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EducationalTechnoNorthBuonaVistingapore1386751SFirstEdition

ICT:Theory,PracticeandAssessmentSelf‐DirectedLearningwith

SBN:978‐981‐08‐8300‐3I

ublishedinSingaporePAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,recordingorotherwise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightowner.

Preface

This monograph about Self‐Directed Learning (SDL) is written with the

Singaporeeducationalcontextinmind,particularlywithinthecontextofformal

schooling. It also explores the use of information and communication

technologies (ICT) when promoting SDL in different learning scenarios. As

former teachers in Singapore, we are mindful of the teacher’s needs and

responsibilities.Hence,themainaudienceofthisbookisteachersfromprimary

schoolstojuniorcolleges.Aseducatorsinourdifferentcapacities,wehopethat

teachers inSingaporehaveabetter ideaofwhat itmeans topromoteSDLasa

21stcenturyskill inschools.Our intent istousethisbookasacatalysttomore

fruitfulconversationsonpromotingSDLamongourlearnersinSingapore.

 

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CONTENTS

Preface 1

TableofContents 2

ListofTables 3

ListofFigures 4

Introduction 5

Chapter1:Self‐DirectedLearning–ANaturalProcessofLearning 8

Chapter2:PrinciplesforDesigningSDL 19

Chapter3:WorkedexamplesofSDL 28

Chapter4:AssessmentandSDL 44

Concludingthoughts 59

References

60

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LISTofTABLES

Table1 Possiblebehavioural indicatorsof thesalientaspectsof

SDL

16

Table2 Students’self‐assessmentofSDLbehaviours 48

Table3 Anexampleofanassessmentrubricforascienceproject 50

Table4 Assessingstudents’SDLbehaviours 54

Table5 Teachers’self‐assessmentofscaffoldingforSDL 56

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LISTofFIGURES

Figure1 SDLspectrumandstudent’sreadiness 20

Figure2 DesignprinciplesforSDL 21

Figure3 Keyprocessesofalearningportfolio 53

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Introduction

The world that we live in today is a knowledge society. According to United

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Bindé, 2005),

otherwiseknownasUNESCO,aknowledgesocietyvaluescreationandsharingof

newknowledge,sothatthenewknowledgecanbeappliedforthewell‐beingof

itspeopleandsolutions toglobalproblemssuchaspovertyandenvironmental

damage. The health and wealth of a nation are now dependent on what is

commonlyknownasknowledgeworkers,thatis,workerswhoareable,flexible,

creative, confident, good teamplayersandareable to solvenewproblems; the

mostefficientproductionworkerswhocanonlyfollowstandardproceduresdo

notfitthebillintoday’sworld.

Toputitdifferently,thesocialandculturalcharacteristicsofaknowledgesociety

require citizens to be highly adaptive. Our societies today are fast‐changing,

multi‐cultural,multi‐racial andmulti‐religious,which can be attributed to high

mobilityandconnectivityamongstpeople.Inaddition,therapiddevelopmentin

social media such as Facebook and blogs helps to promote social interactions

amongst people, breaking the boundaries of time and space. As a result,many

modern societies are becoming global villages. Constantly learning about the

diverse cultures, beliefs, languages, and customs of the people we meet is

essential. Interactive and social media are also empowering people towards

self‐actualisationthatischaracterisedbygreaterautonomyandlifelonglearning.

To develop our students as confident citizens in today’s knowledge society

means that access to education, the capacity to learn, a disposition for lifelong

learning, competencies in communication and collaboration in knowledge

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creation activities are becoming increasingly important for participation in a

sociallyandculturallydiverseworld.

Itcanbearguedthat thedemandsofglobalisationnecessitate theneed forour

studentstobecomemoreconscious,controlled, independentandactive intheir

learning.Thiswayoflearningenablesourstudentstoadapttotheever‐changing

situations in our work lives, personal lives and social lives in the knowledge

society.Itisthereforenolongersufficienttohelpourstudentsachieveonlythe

learningobjectivesspecifiedinthenationalsyllabi.Rather,learningneedstobe

broadenedtodevelopstudents’competenciesinlearninghowtolearn;thismay

include the ability to identify,manage andmobilise resources for learning and

theabilitytomonitortheirownprogressinlearning.Weneedtofosteramongst

ourstudentsanacutesenseofinquirysothattheyareintrinsicallymotivatedto

understandthingssurroundingthem.Inthisway,wewilldeveloplearnerswho

learn actively while they are studying in a formal institution, and seize every

opportunitytoengagethemselvesinlifelonglearning.

Needlesstosay,technologyisindispensibleinourglobalisedworld.Developing

students’ competencies in using information and communication technologies

(ICT) is vital to their participation in the knowledge society. Many education

departmentsorministries inmoredevelopedcountrieshavechartedroadmaps

that aim to develop ICT skills that prepare students with the necessary skills,

knowledgeanddispositionstobecomeconfidentcitizensintheglobalisedworld

(Plomp, Anderson, Law, & Quale, 2009). Countries like Finland, Hong Kong,

Singapore, theUnitedKingdom,and theUnitedStateshavebeen implementing

nation‐widepoliciesontheuseofICTineducation;infact,manyofthemareinto

their second or third nation‐wide ICTmaster plans. This concern is shared by

Singapore,whichanchorsitsICTmasterplansinthephilosophythat“education

should continually anticipate the future needs of society and work towards

fulfillingtheseneeds”(MinistryofEducation,2002,p.1).InthecurrentthirdICT

masterplaninSingapore,itisstatedthattheEducationMinistryaimstodevelop

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each of our Singapore students into “a self‐directed learner who takes

responsibilityforhisownlearning,whoquestions,reflectsandperseveresinthe

pursuitoflearning”throughtheuseofICT(MinistryofEducation,2009,p.1).

Bearinginmindthedemandsofglobalisationintheknowledgesocietyandwith

the aim to support the Singapore Education Ministry’s goal of developing

self‐directedlearnersthroughtheuseofICT,wepurporttounpackthenotionof

self‐directed learning (SDL) that is culturally appropriate for our Singapore

context.Inchapter1,wefirstpresentanoverviewofthedifferingnotionsofSDL

in literature from various disciplines and examine the processes that are

commonlyentailedinthiswayoflearning.Wethenmoveontochapter2where

weaimtopresenttheextentSDLcantakeplaceineducationalscenariosthatare

familiar to our local teachers. In the same chapter, we also make explicit the

principlesthatarenecessaryconsiderations forclassroomteacherswho intend

to design SDL in their instructional approaches. In chapter 3, we succinctly

present examples to illuminate our ideas of how SDL can be actualised in our

Singapore context. In this chapter,we also emphasise the affordances of some

technological tools that can possibly support SDL. Through the examples, we

hopethatteacherscanenvisionhowtheycansupportSDLastheyimplementthe

third ICT Masterplan in their teaching and learning. We move on to discuss

assessmentissuespertainingtoSDLinchapter4.Weexaminewaysofassessing

SDL with examples of rubrics that teachers will appreciate when considering

ways of developing students’ capacity in self‐assessment and guiding students

when they self‐direct their learning. Chapter 5 summarises our concluding

thoughtsonfosteringSDLinthecontextofourformalschoolinginSingapore.

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1 Self‐DirectedLearning(SDL)–

ANaturalProcessofLearning

Introduction

Inourintroduction,westresstheurgencyinlookingbeyondimmediatelearning

goalsinschoolstoprepareourstudentstothriveinaknowledgesocietythatis

globalisedanddiversesociallyandculturally. Ithasbeenwidelyacknowledged

thatthepurposeofeducationisnolongersimplyproducingmanpowertofillthe

existingjobvacancies,butanticipatingtheneedsoffutureandpreparingforjobs

thatareyettobecreatedintheneweconomy(Koh&Lee,2008).Inthischapter,

we explore the differing notions of SDL and identify a feasible notion that is

relevanttoSingapore.WecontendthatSDLisacriticallifeskillfortoday’syoung

people. It enables a person to be highly adaptive to new situations and

environments,togatherresourcesandlearnquicklysoastosolvenewproblems

orhandlenewjobsorsituationstheyencounter.

SDL is a process that occurs naturally for everyone (Gibbons, 2002). Take the

studyconductedbyMdNorandSaeednia(2009)asanexample.Theyarguethat

childrenasyoungasnineyearsofagearecapableofself‐directingtheirlearning.

Intheirstudy,theyreportedthatthechildrenwereabletodemonstratediffering

extents of self‐discipline, curiosity, independence, persistence, goal orientation,

responsibility,andenjoyment in their learning.Drawingonourdaily lives, it is

common to observe someof these traits in young children. Children canbe so

curiousintheirworldthatitisnotsurprisingtoseehowtheyfindwaystolearn

somethingnewtothem,beitafallenleafonaroadorarubberdoorwedge;they

willusealltheirsensestoexplorethenewobject.Takethefollowingvignettefor

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anexample.Itillustrateshowaone‐year‐oldbabylearnttouseastrawtodrink

waterfromacup.

Vignette:SDLisanaturalprocessoflearningdevelopedfromayoungage

Gracejustturnedone.Hermotherboughtheracutelittlebabycupwhichcamewith

astrawthatwasattachedtothelid.Priortothis,shehadbeendrinkingfrommilk

bottleswithsiliconeteats.Shewascuriousaboutthecup;sheshookitandchuckled

atthenoisethewatermade.At first,sheusedthesamemethodofdrinking froma

milkbottle‐bitingthestraw,treatingitlikeateatandtiltingthecupuptodrinkthe

water.Failing todrink thewater, sheplayedwith it likea toy.Oneday,Grace sat

next to a girlwho used a similar cup to drink somewater. She observed the girl

intensively forawhile.Shemusthaverealizedthatshecoulddrinkwater fromthe

cup,butnotinthesamewayasdrinkingitfromamilkbottle.Laterthatdaywhen

shewasathome,shewasobservedsuckingthestrawfromhercupinthesameway

astheoldergirlsheobserved.Ittookherafewattemptsbeforeshegotitright.She

wassothrilledthatshedrankupallthewaterinthecup.

Thepointwearemakinghereisthis:Welearnnotjustinschoolsbutalsoinour

everyday lives and our learning endeavours develop naturally from the

experience that we draw on. Amongst young people and adults, SDL is also

prevalent.Take for an example, after buying anynew technological gadget,we

learnhowtousethegadgetanditsapplicationsinmultipleways.Somepreferto

learnbyexploringtheapplicationsthroughtrialanderrorswhileothersprefer

toreadthemanualorsearchfortipsontheYouTubeandotherwebsites.Other

examples of SDL in our everyday lives that are familiar tomany of us include

fillinginaweb‐basedtaxreturnform,drivingtoanewshoppingmall,knowing

thebestspottoparkatthenewshoppingmall,orlearninghowtooperateanew

camera.

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If SDL is intuitive and natural as somehave argued (Gibbons, 2002),why is it

worthy to study it as a special field of work on its own? What can a deeper

understanding of SDL offer teachers who are interested in improving their

practices in the context of formal schooling? We begin addressing these

questionsbyfirstreviewingthehistoricaldevelopmentofSDLthathasitsroots

inadulteducation.

HistoricalDevelopmentofSDL

Itwasintheearly20thcenturythatSDLwassystematicallystudied,partlydue

tothedevelopmentinthefieldofadultlearning.Adulteducationwasrecognised

asaprofessionalfieldofpracticeinthe1920s.Priortothis,muchoftheresearch

on adult learning in this period was modelled after how children learnt. The

researchersandpractitioners feltaneed todifferentiate thewayschildrenand

adultslearnt.Thisquestfordifferentiationthusgaverisetothedevelopmentof

two theories (Merriam, 2001) ‐ andragogy andSDL ‐whichwe shall elaborate

below.

Theories of adult learning as a distinctive field has been widely developed in

EuropetoidentifyeducationalneedsforadultsbeforeMalcolmKnowles(1980)

popularisedtheterm,andragogy,intheUnitedStatesinthe1960s.Accordingto

Knowles(1980),andragogyis“theartandscienceofhelpingadultslearn”(p.43)

anditisdistinctivefrompre‐adultschooling.AccordingtoMerriam,MottandLee

(1996), there are some salient assumptions about the learner pertaining to

andragogy,namely,thelearner

isaccountableforhisorherlearning

hasaccumulatedvastexperiencesthatprovidethefoundationforlearning

has learningneedsthatarerelatedtosocialchangesandthe learningneeds

areproblem‐centredandcreateopportunitiesforimmediateapplication

engagesinlearningthatisinternallymotivated

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Laterinthe20thcentury,researchersbegantoquestionwhetherandragogy,as

described by Knowles (1980), was truly unique to the adult learners. For

example,Hanson(1996)arguedthatthecharacteristicsofanadultlearnerwere

also found amongst children. Like adults, children could possess intrinsic

motivationtolearn.Iftheproblemwasofinteresttothechild,heorshewould

makeattemptstoaddresstheneedforknowledgeinordertosolvetheproblem.

In fact, incertainsituations,children’sexperienceswerericher thanadultsand

these experiences provided the relevant foundation to their learning (Hanson,

1996).This thenalertsustothe fact that learningshouldnotonly focusonthe

maturity of the learner but also on the situation inwhich learning occurs. For

example, some adult learners may require their teachers to structure their

learningwhilesomechildrenfarebetteriftheyaregivenopportunitiestodirect

theirlearning.WhatthesestudiespointtoistheargumentthatSDLseemstobe

dependentonthereadinessofalearner,thecontentandthecontextoflearning,

ratherthanontheageofthelearner.

ParalleltothedevelopmentofandragogyintheEuropeancontinentsinthe20th

century, SDL emerged in the United States as a formal field of study to help

comprehend how adults learnt. Tough (1967,1971) conducted the pioneering

workonSDLandfoundthattypicallyanadultspentaround500hoursayearon

intentional learning projects outside formal education. Since then, researchers

have focused on the instructional design for adult learners by analysing the

learner, identifying relevant resources, selecting instructional formats and

evaluatinglearningoutcomes.

Starting fromthe1980s,researchershavebegunto focusmoreonthe learning

processes,namelythelearnercharacteristics,thelearningcontextandthenature

of learning itself. A well‐known example is Grow’s (1991, 1994) Staged

Self‐DirectedLearningmodel(SSDL).Thematrixpresentedinthismodelenables

learners to identify their stageof readiness forSDL.The teachers thenprovide

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theappropriatescaffoldsandlearningguidancebasedonthelearner’sneedsto

helpthemtolearneffectively.

SDLasa21stCenturySkill

Interestingly, aswe crossed into the newmillennium, a number of reports on

K‐12education– suchas “enGauge®21stCenturySkills: Literacy in theDigital

Age” (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 2003) and “Results that

matter:21stCenturyskillsandhighschoolreform”(Partnershipfor21stCentury

Skills,2006)–begantoquestiontheadequacyofschooleducationinpreparing

students for new challenges in the twenty‐first century,which culminated into

recommendationsfor21stCenturyskillsamongstourstudents.SDLislistedasa

keycomponentofthe21stCenturyskills.SDLisalsointricatelylinkedtolifelong

learning,whichhasbeenlistedasademandformodernsocietybyinternational

organizations such as UNESCO and OECD. Concomitantly, there is increased

researchactivityonself‐directionamongstK‐12students.Inshort,self‐direction

isnowrecognisedasanimportant21stCenturyskillforourlearners.

Amongst thesediverseperspectivesof SDL,we find thedefinitionprofferedby

Gibbons(2002)mostusefulforourformaleducationinSingapore.Accordingto

Gibbons (2002), SDL is “any increase in knowledge, skill, accomplishment, or

personaldevelopment thatan individualselectsandbringsaboutbyhisorher

owneffortsusinganymethodinanycircumstancesatanytime”(p.2).Gibbons’

(2002) notion of SDL stresses the importance of developing ownership of

learningasitwillmotivatealearnertopursuealearninggoalandpersistinthe

learning process. Based on his perspective, SDL involves initiating personally

challenging activities and developing personal knowledge and skills to pursue

the challenges successfully. This notion of SDL resonates with what our

SingaporeEducationMinistryaimstoachievethroughthethirdICTmasterplan.

Specifically,wethinkitleadstothreeimportantaspectsentailedinself‐directed

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learning:(a)ownershipoflearning;(b)self‐managementandself‐monitoring;as

wellas(c)extensionoflearning.

Ownershipoflearning

The learner’s characteristics or personal attributes are important to SDL,

particularly possessing personal responsibility in learning. Brockett and

Hiemstra (1991) argue that personal responsibility is the “cornerstone of

self‐direction in learning” (p.27). Learnerswho takepersonal responsibility in

learning have ownership of their learning, set learning goals, and accept the

consequences of their thoughts and actions. Candy (1991) suggests that

developingpersonalresponsibility inSDLcantakeplacewithinan institutional

settingsuchasaschool; learnersarecapableofdevelopingpersonalautonomy

orcertainamountofcontrolinmakingdecisionsabouttheirownlearning.

Developingasenseofownershipoflearningiscloselyrelatedtothemotivation

to learn. According to Garrison (1997), there is a difference between entering

motivation and task motivation. Entering motivation refers to how much the

learner is attracted and committed to the learning goal. This is affected by

various factors, forexample,whether the learninggoalswillmeet the learners’

needs, whether they perceive the goals as achievable, and how they perceive

their own self‐efficacy in relation to the goals. Providing opportunities and

control for learners to set their learning goals can enhance their entering

motivation.Whileenteringmotivationaffectsalearner’schoiceoflearninggoals,

taskmotivationaffectsthelearner’ssustainingefforttowardsthelearninggoal.It

isaffectedbyextrinsicrewardsandmoreimportantly,theintrinsicmotivationto

work on a task. Thus, it is important to provide opportunities for learner’s

control in managing and monitoring their learning, and help develop their

capacityinthisaspect.

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Learner’s motivation is jointly shaped by personal attributes and external

contextual factors surrounding the learners. For example, a learner who

experiences supportive learning environment that leads to their success in the

past is likely to expect similar success in future, andwill have higher entering

motivationtowardssimilarlearninggoals.Thisinteractionbetweeninternaland

external factors is even more evident in the management and monitoring of

learningprocess.

Self‐managementandself‐monitoring

BrockettandHiemstra(1991)viewSDLasaninstructionalprocessofassessing

learners’needs, identifying learningresources, implementing learningactivities

andevaluatinglearningoutcomes.Itfocusesonteaching‐learningtransactionin

an institutional setting that is almost akin to individualised instruction. It

involves negotiation between the learners and the teacher about the learning

goals, methods of learning, use of resources, and assessment of outcomes.

Candy (1991) and Garrison (1997) use the term self‐management to describe

this aspect of behavioural task control relating to management of learning

activities. Inaddition,theyproposeaninternalcognitivedimensionthatrelates

tolearner’sthinkingandmonitoringoflearning,whichistermedself‐monitoring

by Garrison. It is important to note that self‐management is characterised by

managementof external tasksand resources,whereas self‐monitoring involves

internalprocessofthinking,reflection,andmakingimprovementonthelearning

process.

Self‐monitoringfocusesonbothcognitiveandmetacognitiveaspectsoflearning,

which are internal to the learners. Cognitive processes (e.g., thinking, making

meaning of the information, and integrating new knowledge into existing

knowledge structure) are necessary in all learning processes. Metacognition

referstothinkingaboutthinkingorlearningtolearn,whichisrelatedtolearner’s

ability to reflect on their learning. This aspect of SDL is close to self‐regulated

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learning (Bandura, 1986; Zimmerman, 1989). For example, Bandura (1986)

suggests regulating one’s learning by self‐observing, self‐judging and

self‐reactingtothelearningtasksandperformance.Eventhoughself‐monitoring

involvesinternalcognitiveprocesses,externalfactorssuchasfeedbackfromthe

teacherorotherscaninfluencealearner’sreflection.

Extensionoflearning

While Brockett and Hiemstra (1991) focus on SDL in institutional setting and

acknowledgethe influenceofexternalcontextual factors(e.g. thestructuringof

learningactivities andavailabilityof resources) in this learningprocess,Candy

(1991) extends the idea of SDL from an instructional setting to an informal,

non‐institutional, everyday setting, which he called the autodidactic domain.

Autodidaxyliterallymeansself‐teaching,wherealearnerhastotalcontrolabout

the choiceofwhat to learn,where to learn, how to learn, andhow to evaluate

learning. An example is to learn about iPhone applications by reading the

manual or searching for online instructions, which we described in our

introductionofthismonograph.

BehaviouralIndicatorsforSDL

ItisimportantforteacherstorecognisewhatSDLlookslikeinorderforteachers

toencourageSDLamongsttheirstudents.Thetheoreticalideasontheownership

oflearning,self‐managementandself‐monitoringandextensionsoflearningare

more useful when they are translated into possible observable indicators for

classroom uses, even though we acknowledge that SDL cannot be naively

narroweddowntoalaundrylist.Withtheuseofbehaviouralindicators,teachers

canmonitorwhether their students are engaged in SDL and thismay serve as

usefulinformationwhenplanninginstructionalstrategies.Itisimportanttonote

that behavioural indicators are never exhaustive and they are not capable of

capturing the internal (meta)cognitive processes of the learners. To probe

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deeper into students’ thinking, teachershave to relyonothermethods suchas

think‐aloud protocols or reflection logs. Table 1 below shows some possible

behaviouralindicatorsofthethreesalientaspectsofSDL.

Table1:PossiblebehaviouralindicatorsofthesalientaspectsofSDL

SalientaspectsofSDL Somepossiblebehaviouralindicators

Ownershipoflearning

Studentsidentify,determineandarticulatetheirownlearninggoals

Studentsidentifylearningtaskstoachievethegoals

Studentscharttheirlearningprocesses

Studentschallenge themselvesandset thestandardsfortheachievementoftheirlearninggoals

Managementandmonitoringofownlearning

Students formulate questions and generate relevantinquiries

Students explore a range of possibilities and makesounddecisions

Studentsself‐planandself‐managetheirtime

Students critically reflect on their learning andinitiategatheringoffeedbackfromteachersandpeerstoachievetheirlearninggoal

Extensionofownlearning

Studentsapplywhattheyhavelearnttonewcontexts

Students utilise the skills that theyhave acquired tolearnbeyondthecurriculumcontents

Inshort, thesebehavioural indicatorspoint tostudents’maximumcontrolover

their own learning experience. As they chart their own learning, skills are

inevitablydevelopedastheyrisetomeetthechallengestheysetforthemselves.

Needlesstosay,theextentsofsuchbehavioursdifferaccordingtotheextentsof

participationinSDL.

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AdditionalNotesaboutSDL

SDLmayappearantitheticaltocollaborativelearninganditseemsparadoxicalto

relatethetwo.However, it isevidentthatevenwhen learnersexercise internal

metacognitiveprocess,externalfactorsliketeacher’sandpeers’feedbackcanbe

used as a resource for the reflective self‐regulating process. In a collaborative

learningsetting, learner‐learner interactionprovidesopportunities for learners

tosubjecttheirviewtopublicscrutinyandquery,andtheyengageinprocesses

of negotiation or debate, and acquire deeper understanding of the topic being

studied.

Infact,theprinciplesofcollaborativelearning(Johnson&Johnson,2000)include

bothpositiveinterdependenceamongstthegroupmembers,andalsoindividual

accountabilityandresponsibility toachieve thegroupgoals.Agoodexample is

HoraceMannMagnetMiddleSchool inArkansas in theUnitedStates thatused

environmentalandspatialtechnologiestoengagetheirstudentsinSDLthatnot

onlydevelopedthesestudentscollaborativeandother21stcenturyskillsintheir

servicelearningprojects(eduTopia,2007).

While the ultimate goal of SDL is autodidaxy (self‐teaching), teachers play the

critical role of motivating students to initiate learning challenges and helping

themtodeveloptheircompetencyinmanagingandmonitoringtheirlearning.To

fosterSDL,itmaynotbeappropriatetosetahighlystructuredlearningtaskand

askstudentstofaithfullyexecutethetask.Conversely,settingatopicforstudents

to conduct their independent research or to do a project work may not be

appropriate for students who are not ready. On one hand, when there is too

muchcontrol,itwilltakemuchefforttodevelopsenseofownershipoflearning.

Ontheotherhand,thestudentsmaynotbereadyforindependentlearning.They

may resort to various coping mechanisms to complete the assignment rather

thanengaging inSDL. In the formativeyearsofeducation,designing forSDL is

like flying a kite. The teacher needs to leverage thewind speed to fly the kite

18  

high, yet maintain just sufficient pull and tug to steer the kite in the right

direction.Student’sreadinessisanimportantfactortoconsider.Inthenextfew

chapters, we will discuss roles of teachers in fostering SDL amongst their

students.

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2 PrinciplesforDesigningSDL

SDLasaSpectrum

In Chapter 1, we pointed out that in today’s globalised world, SDL is widely

recognisedasanessential21stcenturyskill. Wealsodebunkedthemyththat

SDLcanonlytakeplaceamongsttheadults.Italsodoesnotnecessarilyhaveto

takeplace in formal educational institutions. For instance, literature in literacy

researchincreasinglyhasprovidedethnographicaccountsofhowyoungpeople

have been participating in SDL in technology‐mediated environments outside

schools (Ito, et al., 2008;Sefton‐Green,2004). In this chapter,we stresson the

importance of teachers’ capability of providing opportunities for SDL to be

fostered amongst their students, especially in the context of formal schooling.

WithrelevancetoSingaporecontext,theparamountquestiontoaskisthis:How

can the principles of SDL be implemented in Singapore classrooms when the

skillsandknowledgetobelearntarehighlystructuredinthenationalcurricula?

Gibbons(2002)believesthatSDLtakeplaceasaspectrum.AccordingtoGibbons

(2002),therearevariousphasesinSDLandthesephasesstartasalowdegreeof

self‐directiontothehighestdegreeofSDL:

1. Incidentalself‐directedlearning:TheoccasionalintroductionofSDLactivities

intocoursesorprogramsthatareotherwiseteacher‐directed.

2. Teaching students to think independently: Courses or programs that

emphasise the personal pursuit of meaning through exploration, inquiry,

problemsolvingandcreativeactivity.

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3. Self‐managed learning: Courses or programs presented through learning

guidesthatstudentscompleteindependently.

4. Self‐plannedlearning:Coursesorprogramsinwhichstudentspursuecourse

outcomesthroughactivitiestheydesignthemselves.

5. Self‐directed learning: Courses or programs in which students choose the

outcomes,designtheirownactivitiesandpursuethemintheirownway.

Nonetheless, we do not think that these phases necessarily take place in a

hierarchicalandneatorderinpractice.Figure1summarisesGibbon’sspectrum

thatismatchedwiththethreeaspectsofSDLdiscussedinChapter1.

PhasesofSDL(Gibbons,2002)

Student’sreadiness

Student’sSDLcharacteristics

Ownership MonitoringandManagement

Extensionoflearning

Self‐directedlearning

High Highownership,identifyandcommitto

learninggoals

Skilfulinmanagingandmonitoringownprogressoflearning

Extendlearningbeyondschool’scurriculum

Self‐plannedlearningSelf‐managedlearningTeachingstudentstothinkindependently Incidentalself‐directedlearning

Low

Lowownership,dependentonteachersto

directlearning

Unabletomanageandmonitorlearning

Learningislimitedtoresourcesprovidedinclassrooms

Figure1:SDLspectrumandstudent’sreadiness

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WhereDoesaTeacherBegin?

BeforeateacherconsidersthechangesneededinorderforSDLtotakeplacein

hisorherclassroom, the first thingheorshehas todo is tomakeaconscious

decision that he or she indeed wants SDL for his or her students. Once the

teacherhasmadeupthatdecision,itisadvisablefortheteachertoaskhimselfor

herselfthefollowingquestions:

WhichphaseofSDLamIreadytoimplement?

WhichphaseofSDLaremystudentsreadyfor?

ThefollowingaresomeassumptionsmadebeforeimplementingSDL:

1. Studentsarecapableofbeingself‐directedlearners.

2. SDLisbothanoutcomeandaprocess.

3. TechnologybyitselfdoesnotpromoteSDL;ratheritsupportsorenhancesthe

learningprocess.

Figure2:DesignprinciplesforSDL

Which phase ofSDLissuitable?

Puttingthelessontogether

Incidentalself‐directedlearning

Teachingstudentstothinkindependently

Self‐managedlearning

Self‐plannedlearning

Self‐directedlearning

Decidedbyteacher

Articulatedbystudents

Learningoutcomes

Low degree of self direction

High degree of self direction

Instructionalstrategies

Resourceselection

Technologyintegrationtoenhancestudents’learning

Intendedoutcomeofthelesson

SDLasalearningprocess

SDLasalearningoutcome

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HavingmadethedecisiontoimplementSDL,therearesomedesignprinciplesfor

the teacher’sconsideration.Figure2givesanoverviewof thedesignprinciples

thatateacherwouldhavetothinkthrough.

Learningoutcomes

From the diagram above, the first important aspect in planning an SDL lesson

(forthematter,anylesson) istodecidewhatthelearningoutcomeis.Learning

outcomes can be either decided by the teacher or articulated by the students.

This depends on the students’ readiness level and the teacher’s ability to

facilitatetheSDLactivity,whichinevitablyistiedtothephasesofself‐direction.

For example, at lower degrees of self‐direction, the teacher makes decisions

about the learning outcomes of the lesson. At a pointwhen the teacher feels

thatstudentsmaybeabletoarticulatetheirindividuallearningoutcomes,heor

shecanprovidesupportinhelpingthestudentstosharpenornarrowdowntheir

desiredlearningoutcomes.

At higher degrees of self‐direction, the teacher allows his or her students to

articulatetheirlearningoutcomesbasedonatopic,conceptortaskthatneedsto

be completed (these may be dictated by the teacher, the students or both,

dependingonthereadinessforself‐directionexhibitedbythestudents).Atthis

phaseofreadiness,studentsandteacherswilldiscussandnegotiatethelearning

outcomes.Thestudents’roleistoidentifywhattheywanttolearn.Theteachers’

role is to validate the students’ learning goals or stretch their potential by

guidingthemtowardswhattheyshouldbelearning.Teachersandstudentsmay

wanttoself‐assesstheirreadinesslevelpriortothelesson(seeChapter4).

Some of possible questions that a teacher can ask himself or herselfwhen the

studentsareatalowdegreeofself‐directioninclude:

Whatisthelearningoutcomeofthisactivity?

23  

What is the specific instructional objective for this activity? ( ‘instructional

objective’herereferstocontentrelatedobjective,e.gconceptsthatstudents

havetolearn,knowledgetheyhavetoacquire)

WhatdoIwantmystudentstoachieveorexhibit?

DoIwantmystudentstobeabletoworkingroups?

DoIwantthemtobeabletobeaccountablefortheirwork?

DoIwantthemtobeabletosearchforinformation?

Should they learn how to be discerning when they are sourcing for

information?

ShouldtheybelearninganewICTtoolsothattheycandecidehowtheywant

todemonstratetheirlearning?

Theabovearesomequestionsthatteachersmaywanttoconsiderwhendeciding

onthelearningoutcome(bothknowledgeandprocesses)whichtheyhopetheir

studentswillachievewhenengagedinSDLactivities.

PhasesofSDL

FromFigure2, itcanbeseenthattheteacherhastomakeadecisionaboutthe

phaseofSDL(refertoFigure1)theywanttoimplementaspartoftheirstudents’

learning.Again,basedonthereadinessleveloftheteacherandstudents,thelevel

of self‐directionwill vary. The teacherneedsnot only implement onephase of

SDL. Itcanbeacombinationofoneormorephases,dependingonthelearning

outcomeintendedfortheactivity.Somequestionstheteachermayaskhimselfor

herselfinclude:

Whichphase(s)ofSDLdoIwanttoimplement?

WhatextentofSDLissuitableformystudents?

WhatarrayofactivitiescanIconducttoachievethedesiredlevelofSDLfor

mystudents?

24  

Onceateacherhasdecidedonthedegreeofself‐direction,theteachernowwill

have to design the lesson so that opportunities are created for students to

achievetheintendedlearningoutcomes.

Instructionalstrategiesandresources

Thedesignofthelessonisofutmostimportanceinorderforthestudentstobe

provided with opportunities to learn and experience various degrees of

self‐direction.Theteacherwillhavetothinkthroughthelessondesign,andmake

variousdecisions,suchas:

(a) Instructionalstrategies

o HowmuchofdirectiondoIprovidemystudents?

o Should I let themdiscoveron their ownor should I provide themwith

some direction? Do I need to provide them with scaffolds which are

highlystructured?

o Should I give themspecific instructionsonhowmuch time they should

spendorshouldIguidemystudentsbutletthemdecidehowmuchtime

theyneedor should I allowmy students tomanage their timeon their

own?

o Should I manage my students’ learning content or should I allow my

studentstomanagetheirlearningandmonitorthemregularly?

o What taskscan Idesign toenable thestudents toapplywhat theyhave

learntoutsideschooltoschoolworkandviceversa?

(b) Resources

o What current resources can I utilise, including resources from the

students?

o WhatchangesdoIhavetomaketomycurrentlessonideas? CanIadapt

my current lesson to include opportunities for my students to be

self‐directedlearners?

25  

o Aremystudentscapableofsourcingforinformationandotherresources

independently? Do I give them total independence? Do they need a

learningguideorsomeresourcestostartthemoff?

o Howmuch timedo I have to conduct this lesson?Which aspects of the

lessondoIwanttodoinclass? Whichpartsofthe lessoncanbedone

bymystudentsintheirpersonaltime?

o What resourcesdomy studentsneed thatmayenable them tomonitor

theirownlearningwhilecompletingtheidentifiedtasks?

Whendesigningtheinstructionalstrategiesandaccessingtheresourcesrequired

for the SDL activity, the teachermay need to consider issues related to group

formation,suchas:

Shouldmystudentsworkingroupsorindividually?

DotheydecidethegroupformationordoI?

Dotheyworkinclass(face‐to‐face)ordotheyworkonline?

Technologyintegration

Onceteachershavedecidedonthelessondesign,theymaywanttoconsiderthe

integration of technological tools to enhance students’ learning and to assist

theminmonitoringtheirstudents’learning.Keyconsiderationsinclude:

Isthereaplacefortechnologytosupportmystudents’SDL?Howwillitlend

support to my students? How can I utilise the technology to scaffold my

students’learning?

o Do I want to implement technology to support my students’

brainstormingactivity?

o Do Iwant to implement technology to supportmy students’ discussion

andnegotiationprocesses?

o Should it be technology that canprovide a platform formy students to

builduptheirknowledgeasacollaborativegroup?

26  

o Should it be technology thatwill providemy students opportunities to

demonstratetheirlearning?

HowcanItakeadvantageoftechnologytomonitormystudents’learning?

WhattypeoftechnologydoIwanttointegrate?DoIwanttointegratewhat

mystudentshavealreadylearnt?DoIwanttointegratetechnologywhichmy

studentsareunfamiliarwithbutarecapableofusingit?

Should I give my students opportunities to choose their preferred

technologicaltool?

The following are some technological tools which can be used for various

purposesdependingontheteachers’intention.

(a) Mindmapscanbeusedfor:

o problemsolving

o creatingoutlinesforplanningpurposes

o brainstormingideas

o expressingindividualunderstandingofconceptslearnt

(b) ForumDiscussionsserveasaplatform:

o tocontinuediscussionsoutoftheclassroom

o to share information about a concept or topic which students have to

learn

o todiscussissuesbeforecomingtoclass

o togenerateideasandshareresources

o toprovidesupportgroupstooneotherastheyexplorenewconcepts

o for teachers tomonitorstudents’understandingofconceptswhich they

arerequiredtolearn

o forteacherstomonitorthethoughtprocessesorthinkingprocessesina

groupdiscussion

(c) Wikiplatformsareusefulwhen

27  

o studentsarerequiredtobuildononeanother’scontributions

o students can edit and consolidate one another’s contributions in aneat

andorganizedfashion

o thewikipagecanbeorganizedintovarioussitesforeasyreference

o wiki pages can be an ongoing task for students to share their learning

journey

(d) Blogsareusefulwhenteacherswanttheirstudentsto:

o sharetheiropinionsaboutatopic

o reflectonwhattheyhavelearnt

o sharetheirexperiences

Thequestionsweposeinthischapterarenotmeanttobeexhaustive.Theyserve

astriggersfortheskilfulteacherasheorsheplansforSDLtohappenwithinthe

contextof formalschooling. In thenextchapter,we illustratehowthesedesign

principlesareputintopracticewhenateacherplansforSDLtotakeplacewith

particularattentionontheuseofICT.

28  

 

3 WorkedExamplesofSDL

Introduction

Inchapter2,welaidouttheSDLspectrumasawayforteacherstonegotiatethe

extentofSDLthatispossiblefortheirstudents.Wealsomadeexplicitthedesign

principlesthathavetobejudiciouslyconsideredwhenplanningforSDLtotake

place in the classroom or other learning environments. In this chapter, we

provideworked examples of howSDLmay look like in the classroomor other

learning environments. We foreground the learning outcomes, the learning

scenarios and the possible uses of ICT in our examples. Each scenario is

organizedaccording toGibbons’ (2002)SDLspectrum(seeChapter2),starting

fromtheincidentalSDL.

DesignConsiderationsforIncidentalSelf‐DirectedLearning

Thescenariosdepictedherearemainly teacher‐directed.Foreachscenario,we

provide a counter‐example of SDL and how it can be redesigned to provide

opportunitiesforSDLtotakeplace.Thefollowingassumptionhasbeenmadein

craftingthescenarios:directionsforlearningaredecidedbytheteacher.Muchof

thedecisionsabouthowtolearn,whattolearnandhowtoexhibit learningare

decidedbytheteacherforthestudents.

Learningoutcomes(forScenarios1&2)

What are the learning outcomes the students should achieve by the end of this

learningprocess?

Insteadofbeingprovidedwiththeinformation,studentsaregiventheopportunity

tointer‐connectrelatedconceptsandissues.

29  

Scenario1:

Whatanon“incidentalself‐directedlearning”lessonmaylooklike

Mrs Limwants her students to differentiate between living and non‐living things.

Through a didactic manner of teaching, Mrs Lim presents the information via a

PowerPointpresentation. Shepresents informationon the characteristicsof living

things, namely: feeding, movement, breathing, excretion, growth, sensitivity and

reproduction. MrsLimthenshowspicturesof livingthings likeanimalsandplants

aswellasnon‐living things likecars,books,and toys.Throughnominatedresponse,

sheasksherstudentstochooseany4picturespresentedandgroupthem into living

andnon‐livingthings.

RedesignedScenario1:

Whatan“incidentalself‐directedlearning”lessonmaylooklike

Mrs Lim begins the lesson by showing animated pictures of a dog and a carusing

PowerPoint. She poses questions to make her students think. She provides

opportunities for them to ask her questions about the two pictures related to the

characteristicsoflivingandnon‐livingthings.Ifstudentsdonottaketheopportunity

toaskquestions,Mrs.Limmayelicitresponsesfromthembymakingthemthink. For

example,sheasks:

Whatarethesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthesetwothings?

Oneofthecharacteristicsofadogisthatitcanmove.Sincethecarcanmovejust

likeadog,doesitmeanthatthecarisalivingthing?

Sowhyadogisclassifiedasalivingthingandthecaranon‐livingthing?

Whataretheotherpossiblecharacteristicsthathelpusdecideoneisalivingand

theotherisanon‐livingthing?

Afterhavinggoingthroughmoreexamples,Mrs.Limasksherstudentstodrawamind

map of theirunderstanding of livingandnon‐living things. Sheasks them to add

questions if they are unsure. Studentswill complete themindmap. After going

throughherstudents’mindmaps,Mrs.Limcanconsolidatetheirdoubtsandclarifyin

thenextlesson.

30  

 

PossibleusesoftechnologyfortheredesignedScenario1

Teacher uses technology like PowerPoint and online teaching materials from the

Internet to present facts about the characteristics of living things and non‐living

things.This provides opportunities for students to visualize andmake comparisons

and infer the characteristics of living and non‐living things. The teacher also

provides opportunities for students to consolidate their understanding through the

useofmindmaps.

Scenario2:

Hownon“incidentalself‐directedlearning”maylooklikeintheclassroom

MissKala informs the class that theyaregoing to learnabout the variousways to

represent data, such as in the form of pie chart, histograms and bar charts. She

showsher students thevariousgraphsviaPowerPointandquerieswhichgraphical

formtheyshouldusefortheirlessononthatday.Majorityofthestudentschoosethe

piechart.Usingthepiechartasanexample,sheexplainsthatthepiechartisagreat

wayofshowingthedifferentsegmentsthroughcolourcodes. Piechartisalsouseful

forvisualisingthevariouspercentagedistributionsasawhole.MissKalahighlightsto

herstudentsthatoften,theywillseeasegmentofthedrawingseparatedfromtherest

ofthepieinordertoemphasizeanimportantpieceofinformation.Astudent,Joseph,

asksMissKalahowapie chartdiffers fromabargraph.MissKala then shows the

classherpreparedPowerPointslidesonthebargraphandverballyexplainsthekey

pointsaboutthebargraph.

RedesignedScenario2:

Howincidentalself‐directedlearningmaylooklikeintheclassroom

MsKalainformsherstudentsthatdatacanberepresentedinvariousforms. MsKala

showssomeexampleshowdataiscollected,collated,analysedandrepresented,such

asusingthepiechart,bargraphandhistogram.Shethengivesherstudentstwenty

minutestosearchtheInternetonwaysofrepresentingdataandtheusefulnessofeach

graphicalform.Dependingontheabilityofherstudentstoworkindependently,Miss

Kalamightgivethemkeywordstobegintheirsearch,orspecificwebsitesforthemto

look for informationorgive themcompletechoiceofwhere theywant tosource for

31  

the relevant information. She instructs her students to discuss in groups to

consolidatewhattheyhavefoundoutfromtheirsearches.EachgroupisgivenaWiki

pagetosharetheoutcomeoftheirgroupdiscussion.

PossibleusesoftechnologyfortheredesignedScenario2

Theuseofinternetallowsforstudentstosourceforinformationandmakedecisions

aboutrelevanceofinformationselected. Dependingontheabilityofthestudentsto

search for information, theuseof internetprovides formuch flexibilityas towhere

students locate information. The teacher has decided to useWiki to support her

students’discussion. ShecandosobycreatingaWikipageforeachstudentgroup.

In eachgrouppage, the teacher can scaffold theirdiscussionbyaddingpicturesof

variousgraphs. Studentsarerequiredtorespondwiththeirreasonsastowhythey

willuseaparticulargraph. TheuseofWikienablestheteachertomonitorstudents’

responsesand tocheck for theirunderstandingon theappropriateuseofgraphs to

represent data. In addition, the use of Wiki as a platform allows students to

consolidatetheirlearningandtosharetheirfindingswithintheirgrouptohelpbuild

on eachother’s contributions. Each studentgrouppage canbemadeavailable to

othergroupsintheclass,sothattheycanlearnfromoneanother. BesidestheWiki

pages, teachers could also use Google docs since the platform allows group

collaborationandaccessbyvariousgroupmembers.

DesignConsiderationsforTeachingStudentstoThink

Independently

Thescenariosdepictedinthissectionemphasisetheskillsstudentsneedasthey

aregivenmoreopportunitiestodirecttheirlearning.Whendesigningalesson,a

teachermightconsider:

providing opportunities for students to communicate with friends and the

teacherfacetofaceand/oronline

makingprovisionsforhandlingreallifedataforanidentifiedpurpose

designing tasks to develop multiple perspectives to an issue and reach a

commonconsensusforthetaskathand

32  

Learningoutcomes(forScenarios3&4)

Whatare the learningoutcomes that thestudentsshouldachieveby theendof

thislearningprocess?

Studentsshouldbeabletotakethe initiativetoaskquestionsrelatedtothe

topicofdiscussion

Students should be able to conduct inquiry and investigate their areas of

interest

Basedontheir findings,studentsshouldbeabletopresenttheiropinionsor

deriveafeasibleconclusionverballyand/orusingothermodalities

Scenario3:

Acounter‐exampleof“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”

MrLimprovideshisstudentswithdatacollectedfromsomerealworldcontexts.

Theuseofrealdataenablesthestudentstolinkwhattheyarelearninginclassto

the real world outside. He shows the students how the data is presented in

graphical forms.Hegiveshis students somequestions toanswer that test their

ability to analyse the graphs in the form of a groupwork.The teacherwalks

around the class to answer any queries that may arise during the group

discussions.

RedesignedScenario3:

Howa“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”lessonmaylooklike

MrLimpreparesinstructionsandinformsstudentsthattheywillhavetocollect

datafortheMathematicslessonnextweekon‘Graphs’.ThisisMrLim’seffortin

providingopportunities forhis students toexperiencehow to collect theirown

data. He informs them that it shouldbeanareaof interest to them, suchas

findingoutyoungpeople’sresponsesaboutanewmall in theirneighbourhood.

Theuseofrealdatalinksclassroomlearningtorealworldcontextandstudents

actuallylearnbydoing–collectingdatathattheywanttoanalyseontheirown,

analysingand representing it.The task for students is toanalyse thedataand

presenttheirfindingsusingthegraphtheyfeelbestrepresentswhattheywantto

findout.

33  

Unliketheusuallessonwherestudentslookatthefinalgraphandanalyseitlike

a worksheet, students are now experiencing how data is collected, collated,

analysed and represented. They will have questions to ask, such as how to

consolidate the data they have collected using Microsoft Excel. They can

approach the teachers to clarifyanydoubts that theyhave, suchaswhen they

havedifficultiescreatingthegraphstechnicallyusingMicrosoftExcel.

Once theyhavecreated thegraphs, theywillhave torationalize theirchoiceof

graph and its suitability for representing the data they have analysed.At this

stage, students can be given opportunities to discuss online. They can search

websites Mr. Lim has provided for them. Alternatively, if his class is

independent,Mr.Limmightsuggestkeywords for them tosearchonlineand to

sourcefortheirinformation. Mr.Limmaybeabletointervenebymodellingfor

them thekindsofquestionsand issues theyneed to consider.For instance,Mr.

Limmayquestion therelevanceandcredibilityof the information the students

have found fromtheInternet.Duringtheonlinediscussions,theteacherassigns

rolesamongthegroupmemberssothatmultipleperspectivesaremadepossible.

It ismore likely that the studentswillargue theirpointof view for issues like

whichgraphissuitableandtheirreasonsfortheirpreferredchoice.Therolesare

explicitsothatthestudentsaregiventheopportunitiestoquestiononeanother’s

assumptions before reaching a consensus. They are explicitly instructed to

agree todisagreeas their ruleofengagementbutat theendof thediscussion,

theywillhavetonegotiateandreachaconsensusasagroup.

Beyond thecontent learningoutcome,students in thisscenario learnsoftskills.

Theylearntopresenttheirargument,tosubstantiatetheirargumentorpointof

viewwith reasonsor facts. They learn toquestioneachother’spointofview.

Students are provided opportunities to communicate with each other and to

share their points of view. They are provided opportunities to negotiate and

reacha consensus.Theseare skillsandexperiences that studentsgainbecause

Mr. Lim, the teacher, has decided to provide opportunities for his students to

thinkindependently.

34  

PossibleusesoftechnologyintheredesignedScenario3

StudentsusetheExcelspreadsheettocollateandorganisetheirdata.Thedata

can be represented in various forms.With theuse of technology, students can

visualizehowtheirdatawilllooklikethroughtheuseofthevariousgraphs.

Forumsareuseful for thestudents toworkon theirdatacollaborativelyovera

period of time. It is appropriate for them to discuss and share their findings.

Somepossiblebenefitsarethatstudentscanconductresearchontheirownand

share their findingswith the peerswithin the group.They can further discuss

abouttheprosandconsofthevarioustypesofgraphsandtheusefulnessofusing

thevarious typesofrepresentations.The forumdiscussion servesasaplatform

forstudentstosharetheirthoughtsandideas,questiononeother’sassumptions

andtoexploreandgatherinformationbeyondthetext. Theforumdiscussionis

also useful forMr. Lim tomonitor his students’ understanding of the topic of

investigation.Mr.Limcanguidehisstudentsiftheyareunabletomakedecisions.

Mr.Limcanalsomonitorhisstudents’progress. Whennecessary,hecanclarify

students’doubtsandhelpthemtomoveforwardintheirlearning.

Theteacher’srolesintheredesignedScenario3

Mr.Lim’sroleistoessentiallysettaskswithclearinstructionsandmilestonesfor

hisstudents.Mr.Limwillhavetofacilitateandmonitorstudents’progress,both

intheface‐to‐faceandonlinemodes.Dependingonthereadinesstoparticipatein

groupwork,Mr. Limmay permit some students to form groups or give some

studentsclearguidelinesonhowtheycanformtheirowngroups.

When using technology,Mr. Limmay have to demonstrate the technical skills

required. For example when using the spreadsheet, Mr. Lim might have to

demonstrate how data entry should be done. Thismay be taught just‐in‐time

when the students ask questions about keying in and analysing the data they

havecollectedusingMicrosoftExcel.Alternatively,Mr.Limmightengagestudent

helperstoassistindemonstratingtotheirpeershowdataentrycanbedone.

When settinguponlinediscussions,Mr.Limneeds to stateclearly therules for

35  

engagement,suchasthediscussionformatandtheetiquetteforparticipatingin

thediscussion.Mr.Lim’srole inthe forumdiscussion istomonitorhisstudents’

discussion,observethe learningthat istakingplace,andtoansweranyqueries

thathisstudentsmayhavesotheycanmakeprogressintheirlearning.Modelling

by the teacher takesplacehereaswellasaway to teach the studentshow to

think independently in groupworkwith regard to their levels of thinking, the

choices theymake, the relevance and credibility of the information they have

sourced,andhow toengage inargumentative thinking that is constructive for

groupwork.

Thestudents’rolesintheredesignedScenario3

Giventheopportunitytoexplorewaysofrepresentingtheirunderstanding(such

as by creating graphs), the students learn how to consolidate, organise, and

present their data graphically. They also learn to rationalise the bestway to

represent theirunderstandingasagroup, suchaswhen theyare selecting the

most appropriate graph for their group task. The students also learn to be

resourcefulas theyexplore thevariousgraphs thatareavailable for theiruse.

Theyalsolearntobeeffectiveintheirsearchthroughtheguidelinestheteacher

provides during the search itself and learn to evaluate the various sources of

informationasagroup.Thestudentstakeresponsibilitytoreachaconsensusand

learnhowbesttopresenttheirfindingstotheclassortheteacher.

Scenario4:

Acounter‐exampleof“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”

MdmRohana sets a task for her students to research about a current or past

world leader.Thestudents’task isto investigateandresearchaboutthe leader,

thecharacteristicsoftheworldleader,theactionsoftheleaderandtheimpactof

theactionsandhowpeopleperceivetheworldleader.Thestudentsthenpresent

their findings in the formofa talk show.Eachmember is to takeona role:A

reporter,theworldleader,anaidetotheworldleader,oneortwomember(s)of

thepublic,preferablyofdifferentsocialeconomicstatus. Thestudentswillhave

tosourceforsufficientinformationtoplaythevariousrolesandduringthetalk

show,theyaretosharetheinformationwiththeirclassmatesandtorationalise

36  

why they feel this leader is their rolemodel. The students finally do a report

writingtaskontheleaderidentifiedfortheirresearchtopic.

RedesignedScenario4:

Howa“teachingstudentstothinkindependently”lessonmaylooklike

MdmRohanaasksher students for examplesofworld leaders they know from

theirtextbook,newsandelsewhere.Sheleadsaclassdiscussiononwhatmakesa

personaworld leaderandcollectivelywiththeclass,she teasesoutcriteria for

assessingleadership,suchasthecharacteristicsoftheworldleader,theiractions

andtheimpactoftheiractionsontheworld,andtheperceptionsofthepublicof

them.

MdmRohanaaskseachgroupofstudentstochooseaworldleaderbasedonthe

classdiscussionand findoutmore informationabout the leader thegrouphas

chosen toresearchon. MdmRohanaassigns specificroles foreachgroup, the

taskstobecompletedwithinaspecifiedtimeframe.Eachgrouphastoreportto

her thedecisions theyhave tomake, suchas the responsibilitiesofeachgroup

memberaccordingtotherolesgivenandtheirreasonsforthechoiceoftheworld

leader.StudentsarealsotoldtogathertheirinformationandbuilduptheirWiki

pageontheworldleaderwhomtheyhavechosen.

MdmRohanaprovidesquestions toguideherstudents in their fact findingand

posesquestions that further their thinking so thather students can constantly

buildtheirunderstandingusingtheWiki.Oncetheinformationhasbeenbuiltup

ontheWiki,studentswillhavediscusstoextractrelevantinformationtheywant

to shareorpresentduring the ‘talk show’where theywill share their findings

with their classmates. Students will also consolidate the resources and

informationusinganypresentationtoolstocomplementtheirtalkshow.

PossibleusesoftechnologyintheredesignedScenario4

Mdm Rohanamakes use of Internet resources to expand students’ knowledge

about the selected world leaders. In addition, the Wiki is created to guide

students’meaningmakingprocessas theyreadandassimilatewhat theyknow

37  

about the world leaders. TheWiki is also used to share and build students’

knowledge during this process. Finally, theWiki serves as a resource page for

eachgroupandtheentireclass,not just todeveloptheir talkshow,butalsoas

another learningmaterialabout theworld leaders. Inaddition, theWikipage

servesasaplatform forMdmRohanatomonitorandtrackthedevelopmentof

thoughts and knowledge about the world leaders among the students. Mdm

Rohana may suggest the use of Glogster to present the key information in

creativemannertotherestoftheclassmates.

Theteacher’sroleintheredesignedScenario4

Similar toScenario1,MdmRohana’srole is toset taskswithclear instructions

andmilestones forher students.MdmRohanamayhave to start the lessonby

makingavailablesomeresourcesforclassroomteaching,suchasalistofstart‐up

websitesforclassroomdiscussionsandafollow‐upInternetsearch.MdmRohana

mayprovide someguidelines onhowher students shouldparticipate ingroup

discussionforeachspecifiedrole.Forexample,shemayaskastudenttoplaythe

roleofadevil’sadvocate.Thestudentadoptingthisrolemayaskquestionslike:I

likeyourreasonsbuthaveyousearchedwebsitesthatpresenttheworldleaderin

anegativemanner?Basedonknowledgeofherstudents’participationingroup

work,MdmRohanamayassignstudentstoaparticulargrouporallowthemto

form theirowngroups.When the studentsare ready,MdmRohanagives them

permission tobegin their researchandadd relevant informationon theirWiki

page.

If students need further guidance or resources, the Mdm Rohana may then

provide themwith thenecessary resourcesor topoint them towhere theycan

obtaintherequiredinformation. MdmRohanamightalsoaskquestionstohelp

eachgroupmonitorthedevelopmentoftheirthoughtsandknowledgeintheWiki

pagetoensurethattheyhavecollectedsubstantialinformationtopresentduring

thetalkshow.

38  

 

Thestudents’roleintheredesignedScenario4

Sincestudentshavetoselectaworldleadertoresearchon,theywillhavetocome

to a decision based on a consensus reached among the groupmembers. The

decisionmaking processmay take various forms. One possible way is where

students in a group brainstorm and select aworld leader based on themost

convincing reason and popular vote.Another approach could be that students

startwithresearchonvariousworld leadersandpropose theirselection to the

rest of the groupmembers and convince them that their selection should be

picked. This iswhere studentsare likely to question, explore, investigate and

arguemoreabouttheirpointofview. Itprovidesopportunitiesforstudentsto

developindependentthinkinganddecisionmakingskills.

Oncethegrouphasdecidedontheworldleader,theywillthenhavetonegotiate

and decidewho takes on the various characters – reporter,world leader etc.

Some groupsmay decide that they will conduct their research based on the

different requirements set by the teacher and once they have the information,

theywillthenworkouttheroles. Again,studentswillhavetodecideandwork

outhowbesttheywanttolearn.

Students then discuss and think of the bestway to present their choice of the

world leader and the rationale for their choice. Theywill also have to think

about what information they will want to add on to their presentation tool

(Glogster,PowerPoint,etc)tocomplementtheirroleplayandtosuccinctlybring

theimportantpointsacrosstotheirclassmates.

During role play, other students can be prompted to ask questions, to seek

clarification and to challenge assumptionsmade by the groups. After having

gatheredthevariousviewpoints,studentswillnowhaveabetter insighttothe

informationtheyhavegathered.Theywillthentakeonthepersonaofanyofthe

charactersandwriteareport.

39  

DesignPrinciplesforSelf‐ManagedLearning

Thedesignconsiderations that teachersshould factor inwouldbe to reflecton

their roles. The teachermaywant to adopt the role of a facilitator to provide

guidance,feedbackanddirectionforthestudentstoaddvaluetotheirlearning.

The teacher does not teach the students what they do not know; the teacher

highlightstheareasthatstudentsshouldfocusonandguidesthemthroughthe

learningprocess.

The following is an example of how a ‘self‐managed learning’ lesson may be

designed.

LearningOutcomes

Whatarethelearningoutcomesthatthestudentsshouldachievebytheendof

thislearningprocess?

Studentsaregivenopportunitiestoselectwhattheywanttolearn

Studentspacetheirlearning

Ifstudentsareunsure,theyareabletore‐visittheconceptsandlearnthem

attheirownpace

Studentsmayseekassistancefromtheteachershouldtheyneedto

Oncestudentsareconfidentoftheconcepts,theycanopttoself‐assesstheir

learning

Assessmentcouldalsobeconductedbytheteacher

Scenario5:Howself‐managedlearningmaylooklikeintheclassroom

MrGabrielselectsanarticleonglobalwarmingtogenerateinterestamonghis

students. Hegivesthemthefollowingarticletoread…

GlobalWarming…whatisitallabout?

“An islandof icemorethan fourtimesthesizeofManhattan isdriftingacross

theArcticOceanafterbreakingoffaglacierinGreenland.

In a July 6, 2009 photomade available byGreenpeace, researcher JasonBox

adjustsatime‐lapsecameraonthesoutheastsideofPetermannGlacier,oneof

Greenland’s largest and most northerly glaciers. A 100‐square‐mile iceberg

40  

brokeofftheglacierlastweek.

SatelliteimagesfromNASAshowthePetermannGlacieronJuly28(leftphoto)

andaftertheicesheetbrokefreeonAug.5.“It’ssobigthatyoucan’tpreventit

fromdrifting.Youcan’t stop it,” says Jon‐OveMethlieHagen,aglaciologistat

theUniversityofOslo.

Potentiallyinthepathofthisunstoppablegiantareoilplatformsandshipping

lanes ‐ and any collision could do untold damage. In aworst‐case scenario,

large chunks could reach the heavily trafficked waters where another

GreenlandicebergsanktheTitanicin1912.

It's been a summer of near biblical climatic havoc across the planet, with

wildfires,heatandsmoginRussiaandkillerfloodsinAsia.Butthemomentthe

PetermannGlaciercrackedlastweek–creatingthebiggestArcticiceislandin

halfacentury–maysymbolizeawarmingworldlikenoother”

Sourceofarticle:

http://www.pressherald.com/news/nationworld/giant‐iceberg‐fuels‐debate‐over‐glo

bal‐warming_2010‐08‐11.html

Mr Gabriel informs his students that there is renewed interest in global

warminggiventhecurrentissueofthebreakawayiceberg.Inordertoprepare

forclassdiscussions,heasksthemtoreadalessonpackagehehascreatedfor

themon theLearningManagementSystem. He informs them that theyhave

oneweektocompletetheirtask. Heremindsthemtoattemptthequizhehas

designed forthemattheendofeachsegment. Theobjectiveofthequiz isto

helphisstudentstotesttheirunderstandingofthetopicswhichtheyhavejust

gone through.He reiterates that if theydonotperformwell for thequiz, the

studentsareallowedtore‐visittheinformationandtoattemptthequizagain.

He reminds them toattemptall thequizzesand to submit their responses so

thathecanassesshowpreparedhisstudentsarefortheclassdiscussion.

An alternative approach to this scenario could be thatMrGabriel generates

interestinthetopicofglobalwarmingtogethisstudents’attention. Hethen

gives thembroadareas to focusonandhe reminds them that theyhaveone

week to search for the relevant information so that they are prepared to

41  

participate actively in class discussion the following week. In order to get

them started,Mr Gabriel posts someweb resources and information for his

students. He expects them to research beyond the information that he has

providedandtocharttheirlearning. MrGabrielmightchoosetomonitorhis

students’ progress by requesting them to post their findings on a forum

discussionboardorablog.

Theteacher’sroleinScenario5

Mr.Gabriel’srolecouldvarydependingonhisassessmentof theabilityofhis

studentstolearnindependently. IfMr.Gabrielassessesthathisstudentsneed

pre‐packagedmaterialstogetthemstarted,thenhisroleasateacherwouldbe

togathertherelevantinformationandpresenttheresourcestohisstudentsso

they can explore. If he feels that his students’ potential can be stretched

beyondtheinformationhehasconsolidated,hemightsuggesttothemthatthey

canexploreresourcesbeyondwhathehasgiven.

In a different scenario, Mr. Gabriel might assess that his students are

independentandwillbeabletoresearchonthetopicswithouthisconsolidated

resources. In this situation,Mr.Gabrielwillprovidebroadguidelines forhis

students so they knowwhat research they should be engaged in. Theywill

thensourcefortherelevantinformationandlearnwhattheyhavetoinorderto

bepreparedfortheclassdiscussion.

Thestudents’roleinScenario5

Thestudentsarerequiredtoassesstheirownknowledgeofthetopic. Directed

bytheresourcesthatMr.Gabrielhasconsolidatedforthem,studentswillaccess

theinformationthattheyfeeltheydonotknowwellandlearnit.Theymaydo

self‐assessmentbyattemptingthequiz.Iftheydowell,theymaythenproceedto

anotherareawhere they feel theyneed togather knowledge.Essentially, the

students’roleistoreflectonwhattheydonotknow,andtolearnitsothatthey

arepreparedforthetaskthattheyhavetoattempt.

42  

Self‐plannedandSelf‐directedlearning

In self‐planned and self‐directed learning, students are ready to assume high

degreeofself‐direction.Studentsarerequiredtomakedecisionsaboutwhatthey

want to learn, how they want to learn, and to draw out a time frame of the

durationwithinwhichtheywillachievewhattheywanttolearn.Somepossible

areas where teachers may attempt to introduce self‐planned and self‐directed

learningmaybeintheareaofprojectwork.

Scenario6

Insteadofprovidinghis studentswith topics for theirprojectwork (whichMr.

Tan usually does), he has decided that he wants his students to take

responsibility for their work and to bemotivated to complete it. Mr. Tan’s

decisionismadeonthebasisthathewantshisstudentstolearnwhattheywant

towhentheyareengagedinprojectwork.

He informs students that theywill have to submit a project, togetherwith a

portfolioof theprogress theymade in their learning tohim in6months’ time.

He tells them tomakedecisionsand toconsulthimonhow theywould like to

approachtheproject.

During the consultation, Mr. Tan expects his students to inform him of the

following:

Thegroupmemberswhomtheywillbeworkingwith

Thetopicoftheirchoiceandwhy

The timeline for their project, togetherwithmajormilestoneswhere

theywillsubmitartefactstohimreflectingtheirprogress

Thedirectionsinhowtheywilllearnandcompletetheproject

The choice of presentation mode they will use to showcase their

learning

Mr.Tanremindsstudentsthattheyareresponsibleforgeneratingtheirlearning

objectives and charting the timeline. He reiterates that it is the students’

responsibilitytoupdatehimontheirprogressandtoconsulthimwhentheyneed

43  

assistance.Toassisthisstudents’learningprocessandtomonitortheirlearning,

Mr.Tanmaycreateane‐portfoliowithintheLearningManagementSystem.His

students coulduse the e‐portfolio topresent theirprogress toMr.Tanand to

reflecton theirown learning.Thee‐portfolioservesasameans forstudents to

chart theirprogressand toreflectonwhether theyhaveachieved the learning

goalstheyhadsetforthemselves.

In this chapter, we have attempted to describe how the different scales of

self‐directed learning may look like in a lesson. The examples given are not

exhaustive.Theyarejustsomeexamplesofhowalessonmightlooklikebasedon

thedesignconsiderationsthatteachersmayhaveinmind.Thelessonsmayvary

dependingonmanyfactors,suchasstudents’readinesstoworkindependently,

teacher’s assessment of students’ learning needs, availability of resources, and

availabilityoftechnologytosupportstudents’learning.Toreiterate,theteacher’s

role is crucial in the design process of the lesson since the teacher has to

articulatethelearninggoalwhichthestudentsneedtoachieve.

44  

4 AssessmentandSDL

TypesofAssessmentsinSDL

Inchapter3,we illustratedhowSDLmaytakeplace todifferingextentswithin

formal schooling in Singapore. In this chapter, we consider how teachersmay

assessSDL toenhancestudents’ learning.We firstdescribewaysofdeveloping

students’ capacity in self‐assessment followed by the types of assessment a

teachercanuseintheprocessofguidingstudentsforSDL.

As educators, we recognise the importance of assessment in learning. We are

familiar with assessment of learning, also known as summative assessment

(Bloom,Hastings,&Madaus, 1971) that evaluates the extent towhich learning

goals are achieved, usually in the forms of quiz, test, or examination. We

commonlyuse informationfromassessmentof learningforplacementpurpose.

Forexample inSingapore,ourprimaryschoolpupilsapplytodifferenttypesof

secondary schools based on their Primary School Leaving Examination (PSLE)

scores, or pupils are placed in different classes based on their overall yearly

performanceintheschoolexaminations.Assessmentoflearningisalsousedfor

to gauge the effectiveness of an individual or a school in achieving specific

educationaloutcomes.

Consistent with the goals of self‐directed learning, we should focus on

assessment for learning as opposed to assessment of learning. Assessment for

learning (Black&Wiliam, 1998) is the use of assessment to improve learning,

bothintermsofthelearningoutcomesandthelearningprocesses.Forexample,

45  

a teacher analyses her students’ performance in a class test to diagnose the

commonproblemsormisconceptionsassociatedwithlearningaparticulartopic.

Usingthisinformation,theteacherthendesignssubsequentlessonstohelpher

students overcome the problems to achieve better understanding of the topic.

For self‐directed learning, a teacher assesses her students’ behaviours that

indicate self‐direction so that she can provide feedback to the students or to

modify her instructional strategies. Moving one step closer to the goal of

self‐directed learning, it is desirable to develop students’ capacity in

self‐assessmentsothattheycanassesstheirownprogressandmakeappropriate

changes. In this way, assessment becomes an integral part of the learning

process.

DevelopingStudents’CapacityinSelf‐Assessment

BelowisavignetteofwhathappenedinaPrimary3Englishclass:

VignetteofaPrimary3Englishclass

Thepupilsare taskedasa tourguide to introducea famous river to the tourists.

Theywork ingroupsof five.Inthisparticular lesson,thepupilsusetheInternetto

search for information fortheirpresentation.Examinethisexcerptofconversation

amongstagroupofthreePrimaryThreepupils(agednine)whentheyaresearching

forinformationontheRiverNile.Theirtaskistoassumetheroleofatourguideto

introducetheRiverNiletoagroupoftourists.

Jeremy: Hey,Ifoundthiswebsite.Look,therearemanypictures.

Joel: Wow,quick,rightclickandsavethepictures.

Janet: Yes,yes,andpastetheminthePowerPoint.

Jeremy: Allthepictures?

Joel: Clickthisone.Ilikecrocodiles…thebirdslooknicealso.

Jeremy: OK,ok,whatshouldItypeinthePowerPoint?

Janet: Here,copythispart.“TheRiverNile,isthelongestriverinthe

world.Everyyear theNile floodsatalmostexactly the same

timeofyear,15thJuly.”

46  

Jeremy: OK,what else canwe include?The teacher saidwe need to

presentfor2minutes.

From the children’s conversation, we can tell one possible reason for not

engaging effectively in SDL among the children is that they do not know the

criteriaofagoodperformance.Inthiscase,thechildrendonotknowwhatthey

can include in their presentation to excite the tourists as a tour guide. Joel’s

criterion for selecting the picture is based on his personal preference. Janet

suggests copying the text without checking whether it is relevant to the task.

Theyprobablydonotrealisethattheyneedtoappealtothetourists’interestsor

arousetheircuriosity.

When we are learning a physical skill, the feedback is usually concrete and

observable. For example, youwill knowwhether you have learnt how to cycle

because you will experience the success (the bicyclemove forward while you

maintain your balance) or failure (you fall).When learning a cognitive skill or

knowledge, thecriteriatoassesswhetherwearesuccessfularenot intuitiveor

observable.Asateacher,itisnecessarytodevoteanappropriateamountoftime

andefforttodevelopinstudentsthecapacitytoassesstheirownlearning.

Different levels of scaffolds can also be provided for this purpose. For lower

primary pupils, a checklist with observable indicators can be used. For upper

primary pupils, assessment rubricswith an explanation and demonstration on

how to use the rubrics can be considered. For secondary school or older

students, they can be encouraged to identify and discuss the appropriate

assessment criteria for their assigned tasks. The following section shows

examplesofhowstudentscanself‐assesstheirself‐directedlearning.

Students’Self‐AssessmentofSDL

Table 2 shows an example of a students’ self‐assessment template. It uses a

6‐pointLikertscale.Aclassroomteachercanaskhisorherstudentstodecideon

47  

the extent to which they are engaged in a SDL behaviour by shading the

appropriatecircleusingintuitivejudgementwhetheritisclosertothedescriptor

“All thetime”or“Notatall”. Ifyourstudentshaveproblemsunderstandingthe

scale,youcanchangethe6‐pointscaletoYes/Nooptions.

Dependingonthereadinessofyourstudents(seeChapter2),itmaybenecessary

to go through the form with the students to help them understand the

statements. For younger pupils, the items may be changed to suit their

comprehension levelbyusingsmiley icons(e.g.,,) toreplacethecircles.

Thiscanbefollowedbyadiscussionwiththestudentsonwaystheycanimprove.

HelpthemtoanalysewhatcouldhavepreventedthemfromengaginginSDL.Isit

becausetheyarenotawareofitortheydonotknowhow?Iftheydonothavethe

competency,wherecantheyturntoforhelp?Studentswhoaremorereadyfor

SDLcoulddotheself‐assessmentindependentlytomonitortheirownprogress.

Thestatementsaregeneralindicatorsthatmayprobablychangeonlyafterafew

weeksormonthsof intervention.Table2 isbestused togaugeand record the

generalbehavioursatdifferentpointsinasemester(ratherthandailyorweekly)

orforaprojectthatlastsforatleastafewweeks.

48  

Table 2: Students’ self-assessment of SDL behaviours

BehaviouralIndicators Frequency Reflection

Notatall Allthetime Iamsatisfiedwith

myperformance

Icanimproveby…

Isetlearningtargetsfor

myself.

Yes

No

Iknowwhichpartsofmy

lessonsIdonot

understand.

Yes

No

IaskquestionswhenI

amnotsureaboutmy

lessons.

Yes

No

Ilookformore

informationtohelpme

understandmylessons

better.

Yes

No

ImakealistofwhatI

needtodoformy

learning.

Yes

No

Icompletemy

schoolworkontime. Yes

No

Itrytounderstand

whereIwentwrongin

myschoolwork.

Yes

No

Itrydifferentwaysto

solveproblemsonmy

own.

Yes

No

IusewhatIlearninclass

aftermylessons. Yes

No

Ifindoutmorethanwhat

myteacherteachesmein

school.

Yes

No

49  

Students’Self‐AssessmentofPerformanceOutcomes

Previously, we focused on how to facilitate students’ self‐assessment of their

participationinSDLprocesses.Wenowmoveontodiscusswaysofusingrubrics

todevelopstudents’capacityinassessingperformancetasksforSDL.

Inessence,assessmentrubricsareusedforauthenticperformancetasksthatare

complex, involvingmulti‐dimensional skills, and require judgment tograde the

performance.Forexample,tocompleteascienceinvestigationproject,students

have to formulate the problem, collect data, analyse the data, and write the

report. Each of these processes involves several skills. Using a rubric, we can

clarifythedifferentdimensionsofassessment,anddescriptorsofdifferentlevels

of performance. Table 3 shows an example of a rubric for science project for

Secondaryschoollevel.

When using rubrics, it is important to explain the different dimensions of

performance (such as information seeking skills) and the level of achievement

(such as extents of meeting expectations). A checklist (with Yes/No options

rather than level of performance) can also be used for younger students who

mighthaveproblemsunderstandingrubrics.Spacescanalsobeprovidedforthe

students toscore theirperformance, justify theirassessmentandsuggestareas

forimprovement.Itisimportanttoimpressuponthestudentsthatthepurpose

is not to prove how good they are, but to reflect on their performance for

improvement.

Classroom teachers can also conduct conferences with students using their

self‐assessment. The conference provides an opportunity for the teachers to

validate their students’ self‐assessment and help them to develop their self

assessmentskills.Dependingonthematuritylevelofthestudents,theycanalso

useitforpeerassessment.

50  

Table 3: An example of an assessment rubric for a science project

Componentsofproject

Beginning Developing Accomplished Exemplary Student’scomments

Teacher’sorpeer’scomments

Choiceofresearchproblemandquestions

Useresearchquestionssuppliedbyreferencebooksorothersources

Constructresearchquestionsthathavereadilyavailableanswers

Constructresearchquestionsthatarechallenging

Constructchallengingresearchquestionsandjustifythesignificanceofthestudy

Informationseeking

Gatherinformationthatlacksrelevance

Gatherrelevantinformationfromoneortwosources,lacksdepthandquality

Gatherrelevantinformationfromavarietyofsources,selectsourceswithdepthandquality

Gatherrelevantinformationfromavarietyofsourceswithdepthandquality;criticallysynthesiseideastosupporttheresearch

Datacollectionmethod

Datacollectedarenotrelevanttotheresearchquestions

Relevantdatabutlackofprecisionorreliability

Relevantdatathatdemonstratesprecisionandreliability

Relevant,preciseandreliabledata,withvalidassessmentonthequalityofdata.

Analysis Presentrawdata

Attempttoanalysethedata

Usescientificmethodtoanalysethedata

Usescientificmethodtoanalysethedataandjustifyfortheappropriatenessofmethod

Report/ Presentation

Thereportisnotlogicallypresented

Usestandardscientificformattopresent

Presentacoherentscientificreportwithclearfocusontheinvestigation

Presentascientificreportthatisclear,concise,andconvincing.Useevidencetosupporttheconclusion

Communication Uselaymanlanguage

Attempttousescientificlanguagewithsomeerrors

Usescientificlanguageaccuratelytopresentthefindings

Usescientificlanguageeffectivelytopresentthefindingsinalogicalmanner

51  

Perhapsthehighestlevelofself‐directionisachievedwhenstudentscandevelop

theirownassessmentrubrics,explaintheirrationalesandusethemobjectively

tomonitortheirownlearning.Thiscanonlyhappenwhenastudentappreciates

thecomplexityofatask,understandwhatitentails,andsetshighstandardsfor

himselforherself.

Students’Portfolio

A student’s portfolio contains a purposeful selection of works by the student

togetherwiththereflectionforlearning.Therearemanyresourcesavailableon

theusesandwaystoprepareaportfolio.Unfortunately,thediverseapplications

of portfolio also bring about some confusion. We will focus on how portfolio

assessmentcanbeusedforSDL.Whenusedappropriately,itisanidealtoolfor

assessmentforlearning.

For learning purposes, a portfolio should not be a mandatory collection of

specifiedworks from a program or a course that is like a student’s dossier or

folder,whichatbestprovidesadditionalevidence for the teacher toassess the

learning outcomes. It is also important to distinguish learning portfolio from

showcase portfolio. While a learning portfolio focuses on assessment for

learning, a showcaseportfoliousually contains the student’sbestworks and is

usedasasummativeproofforthelearningoutcomesorforgainingentryintoa

new programme. For SDL, students should assume some responsibilities in

identifying and explaining the choice of works that represent their learning

progress or development. Asking students to choose and justify for their

selection will likely engage them in self‐managing and self‐monitoring of

learning. They have to think about which piece of work fulfils the specified

criteriaandwill reflecton thequalityofwork. Inevitably, reflectionbecomesa

criticalpartoftheportfolioassessment.

52  

Therearedifferent levelsofreflectioninaportfolioassessment.Astudentmay

writeabouttheoverallstructureandchoiceofworksthatwillfulfilthelearning

criteria;areflectionontheoveralllearningprogressandareasforimprovement;

aself‐assessmentonaparticularaspectof learning(e.g.,communicationskills);

oracommentonaparticularpieceofwork.Toengageinmeaningfulreflection,

thepurposeofreflectionandthecriteriaforassessmentmustbemadeknowto

thestudents.Student’s self‐profiling toolsandassessmentrubrics,asdiscussed

in the previous two sections, can be provided to guide the students in the

reflection.For studentswhoare ready, theycandevelop theirownassessment

criteria.

AsstudentsareatdifferentreadinesslevelforSDL,apurposefulconferencewith

theteacheraboutthelearningprogressusingtheportfoliowillbebeneficial.To

beeffective,theconferencecanbescheduledearlyenoughforstudentstoreceive

feedback and work towards improvement. It should also be conducted at

appropriateintervals(ratherthanjustattheendofacourse)fordevelopmental

purposes.

Figure3showsthekeyprocessesforpreparingalearningportfolio.Thedotted

square boxes describe examples of how a teacher can provide necessary

supports throughout the process. As assessment for learning, the learning

portfolioenablesthestudentstoexhibitwhattheyhavelearntdevelopmentally

onacontinuousbasisandcanbeusedtosetfuturedirectionforlearning.

53  

Figure3:Keyprocessesofalearningportfolio

Teachers’assessmentinSDL

Earlier,wefocusedonhowstudentscouldassesstheirSDL.Wenowmoveonto

discusshowteacherscangoaboutassessingtheirstudents’SDL.Classroom

teacherscanassesswhethertheirstudentsparticipateinSDL.Ifthefrequencyis

lowerthanexpected,thereareatleasttwopossiblefollow‐upactionsthatcanbe

taken.Oneistofurtherdevelopstudents’competencyinSDL;theotheristo

providemoreopportunitiesforstudentstopracticetheirSDLskills.

Assessingstudents’behaviours

ToassesswhetherthestudentspractiseSDL,oneofthewaysistoobservetheir

actionsandbehaviours.BasedonthetheoriesofSDL,thethreedimensionsof

SDLi.e.ownershipoflearning,self‐managementandself‐monitoringand

extensionsoflearningareidentifiedtogetherwithcorrespondingbehavioural

indicators(seeChapter1).Theextenttowhichthestudentsdisplaythese

Learning

Portfolio

Specify,explainornegotiatethepurposeofportfolio

Specifyandexplainthecriteriaoftheportfolio(mayincludecriteriaforeachpieceofwork)

Provideguidanceonthetypesand

modalitiesofworkse.g.,photographs,report,video

Provideguidanceonpurposefulreflectionusingthecriteria

Providepurposefulfeedbackbothonthelearningoutcomesandtheself‐assessment

process

54  

behavioursreflectswhetherthestudentshavedevelopedsomegenericSDL

skills.

Table4showsanexampleofhowclassroomteacherscanratetheirstudents’

behaviours.Thistableusesa6‐pointLikertscale.Usingateacher’sintuitive

judgement,heorsheshouldbeabletodecidewhetheritisclosertothe

descriptors“Allthetime”or“Notatall”.Thesearegeneralindicatorsthat

probablymaychangeafterafewweeksormonthsofintervention.Theteacher

canusethistogaugeandrecordthegeneralbehavioursofaclassatdifferent

juncturesinasemester(ratherthandailyorweekly)andtomakenecessary

adjustmentinhisorherinstructionalstrategies.

Table 4: Assessing students’ SDL behaviours

BehaviouralIndicators Frequency Reflection

Notatall Allthetime Evidenceoflackoflearning

opportunities

Strategiestoprovidelearning

opportunities

HowICTcouldsupportthe

strategiesSDLDimension1:Ownershipoflearning

Studentsidentifyand

articulatetheirown

learninggoals

     

     

Students determine 

learning goals and identify 

learning tasks to achieve 

the goals 

           

     

Students chart their 

learning process              

     

Students challenge 

themselves and set the 

standards for the 

achievement of their 

learning goals 

           

   

 

 

55  

BehaviouralIndicators Frequency Reflection

Notatall Allthetime Evidenceoflackoflearning

opportunities

Strategiestoprovidelearning

opportunities

HowICTcouldsupportthe

strategiesSDL Dimension 2: Management and monitoring of own learning 

Students explore a range 

of possibilities and make 

sound decisions 

           

     

Students formulate 

questions and generate 

relevant inquiries 

           

     

Students self‐plan and 

self‐manage their time            

     

Students critically reflect 

on their learning and 

initiate gathering of 

feedback from teachers 

and peers to achieve their 

learning goal     

           

     

 

 

SDL Dimension 3: Extension of own learning 

Students apply what they 

have learnt to new 

contexts   

           

     

Students utilize the skills 

that they have acquired to 

learn beyond the 

curriculum content 

           

     

 

 

A caveat is that this instrument uses behavioural indicators, which may not

reveal covert thinking. For example, a student can be reflecting on his or her

performancebutthethoughtsmaynotbecapturedaswriting.Askingstudentsto

keep a reflection log or interviewing the students can complement this

instrument. If the frequency of behaviour is lower than expected and there is

56  

evidence that it is due to insufficient opportunities for the students to

demonstrate their skills, the teacher can then think of ways to provide these

opportunities. Another possible reason is that the students need further

developmentinSDL.Ateachercanalsoassesshis/herownscaffoldingstrategies

infosteringSDLamongstthestudents.

Teachers’self‐assessmentofscaffoldingstudentsforSDL

Table 5 is an example of what a teacher can do to reflect on the roles of the

teachers in providing support to engage the students in SDL. These are

complementaryrolesinthethreesalientaspectsofSDL.

Table 5: Teachers’ self-assessment of scaffolding for SDL

Frequency Reflection Behavioural

IndicatorsNotatall Allthetime Evidencethat

studentslackcompetency

Strategiesforenhancedscaffolding

HowICTcould

supportthestrategies

Student‐teacherslearningpartnership

Teachersnegotiate

andprovide

scaffoldtostudents

toenablethemto

developalearning

contracttoachieve

theirintended

learninggoals

Teachersprovide

supportfor

studentstoplan

andcharttheir

learningpath

Teachersprovide

supportfor

studentstodevelop

self‐evaluation

criteria

57  

Frequency Reflection Behavioural

IndicatorsNotatall Allthetime Evidencethat

studentslackcompetency

Strategiesforenhancedscaffolding

HowICTcould

supportthestrategies

Conditionsforstudents’self‐managementandmonitoringoftheirlearning

Teacherstoidentify

relevantskillsthat

studentsneed(e.g.

goalsetting,

managingand

planninglearning,

resource

management)soas

toenablestudents

tobecomeefficient

intheirlearning

Experiencesforextensionofstudents’learning

Teachersprovide

learningcontexts

conduciveto

broadenand

deepenstudents’

learning

Teachersinitially

challengestudents

andthengradually

encouragestudents

tochallenge

themselvessoasto

sethighstandards

ofachievement

The exampleswe provide in this chapterworkwellwith the design principles

thatwe laidout inChapter2.Although thereare suggestionsonwaysofusing

theserubricsandthelearningportfolio,theseassessmentmeansareflexibleand

open to other informed uses by the teachers. For instance, to assess both

58  

students’ and teachers’ readiness for SDL, Table 4 and 5 can be used before

designinga lesson that fostersSDL.Both tables canalsobeused to review the

extentsofSDLthathavetakenplaceaftersomeinitialeffortsaremadetofoster

SDLintheclassroom.ThewaysofassessingSDLarebynomeansexhaustiveand

definitelyneedsextendedthoughtwhenappliedtoactualpracticeinSingapore’s

context. It is our intention that this chapter can expand Singapore teachers’

current understanding of assessment and kick start some possible ways of

assessingSDLamongthestudents.

59  

ConcludingThoughts

In this monograph, we attend to the notions of SDL that are of relevance to

formalschoolingwithintheSingaporecontext.WhileSDLcouldbemorelikelyto

take place in informal contexts, particularly outside schools, we focus on how

SDL can be fostered within the formal curricula in Singapore. Ideas on SDL

demonstrate that it isuseful for thestudents tohave theopportunities toown,

manage,monitorandreflectupontheirlearningenterprise.AlongsideSDL,other

21stcenturyskillsalsobecometheby‐productofparticipatinginsuchawayof

learning.WheninculcatingSDLinourformalschooling, teachersshouldalways

bearinmindthatthestartingpointisthelearnerandrespectthereforeshouldbe

giventothelearnerautonomy,interestsandvisionoflearning.Thelearnerand

hisworldcanbeperceivedasresourcestobe leveragedforclassroomteaching

andlearning.

60  

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