Grammar Quick Guide

PohlEnglish 3 AP

Page

1

Table of ContentsPage Grammar Concept

2222-345677-889-1010-1111-121213131415-16171717-191920

ApostrophesAppositive PhrasesClausesCollective NounsColonsCommasComma Splices/Run-onsDashesDialogue PunctuationFragments‘He or She’ vs. ‘They’HyphensMisplaced ModifiersParallelism or Parallel ConstructionParticipial PhrasesPossessivesPrepositional PhrasesPronouns: “Me” or “I”?SemicolonsSubjects and PredicatesSubject-Verb Agreement (also see Collective Nouns)VerbsVerb Tense

Page

2

Apostrophes The apostrophe has four main uses:

1. To show the omission of numbers in expressions such as Christmas '98 or letters in expressions that imitate certain patterns of speech — finger lickin' good,

2. To form contractions (I'm, we've, can't, they'll),3. To form plurals of single numbers and letters (Mary brought home a report card

with two A's and two B's), and 4. To form possessives (see pages 9-10).

Appositive PhrasesAn appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples:

The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. A huge nuisance, the baby is crawling across the kitchen table. There is my cat, the fluffy thing trapped in the dryer.

ClausesA clause is a group of related words that has both a subject and a predicate.

An independent clause presents a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause (also called a subordinate clause) does not present a complete thought and cannot stand alone as a sentence. It depends on the other information in the sentence.

Example: The fairy knit herself a coat made of yak fur (independent clause), so that she can stay warm in the winter (dependent clause).

Collective Nouns (from chompchomp.com)Collective nouns: a special class, name groups [things] composed of members [usually people]. Check out the chart below:

armyaudienceboardcabinetclass

councildepartmentfacultyfamilyfirm

minoritynavypublicschoolsenate

Page

3

Use correct verbs and pronouns with collective nouns.

Each noun from the list above is a single thing. That thing, however, is made up of more than one person. You cannot have a committee, team, or family of one; you need at least two people to compose the unit.

Because people behave as both herd animals and solitary creatures, collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on context. In writing, this double status often causes agreement errors. How do you tell if a collective noun is singular or plural? What verbs and pronouns do you use with the collective noun?

Here is the key: Imagine a flock of pigeons pecking at birdseed on the ground. Suddenly, a cat races out of the bushes. What do the pigeons do? They fly off as a unit in an attempt to escape the predator, wheeling through the sky in the same direction. People often behave in the same manner, doing one thing in unison with the other members of their group. When these people are part of a collective noun, that noun becomes singular and requires singular verbs and pronouns.

Notice that all members of the collective noun are doing the same thing at the same time:

Every afternoon the baseball team follows its coach out to the hot field for practice.Team = singular; follows = a singular verb; its = a singular pronoun. All members of the team arrive at the same place at the same time.

Whenever you cannot decide if a collective noun is singular or plural, exercise your options as a writer. You have two ways that you can compose the sentence without causing an agreement error: 1) insert the word members after the collective noun [jury members, committee members, board members], or 2) use an entirely different word [players instead of team, students instead of class, soldiers instead of army]. Then you can use plural verbs and pronouns without worrying about making mistakes or sounding unnatural.

Page

4

Page

5

ColonsThe colon has more effect than the comma, less power to separate than the semicolon, and more formality than the dash.

1. A colon is used to emphasize a word, a phrase, a clause, or a sentence explaining or adding impact to the main clause.

Example: I know one thing: Unicorns are real.

The most important thing to remember about colons is that you only use them after statements that are complete sentences. Never use a colon after a sentence fragment.

Example: Mitch has two favorite hobbies: reading romance novels and listening to German Polkas in his dark basement.

To capitalize or not to capitalize? The answer is that it's a style choice, and it depends on what is following the colon. Although the most conservative grammarians say you should capitalize the first word after a colon when the colon introduces a complete sentence, there are a lot of grammarians who say it isn't necessary (from Grammargirl.com).

I know one thing: Unicorns rock my world. I know one thing: unicorns rock my world.

2. A colon is used to introduce a list.Example: There are three kinds of people in this world: the good, the bad, and the ugly.

3. A colon may introduce a quotation that supports or contributes to the preceding clause.

Example: The silence in the classroom reminded her of a line from Ferris Bueller’s Day Off: “Bueller…Bueller…Bueller?”

4. The colon also has certain functions of form: to follow the greeting of a formal letter, to separate hour from minute in a notation of time, and to separate the title of a work from its subtitle or a Bible chapter from a verse.

Examples: Dear Mayor Engen: departs at 10:48 P.M. This Boy’s Life: A Memoir

Nehemiah 11:7" (Strunk and White, The Elements of Style)

Page

6

CommasThere are a lot of comma rules to remember, but if you remember one little “secret,” you will use commas correctly almost all the time: commas occur where you would pause for a little breath if you were saying the sentence out loud.

1) Put a comma before and, but, for, or, nor, so, and yet when they connect two independent clauses (sentences that can stand alone).

Example: She hit the shot, and he cheered for her.

2) Separate three or more items in a series with a comma. Example: We want to protect cats, dogs, and horses.

3) Use commas to separate equal adjectives.Example: It was a dark, cold morning at the unicorn

farm.

4) Put a comma after an introductory word group.Example: Because I was hungry, I bought a hamburger.

Look for the following introductory words (also called subordinating conjunctions): after, although, as, as if, as long as, as though, because, if, in order that, provided that, since, so that, that, though, till, unless, until, when, where, whereas, while.

5) Set off interrupters with pairs of commas.Example: The hamburger, black and crispy, tasted gross. Example: For me, well, hockey is the coolest.

6) Set off appositive phrases with pairs of commas.

Example: Bubba, the big baby that he is, spent the night crying in a dark basement.

7) Use commas to set off contrasted elements, which usually begin with not, but, but not, though, or unlike.

Example: All the animals went to the show, but not the hippopotamus. Example: Fishing, not hunting, was Garth’s specialty.

8) Use commas with nonrestrictive phrases and clauses. Nonrestrictive phrases and clauses are those that are not essential to the basic meaning of the sentence. If the sentence has the same meaning with or without it (cover it with your finger to test), the clause or phrase is nonrestrictive. Look for which and who (but not that)

Page

7

Example: If visit Montana, which is the coolest state in the country, you’ll want to move there.

9) Direct address: Put commas around the name of a person or group DIRECTLY spoken to.

Example: I hope, Floyd, that you're not planning on wearing camouflage to the prom.

Comma Splices / Run-OnsEnd your sentences when they are finished with some sort of terminal punctuation (period, question mark, exclamation point). If you are going to merge your sentences, avoid run-ons and comma splices.

A RUN-ON SENTENCE (sometimes called a "fused sentence") has at least two parts, either one of which can stand by itself (in other words, two independent clauses), but the two parts have been smooshed together instead of being properly connected.

Example: Bears hibernate in winter they are very hungry in spring.

COMMA SPLICES are two complete sentences that are joined with only a comma.Example: Bears hibernated in winter, they are very hungry in spring.

The best way to avoid run-ons and comma splices is use one or the other of these rules.

1. Join the two independent clauses with one of the coordinating conjunctions (and, but, for, or, nor, so, yet), and use a comma before the connecting word._________________________, and _________________________.

2. When you do not have a connecting word (or when you use a connecting word other than and, but, for, or nor, so, or yet between the two independent clauses) use a semicolon (;).__________________________;_____________________________.

or__________________________; however,____________________.

Page

8

Dashes Use a dash to indicate a sudden break or change in the sentence.

Example: Near the end of the month—and this is not always true—you can spot more unicorns in the Lollipop Forest.

Use a dash to set off an introductory series from the clause (can stand alone) that explains the series.

Example: An emu, a penguin, and a chicken—these are all examples of birds that cannot fly.

Use a dash to set off parenthetical material—material that explains or clarifies a word or a phrase. This material will INTERRUPT your sentence. (You could also use commas or parentheses for the same effect.)

Example: My husband—the cutest guy on earth—is a farmer.

Use a dash to indicate interrupted speech.Example: ISABELLE 1: Mama, why are you—

MAMA: Isabelle, do as I say!

Use a dash to emphasize a word, a series, a phrase, or a clause (like you would with a colon).

Example: After years of trial and error, Ms. Pohl finally made history with her discovery—the Sasquatch.

Dialogue Punctuation (from fictionwritingabout.com)

1. Use a comma between the dialogue and the tag line (the words used to identify the speaker: "he said/she said"): "I would like to eat cake," she told him after dinner.

2. Periods and commas go inside the quotation marks; other punctuation -- semicolons, question marks, dashes, and exclamation points -- goes outside unless it directly pertains to the material within the quotes.

EXAMPLE: "I don't want any stupid cake," said my grandmother.EXAMPLE: “Where’s the cake?” asked my uncle.

Page

9

3. When a tag line interrupts a sentence, it should be set off by commas. Note that the first letter of the second half of the sentence is in lower case, as in this example from Flannery O'Connor's "Greenleaf":

"That is," Wesley said, "that neither you nor me is her boy..."

4. To signal a quotation within a quotation, use single quotes: "Have you read 'Hills like White Elephants' yet?" he asked her.

5. For interior dialogue (inside a character’s head), italics are appropriate, just be consistent.

EXAMPLE: That’s strange, Grannie usually like cake, Michael thought to himself.

6. If a quotation spills out over more than one paragraph, don't use end quotes at the close of the first paragraph. Use them only when a character is done speaking.

FragmentsA fragment is an incomplete sentence. It either lacks a subject, a verb, or both. Because it is missing one of these essential parts, it is incomplete.

List of Subordinating Conjunctions: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as though, because, if, in order that, provided that, since, so that, that, though, till, unless, until, when, where, whereas, while.

If you have a subordinating conjunction, you have a dependent clause. If all you have is a dependent clause, it cannot stand alone. Therefore, you have a fragment.

Examples:If I study hardThat the essay questions are based only on the last two chaptersWhich covers the entire book

None of the statements above can stand alone. They’re dependent on more information.

Page

10

‘He or she’ versus ‘they’ (from the Oxford Dictionary)It’s often important to use language which implicitly or explicitly includes both men and women, making no distinction between the genders. This can be tricky when it comes to pronouns. In English, a person's gender is explicit in the third person singular pronouns (i.e., he, she, his, hers, etc.).

There are no personal pronouns that can refer to someone (as opposed to something) without identifying whether that person is male or female. So, what should you do in sentences such as these?

If your child is thinking about a gap year, ? can get good advice from this website.A researcher has to be completely objective in ? findings.

In the past, people tended to use the pronouns he, his, him, or himself in situations like this:

If your child is thinking about a gap year, he can get good advice from this website.A researcher has to be completely objective in his findings.

Today, this approach is seen as outdated and sexist. There are other options which allow you to arrive at a ‘gender-neutral’ solution, as follows:

You can use the wording ‘he or she’, ‘his or her’, etc.:

If your child is thinking about a gap year, he or she can get good advice from this website.A researcher has to be completely objective in his or her findings.

This can work well, as long as you don’t have to keep repeating ‘he or she’, ‘his or her’, etc. throughout a piece of writing.

You can make the relevant noun plural, rewording the sentence as necessary:

If your children are thinking about a gap year, they can get good advice from this website.Researchers have to be completely objective in their findings.

This approach can be a good solution, but it won’t always be possible.

Page

11

You can use the plural pronouns ‘they’, ‘them’, ‘their’ etc., despite the fact that, technically, they are referring back to a singular noun:

If your child is thinking about a gap year, they can get good advice from this website.A researcher has to be completely objective in their findings.

Some people object to the use of plural pronouns in this type of situation on the grounds that it’s ungrammatical. In fact, the use of plural pronouns to refer back to a singular subject isn’t new: it represents a revival of a practice dating from the 16th century. It’s increasingly common in current English and is now widely accepted both in speech and in writing.

Hyphens (-)A hyphen is a tiny mark of punctuation that works like sticky tape: it joins two things together for the sake of making our meaning clear.

Use a hyphen with some prefixes, especially all-, co-, ex-, great-, numbers, and capital letters.

All-knowing, all-aroundCo-conspirator, co-authorEx-husband, ex-convictGreat-grandmother, great-uncle35-cent piece of candy, 40-foot treeT-shirt, PG-rated

Use a hyphen when a word would be confusing or hard to read without it.Shell-like (shelllike would have three l’s in a row)Anne recovered from the flu and re-covered her living room chair.The fried-chicken salesman was hot, greasy, and unhappy.

Use a hyphen with double last names.

Mary Scott-SimonsJim Blake-Adams

This is a hyphen-This is a dash—

This is okay as a dash--

Page

12

Use hyphens with dates.11-5-07

Use hyphens with numbers from 21 to 99.Twenty-oneThirty-six

Use a hyphen with scores.We beat our arch rivals 86-78.

Use hyphens in compound adjectives if they come before the noun they describe.The 15-year-old girlUp-to-date technologyEight-grade students

If they compound adjective comes after the noun, don’t use hyphens.

The girl was 15 years old.The technology is up to date.The students are eight graders.

Use a hyphen to mean through.Read pages 16-24 before class

tomorrow.The store is open Monday-Saturday.

Use hyphens to spell out words.She said, “My name is Kacey, K-a-c-e-y.”

Use hyphens to show faltering speech.Oh no! Y-y-you t-t-took my pl-pl-plums!

Misplaced ModifiersMisplaced modifiers are modifiers that have been placed incorrectly; therefore the meaning of the sentence is not clear. Modifiers should be placed as close as possible to the word they modify.

Page

13

Misplaced: We have an assortment of combs for physically active people with unbreakable teeth. (People with unbreakable teeth?)

Corrected: For physically active people, we have an assortment of combs with unbreakable teeth.

Dangling modifiers are modifiers that appear to modify the wrong word or a word that isn’t in the sentence.

Dangling: Trying disparately to get under the fence, Paul’s mother called him. (The phrase trying disparately to get under the fence appears to modify Paul’s mother).

Corrected: Trying disparately to get under the fence, Paul heard his mother call him.

Dangling: After standing in line for five hours, the manager announced that all the tickets had been sold. (In this sentence it appears that the manager had been standing in line for five hours).

Corrected: After I stood in line for five hours, the manager announced that all the tickets had been sold.

Parallelism or Parallel Construction

Parallelism is the expression of similar or related ideas in similar grammatical form. Once you begin a parallel pattern, you need to complete it. If you mix structures, creating incomplete or faulty parallelism, your sentences may disappoint readers' expectations and be hard to read.

Examples of Correct UsageMy dog can howl like a wolf, sing like Barry Manilow, and swim like a bowling ball. [All elements in the series are comparisons (“like a…”) to an ability.]

Examples of Incorrect UsageMy dog can howl like a wolf, sing, swimming like a bowling ball, and run like a deer. The second and the third element in the series are NOT the same structure as the first and fourth, which are similar to each other.

Page

14

Participial PhrasesParticiples describe nouns or pronouns. Present participles always end in -ing. Past participles usually end in -ed.

Example:She was quite far from the windows which were to her left, and behind her were a couple of tall bookcases, containing all the books of the factory library.

Example:Dazed and confused, my cousin sat speechless in front of the class during his presentation.

PossessivesTo form the possessive of a singular noun, add an apostrophe and an “s” even if the noun ends in “s”.

Example: That is the dog’s collar. To form the possessive of a plural noun, add an apostrophe only, except for nouns such as men and people that have irregular plurals and are treated as if they were singular when the possessives are formed. Example: The boats’ masts looked like toothpicks in the distance. Do not use an apostrophe to form the possessive of personal pronouns, except for the pronoun “one”. Example: It is really pleasant to take one's time when playing golf.

Example: That is its collar.

When two or more words, taken as a unit, show joint possession, use the possessive form with the last only. Example: Let's all ride in Mary and Carla’s boat.

Page

15

Prepositional Phrases (from dailygrammar.com)A preposition is a word that begins a prepositional phrase and shows the relationship between its object and another word in the sentence. A preposition must always have an object. A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition, ends with an object, and may have modifiers between the preposition and object of the preposition. Here is a list of common words that can be used as prepositions: about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, beyond, but (when it means except), by, concerning, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, outside, over, past, since, through, to, toward, under, until, up, upon, with, within, and without.

To decide if it’s a prepositional phrase, say the preposition followed by whom or what. If a noun or a pronoun answers the question, the word is a preposition. Example: The boy stood up and ran down the street. Up what? There is no object; therefore up is not a preposition. Down what? Street answers the question; therefore, down is a preposition. Down the street is the prepositional phrase starting with the preposition down and ending with the object street with a modifier the in between.

Remember that a prepositional phrase will never contain the subject of a sentence.

Sometimes a noun within the prepositional phrase seems the logical subject of a verb. Don't fall for that trick! You will never find a subject in a prepositional phrase . Look at this

Example:Neither of these cookbooks contains the recipe for Manhattan-style squid eyeball stew.Cookbooks do indeed contain recipes. In this sentence, however, cookbooks is part of the prepositional phrase of these cookbooks. Neither—whatever a neither is—is the subject for the verb contains.

Page

16

Pronouns: “Me” or “I”?Errors in pronoun case usually occur when the subject or object is compound (more than one person) and a writer confuses the subject (actor) and object (recipient of the action) forms of the pronouns.

We know what subjects are, and objects are those words that come at the end of prepositional phrases (among other things). You probably already know the differences, but just in case, here's a list of the forms:

Subject: I, you, he/she/it, we, they Object: me, you, him/her/it, us, them

RULE #1: The only thing you need to know is that these forms can't be switched around. If the word is a subject, it must be a subject form; if it's an object . . . well, you get the idea.

Consider the following: o Peggy and me barked at the garbage truck.o Her and me fought over the bone.

Some of you are probably thinking, "What's wrong with these?" In spoken English, you'll hear things like this every day. But in written English, you need to make sure your forms aren't mixed up. The correct versions are "Peggy and I" and "She and I," since the words are the subject of the sentence. Nothing in the object list can be a subject--ever! You wouldn't say, "Me barked" or "me fought"--unless you were trying out for a Tarzan movie.

The “Cover Up” TrickTo test for the correct case of a pronoun when there’s a compound construction E.g. (name) and I/me, drop the (name) and, then ask yourself, is it I or me? In other words, test the pronoun by itself with the verb.

Example: [Kyle and] ______________ love M & M’s. (Is it “I love M & M’s” or “Me love M & M’s”?

When dealing with objects of prepositions (see page 10 for prepositions), you can't use a subject form in a prepositional phrase.

Page

17

o Big Dog fetched the paper for her and I.o Peggy ran after John and she.

"For I"? "After she"? These can't be right, since both are in the subject list; but, they're used as objects of the preposition. The correct versions are "for me" and "after her."

But watch out for "just between you and I." That phrase gets a lot of use--even though "I" can't be an object. It's "just between you and me"!

RULE #2: When using I and me with another person, always put the other person’s name first.

Bobby and I broke the lamp. (not I and Bobby broke the lamp) Rico and I walked home. (not I and Rico walked home)

RULE #3: With "to be" verbs (is, am, are, was, were, be, been)Now we get to the stuff that will sound odd to you. Any time a pronoun comes after one of these verbs, the subject form is required.

o It is I.o It was they.o It is he.

RULE #4: With "than" or "as"Another common pronoun mistake happens in sentences where you use "than" or "as" to compare people or things:

o Peggy is smaller than I.o The dog down the street is meaner than she.o Dogs are as smart as they.

You want to use "me," "her," and "them," don't you? You could, but that wouldn't be right. The subject form of the pronoun always comes after "than" or "as." Why? There's an understood verb in the construction.

o Peggy is smaller than I (am).o The dog down the street is meaner than she (is).o Dogs are as smart as they (are).

Semicolons

A semicolon creates a brief reading pause that can dramatically highlight a close relationship or a contrast. You may use semicolons in the following ways:

1. If you have two independent clauses meaning they could stand alone as their own

Page

18

sentences, it’s ok to use a semicolon. Note, the sentences must directly relate. The semicolon is used to strengthen their relationship.

Example: The demand for paper is at an all-time high; businesses alone consume millions of tons each year.

2. Use a semicolon with words such as however and on the other hand. Example: I like school; however, I hate waking up in the morning.

3. As a super-comma. Use a semicolon with a complex series. Example: I interviewed Gary Stein, the History teacher; Karen Umbaugh, the math teacher; and Kim Rott, the English teacher.

Subjects & PredicatesA complete sentence requires a subject, which is usually a noun or pronoun, and a predicate, which is usually a verb.

EXAMPLE: The boy runs the race. (Boy is the subject; runs is the verb)EXAMPLE: I am angry. (I is the subject; am is a “be” verb, also a linking verb)

Subject-Verb AgreementVerbs must agree with their subjects in number. A singular subject (like book or train) MUST have a singular verb (opens, crashes), and the same is true of plurals.

SINGULAR: My brother is a nutritionist. PLURAL: My sisters are mathematicians.

Subject – Verb Agreement Breakdown:

NumberNumber indicates whether the noun is singular or plural.

A singular noun refers to one person, place, thing, or idea.

Page

19

frog actor stadium truth child person

A plural noun refers to more than one person, place, thing, or ideafrogs actors stadiums truths children people

Getting Sentence Parts to AgreeA verb must agree in number (singular or plural) with its subject.

The student was proud of her quarter grades. (The subject student and the verb was are singular; they agree in number.

Delayed SubjectsDelayed subjects occur when the verb comes before the subject in a sentence. In these inverted sentences, the delayed subject must agree with the verb.

There are many students with lice in our schools.There is present among many young people today a desire to succeed.(Students and desire are the true subjects of these sentences, not there).

Compound Subjects

Compound subjects connect with and usually require a plural verb.Bill and Ted are some of the smartest people alive.

NOTE: When one of the subjects joined by or or nor is singular and one is plural, the verb must agree with the subject nearer the verb.

Neither Yoshi nor his friends are going to the dance tonight. (The plural subject friends is nearer the verb, so the plural verb is correct.)

Singular SubjectsSingular subjects joined by or or nor take a singular verb.

Neither Bev nor Kendra is playing in the roller derby tournament.

Collective NounsCollective nouns (herd, pod, team, congress, species, crowd, committee, etc.) take a singular verb when they refer to a group as a unit; collective nouns take a plural verb when they refer to the individuals within the group.

Page

20

The favored team is losing and the crowd is getting ugly. (Both team and crowd are considered units in this sentence, requiring the singular verb is.)

The pair were finally reunited after 20 years apart.(Here pair refers to two individuals, so the plural verb were is required.)

Indefinite PronounsSome indefinite pronouns are singular: each, either, neither, one, everybody, another, anybody, everyone, nobody, everything, somebody, and someone. They require a singular verb.

Everybody is invited to the hockey game tonight.

Some indefinite pronouns are plural: both, few, many, and several.Several like chocolate cake. Many ask for ice cream, too.

Some indefinite pronouns can be either singular or plural: all, any, most, none, and some. These pronouns are singular if the number of the noun in the prepositional phrase is singular; they are plural if the noun is plural.

Most of the food complaints are coming from the seniors.Most of the tabletop is sticky with melted ice cream.

VerbsVerbs convey action (run, walk, think) or a state of being (am, were, etc.).

Action Verbs: run, hit, swim, grow, play, etc.Be Verbs: (I) am, (you) are, (he/she/it) is, (I) was, (you/they) were, (I/we/they) have been, (I/we/they) had been

Page

21

Verb TenseIn English, there six basic tenses you have to choose from: present, past, future, present perfect, past perfect, and future perfect. For the most part, when you are writing, you should stick to one tense and not flip-flop between them.

Present: happening right now. (I eat the pizza.)

Past: happened in the past and is finished. (I ate the pizza.)

Future: will happen in the future. (I will eat the pizza.)

Perfect tense is a tense of verbs used in describing action that has been completed.

Present perfect: indicates either that an action was completed at some point in the past or that the action extends to the present.

(I have eaten pizza many times.)

Past perfect: Action is completed with respect to the past. It’s a time before now and does not extend to the present.

(I had eaten pizza just before you arrived.)

Future perfect: Action will be completed with respect to the future.(I will have eaten pizza at least a million times by the year 2020.)

BE CONSISTENT WITH TENSESWeak: I got home late, and Mom fusses at me for not calling to let her know where I will be.

I got home = past tenseMom fusses = present tenseWhere I will be = future tense

Better: I got home late, and Mom fussed at me for not calling to let her know where I had been.

I got home = past tenseMom fussed = past tenseWhere I had been = past perfect tense