steps


Gender equality is defined as women Gender equality is defined as women having the same opportunities in life as having the same opportunities in life as men in three domains: men in three domains:

• Capabilities (health, education, nutrition)Capabilities (health, education, nutrition)

• Access to resources and opportunitiesAccess to resources and opportunities economic assets (such as land or housing) resources (such as income and employment) Political opportunity (representation in leadership)

• SSecurity domainecurity domain (reduced vulnerability to (reduced vulnerability to violence and conflict)violence and conflict)

Defining Gender EqualityDefining Gender Equality


EmpowermentEmpowerment

• Agency or the ability to use those rights, Agency or the ability to use those rights, capabilities, resources, and opportunities to capabilities, resources, and opportunities to make strategic choices and decisionsmake strategic choices and decisions

• To exercise agency, they must live without To exercise agency, they must live without the fear of coercion and violencethe fear of coercion and violence

• Especially relevant for young women Especially relevant for young women considering age and gender hierarchiesconsidering age and gender hierarchies


MDG Goal 3 IndicatorsMDG Goal 3 Indicators

• The ratio of girls to boys enrolled in primary and secondary education

• The ratio of literate females to males among 15 to 24 year olds

• The share of women in wage employment in the nonagricultural sector

• The proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments


Strategic Priorities for Goal 3 of MDGsStrategic Priorities for Goal 3 of MDGs1. Strengthen opportunities for post primary education for girls whilesimultaneously meeting commitments to universal primaryeducation

2. Guarantee reproductive health and rights

3. Invest in infrastructure to reduce women’s and girls’ time burdens

4. Guarantee women’s and girls’ property and inheritance rights

5. Eliminate gender inequality in employment by decreasing women’sreliance on informal employment, closing gender gaps in earnings, andreducing occupational segregation

6. Increase women’s share of seats in national parliaments and localGovernmental bodies

7. Combat violence against girls and women


Proposed Indicators by Task ForceProposed Indicators by Task ForceEducation• The ratio of female to male gross enrollment rates in primary, secondary, and

tertiary education• The ratio of female to male completion rates in primary, secondary, and tertiary

educationReproductive health and rights• Proportion of contraceptive demand satisfied• Adolescent fertility rateInfrastructure• Hours per day (or year) women and men spend fetching water and collecting fuelProperty rights• Land ownership by male, female, or jointly held• Housing title, disaggregated by male, female, or jointly heldEmployment• Share of women in employment, both wage and self-employment, by type• Gender gaps in earnings in wage and self-employmentParticipation in national parliaments and local government bodies• Percentage of seats held by women in national parliament• Percentage of seats held by women in local government bodiesViolence against women• Prevalence of domestic violence


Global and Regional TrendsGlobal and Regional Trends

Gender Equality Gender Equality

& &

Youth EmploymentYouth Employment


Gender & Youth UnemploymentGender & Youth Unemployment Globally, 35.8 million young women (15-24) are involuntarily Globally, 35.8 million young women (15-24) are involuntarily

without workwithout work

In all regions (except EA and SSA) young women’s In all regions (except EA and SSA) young women’s unemployment rates are higher than young men’sunemployment rates are higher than young men’s

Female unemployment rate of 16.5% was 5.9% points Female unemployment rate of 16.5% was 5.9% points higher than the male rate of 10.6 % in 2003 in MENAhigher than the male rate of 10.6 % in 2003 in MENA

Unemployment for young women in MENA countries ranges Unemployment for young women in MENA countries ranges from 13% in Bahrain to almost 39% in Algeriafrom 13% in Bahrain to almost 39% in Algeria

Unemployed women are mainly young new labor force Unemployed women are mainly young new labor force entrants (with primary & secondary education), and laid off entrants (with primary & secondary education), and laid off workers following restructuring and privatization - in Jordan, workers following restructuring and privatization - in Jordan, Morocco, Tunisia and EgyptMorocco, Tunisia and Egypt

Source: ILO Global Employment Trends, 2004; ERF, 2000.


Fertility & Employment LinkFertility & Employment Link Lower fertility rates & Lower fertility rates &

increased employment of increased employment of women is likely to go hand in women is likely to go hand in hand freeing their time from hand freeing their time from the care economythe care economy

In MENA, fertility rates In MENA, fertility rates remained relatively high in remained relatively high in 2000 at 3.6 % and the female 2000 at 3.6 % and the female labor force participation is the labor force participation is the lowest of all regions at 27.9 %lowest of all regions at 27.9 %

Fertility Rate (15-19 yr olds), 1990-2000

0

50

100

150

200

250

1990 2000Year

Algeria

Bahrain

Djibouti

Egypt

I ran, I slamic Rep. of

J ordan

Kuwait

Lebanon

Morocco

Oman

Qatar

Saudi Arabia

Syrian Arab Republic

Tunisia

United Arab Emirates

West Bank

Yemen

Employment to Population RatioEmployment to Population Ratio• In all regions, employment to population ratios are much smaller for In all regions, employment to population ratios are much smaller for women than for menwomen than for men• The difference is highest in MENA where 2/10 working age women The difference is highest in MENA where 2/10 working age women work compared to 7/10 menwork compared to 7/10 men• Even if not all women of working age want to work, the fact that Even if not all women of working age want to work, the fact that there is female unemployment shows that there are women who there is female unemployment shows that there are women who want to work, but are unable to find work in the regionwant to work, but are unable to find work in the region


Education & Employment LinkEducation & Employment Link Higher enrollment, completion rates and better quality Higher enrollment, completion rates and better quality

of education for girls and boys is likely to lead to of education for girls and boys is likely to lead to increased employabilityincreased employability

MENA countries have moved toward achieving gender MENA countries have moved toward achieving gender equality in primary and secondary education, BUT THE equality in primary and secondary education, BUT THE LINK TO JOBS IS MISSINGLINK TO JOBS IS MISSING

In the past decade MENA governments spent an In the past decade MENA governments spent an average of 5.3 % of GDP on education—the highest in average of 5.3 % of GDP on education—the highest in the world changing the supply, quality, and profile of the world changing the supply, quality, and profile of the labor force—BUT IT ONLY MARGINALLY the labor force—BUT IT ONLY MARGINALLY TRANSLATED INTO YOUNG WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENTTRANSLATED INTO YOUNG WOMEN’S EMPLOYMENT


Female to Male Primary Enrolment Ratio, 2000

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1

Bahr ain Dj ibouti E gypt Ir an,

Islamic

Rep. of

J or dan Kuwait Lebanon Mor occo Oman Qatar Syr ian

Ar ab

Republ ic

United

Ar ab

E mir ates

West

Bank and

Gaza

Str ipCountry

Female to Male Primary Enrollment Ratios, 2000

Female to Male Secondary Enrolment Ratio, 2000

0

1

Bahrain Djibouti Egypt Iran,

Islamic

Rep. of

J ordan Kuwait Lebanon Morocco Oman Qatar Syrian

Arab

Republic

United

Arab

Emirates

West

Bank and

Gaza

StripCountry

Female to Male Secondary Enrollment Ratios, 2000

In Egypt, educated In Egypt, educated women are more likely women are more likely to be unemployed than to be unemployed than

educated meneducated men

In Jordan, educated In Jordan, educated women, especially women, especially graduates of graduates of community community colleges face high colleges face high unemployment unemployment levelslevels


Gender Segregation Across Life CycleGender Segregation Across Life Cycle

Women obtain “suitable skills” often via shorter training and informal courses compared to men

Separation in training is followed by separation in the workplace/work opportunities creating a vicious cycle

Young women and men are concentrated in different Young women and men are concentrated in different types of work and their ‘paths’ to work are different and types of work and their ‘paths’ to work are different and so likely are the impacts upon themso likely are the impacts upon them

Women who spend time outside the labor market find out that lack of training leads to low quality jobs and low paid work that, in turn, offer little additional training


Experience with Young WomenExperience with Young Women Life skills training Life skills training

• Health and nutritionHealth and nutrition• Self esteem, confidence, conflict resolutionSelf esteem, confidence, conflict resolution• CV, interview, presentation skillsCV, interview, presentation skills

Vocational skills training in market niches Vocational skills training in market niches that are not low return and traditionally that are not low return and traditionally women sectorswomen sectors

Labour market linksLabour market links• Apprenticeship, job placement programsApprenticeship, job placement programs


Female life expectancy 100

Reducing Fertility Rate

Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education

GDP Per Capita $

Ratio of Women to Men in Non Agricultural Wage Employment

Developing regions

MENA

%Seats Held by Women in Parliament

Key Gender Equality Indicators, 2000


Public and Private Sector TrendsPublic and Private Sector Trends Public sector jobs were safeguards for women in a

number of countries in the region, but with the reform and privatization processes, public sector is no longer the main option for young women out of school

Private sector jobs are open to young women, although they come with limited or no job security or benefits. Temporary contracts are common with significant implications for decent work

The main source of employment generation has shifted to the private sector and this has adversely affected opportunities for women. Attention to the equality of opportunity and treatment in employment needs to be sustained


Employment distribution by sectorEmployment distribution by sector Young and adult women have a higher share of Young and adult women have a higher share of

agricultural employment in MENA. Most are in the agricultural employment in MENA. Most are in the unpaid family worker category of employmentunpaid family worker category of employment

Within services, women are still concentrated in sectors Within services, women are still concentrated in sectors that are traditionally associated with gender roles in that are traditionally associated with gender roles in community, social and personal servicescommunity, social and personal services

Women’s share in industry is low, but jobs in EPZs are Women’s share in industry is low, but jobs in EPZs are filled by young women (textiles, leather, electronics)filled by young women (textiles, leather, electronics)

Young women work in manufacturing, especially in Young women work in manufacturing, especially in Tunisia, Morocco and Jordan although there is a high Tunisia, Morocco and Jordan although there is a high incidence of non-regular and non-salaried activity in incidence of non-regular and non-salaried activity in this sector and a wide gap in earningsthis sector and a wide gap in earnings

In professional services, women are still in “women’s In professional services, women are still in “women’s jobs” as teaching, nursing where with good education jobs” as teaching, nursing where with good education and training continue to be an employment outlet for and training continue to be an employment outlet for young womenyoung women


Reasons for Gender Inequality Reasons for Gender Inequality & Youth Employment Trends in & Youth Employment Trends in

MENAMENA


Socio-Cultural ConstraintsSocio-Cultural Constraints Young women have more limited access to labor market relevant Young women have more limited access to labor market relevant

capabilities (skills, knowledge, self-esteem, confidence) Across the life cycle women have more limited access to productive Across the life cycle women have more limited access to productive

resources (land, capital, livestock) compared to their male resources (land, capital, livestock) compared to their male counterpartscounterparts

There is a male-bread winner bias in the labor market despite the There is a male-bread winner bias in the labor market despite the pressing economic realities in poor households which require more pressing economic realities in poor households which require more than one incomethan one income

There are continued mobility constraints on young women and women There are continued mobility constraints on young women and women in general in many communities in the region (some due to security in general in many communities in the region (some due to security concerns in countries facing conflict like Iraq and Palestine) concerns in countries facing conflict like Iraq and Palestine)

Young women face employer and lender biases and are Young women face employer and lender biases and are overrepresented among unpaid family workers, part time, low wage overrepresented among unpaid family workers, part time, low wage earners, unemployed & inactiveearners, unemployed & inactive

Early marriage and child bearing and rearing can also inhibit young Early marriage and child bearing and rearing can also inhibit young women’s integration into labor marketwomen’s integration into labor market


Market Failures Affecting Young WomenMarket Failures Affecting Young Women

Employers may be unwilling to incur the “perceived” Employers may be unwilling to incur the “perceived” transaction costs and risks in hiring young womentransaction costs and risks in hiring young women

““Perceptions” hold considering the high levels of male Perceptions” hold considering the high levels of male unemployment and expectations of male bread winner unemployment and expectations of male bread winner despite the changing economic and social realitiesdespite the changing economic and social realities

Formal credit markets often exclude women who are Formal credit markets often exclude women who are less likely than men to own land and other collateralless likely than men to own land and other collateral

Because of the uncertainty associated with lending to Because of the uncertainty associated with lending to beginners and informational asymmetries (between beginners and informational asymmetries (between older/younger workers and between women/men) older/younger workers and between women/men) formal credit markets are not responsive to young formal credit markets are not responsive to young people and especially young women people and especially young women

Being based in small towns, rural area markets makes Being based in small towns, rural area markets makes it hard to start a business or search for and travel to it hard to start a business or search for and travel to work or to expand output and sales due to poor work or to expand output and sales due to poor infrastructure, lack of information and market thinness infrastructure, lack of information and market thinness


Good PracticesGood Practices

Ensuring Gender Equality in Ensuring Gender Equality in Youth Employment in MENAYouth Employment in MENA


School to Work Transition SurveysSchool to Work Transition SurveysJORDANJORDAN

Conducted through ILO GENPROM in a number of countries Conducted through ILO GENPROM in a number of countries including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Jordan including Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Jordan

Female and male interviewees from five target groups: in-school Female and male interviewees from five target groups: in-school youth, job seekers, young employees, young self-employed and youth, job seekers, young employees, young self-employed and own-account workers & employers & managers of young people own-account workers & employers & managers of young people

Determines how well the education/training system prepares Determines how well the education/training system prepares young people for the labor market, their perceptions and young people for the labor market, their perceptions and aspirations for entering the labor market, how they actually aspirations for entering the labor market, how they actually conduct the job search, the influence of the family in choice of conduct the job search, the influence of the family in choice of occupations, whether they prefer wage or self employment, the occupations, whether they prefer wage or self employment, the barriers to and supports for entry into the labor market, attitudes barriers to and supports for entry into the labor market, attitudes of employers towards hiring young workers, how young people of employers towards hiring young workers, how young people view work, marriage and family responsibilitiesview work, marriage and family responsibilities

Gender differentials - especially why it is harder for young women Gender differentials - especially why it is harder for young women than for young men to make the transition from school to work than for young men to make the transition from school to work


IT Training: Partnership with IT Training: Partnership with Corporate SectorCorporate Sector

UNIFEM, Cisco Systems, Government of Jordan, YMCA, UNIFEM, Cisco Systems, Government of Jordan, YMCA, UNRWA and UNDP UNRWA and UNDP

Training to bridge gender gap in IT sectorTraining to bridge gender gap in IT sector Over 200 young women underwent a two-month training Over 200 young women underwent a two-month training

in IT skillsin IT skills Training designed to help female students build Training designed to help female students build

technological knowledge & improve competitiveness in technological knowledge & improve competitiveness in the labor market the labor market

A job-placement program helps students put their skills to A job-placement program helps students put their skills to use use

Tracking of graduates to evaluate the benefits of the Tracking of graduates to evaluate the benefits of the trainingtraining


Next StepsNext Steps

Gender Equality and Youth Gender Equality and Youth Employment in MENAEmployment in MENA


Life Cycle ApproachLife Cycle Approach

Youth is a challenging stage because individuals are Youth is a challenging stage because individuals are increasingly expanding their roles and responsibilities increasingly expanding their roles and responsibilities without the protections often provided other groupswithout the protections often provided other groups

Decisions and investments in youth have implications Decisions and investments in youth have implications for labor market in the later stages of life and market for labor market in the later stages of life and market relevant skills need to be a part of a life long learningrelevant skills need to be a part of a life long learning

Life long learning is important for women and men, but Life long learning is important for women and men, but women’s participation in the care economy mean that women’s participation in the care economy mean that their skills can be interrupted and therefore outdatedtheir skills can be interrupted and therefore outdated


Policy responsesPolicy responses Improving availability & quality of sex-disaggregated data on labor Improving availability & quality of sex-disaggregated data on labor

markets including women’s informal employment & gender markets including women’s informal employment & gender earnings gapsearnings gaps

Gender responsive laws and policy approaches in Gender responsive laws and policy approaches in • Job creation, finance, micro-finance, safety netsJob creation, finance, micro-finance, safety nets• Quality vocational training programsQuality vocational training programs• Infrastructure and urbanInfrastructure and urban• Rural development/agricultureRural development/agriculture• Labor codesLabor codes• Public sector budgetingPublic sector budgeting• National policy frameworks (PRSPs & Youth Employment Action Plans)National policy frameworks (PRSPs & Youth Employment Action Plans)

Investing in young women by prioritizing theirInvesting in young women by prioritizing their• Secondary educationSecondary education• Transition from education to work through labour marketTransition from education to work through labour market• Quality and labor market relevant trainingQuality and labor market relevant training• Physical safetyPhysical safety

Developing positive role models of young women’s work to Developing positive role models of young women’s work to address attitudes & percetions through media, schools, and address attitudes & percetions through media, schools, and communitiescommunities


For more information and a For more information and a copy of this presentation copy of this presentation

please contact:please contact:

Simel Esim, Ph.D.Simel Esim, Ph.D.Regional Gender AdvisorRegional Gender Advisor

ILO Regional Office—Arab StatesILO Regional Office—Arab [email protected]@ilo.org


THANK YOU!THANK YOU!

Documents

Simel Esim, Regional Gender Specialist, Arab States, ILO Gender Equality and Youth Employment: Reflections on Arab States UNDP/UNDESA Sub-Regional Workshop