Scots - Mercator Research

Scots

The Scots Language ineducation in Scotland

This document was published by Mercator-Education with financial support from the FryskeAkademy and the European Commission (DG: Culture and Education).

ISSN: 1570-1239

© Mercator-Education, 2002

The content of this publication may be reproduced in print, except for commercial purposes,provided that the extract is proceeded by a complete reference to Mercator-Education:European Network for Regional or Minority Languages and Education.

Mercator-EducationP.O. Box 548900 AB Ljouwert/LeeuwardenThe Netherlandstel: +31-58-2343063fax: +31-58-2131409e-mail: [email protected]: www.mercator-education.org

This regional dossier was established by Liz Niven. Important contributions were provided byIseabail Macleod of the Scottish National Dictionary Association. Longer quotes were takenfrom the Gaelic dossier in our series by kind permission of the author, A.G.Boyd Robertson ofStrathclyde University, who has also assisted in the revision together with Ronnie Renton andJim Alison. Unless stated otherwise, the data reflect the situation in the school year 2001.

The writer wishes to acknowledge the support of the Scots Language Resource Centre.

From 1999 onwards is Alie van der Schaaf has been responsible for the edition of theMercator regional dossier series.

Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Pre-school education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Primary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Secondary education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

5 Vocational education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

6 Higher education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

7 Adult Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

8 Educational research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

9 Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

10 Summary statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

Educational system in Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

References and further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Other websites on minority languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

What can Mercator-education offer you? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

Glossary

ASLS Association for Scottish Literary StudiesFE Further EducationGRO General Register OfficeGTCS General Teaching Council for ScotlandHMIE Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of EducationHNC Higher National CertificateHND Higher National DiplomaPDA Professional Development AwardSCCC Scottish Consultative Council on the CurriculumSCET Scottish Council for Educational TechnologySCRE Scottish Council for Research in EducationSEED Scottish Executive Education DepartmentSOEID Scottish Office for Education and Industry Department SQA Scottish Qualifications AuthoritySSE Scottish Standard EnglishSVQ Scottish Vocational QualificationUHIMI University of the Highlands and Islands Millennium Institute

1 Regional dossier Scots

Foreword

background For several years now, Mercator-Education has made effortsto achieve one of its principal goals: to gather, store anddistribute information on minority language education inEuropean regions. Regional or minority languages arelanguages which differ from the official language of thestate where they are spoken and which are traditionally usedwithin a given territory by nationals of that state who form agroup numerically smaller than the rest of the population.To date, Mercator-Education has been successful inestablishing a computerised data bank containing biblio-graphic data, information about people and organisationsinvolved with minority language issues. It has publisheddata collected during four inventory studies on pre-schooleducation, primary education, learning materials and teachertraining. In addition there is a need for documents whichgive a brief outline of the most essential features of theeducational system of regions with an autochthonouslesser-used language. With the establishment of regionaldossiers we intend to meet this need.

aim Regional dossiers aim at providing concise descriptive in-formation and basic educational statistics about minoritylanguage education in a specific region of the EuropeanUnion. This kind of information, such as features of theeducational system, recent educational policies, division ofresponsibilities, main actors, legal arrangements, supportstructures and also quantitative information on the numberof schools, teachers, pupils and financial investments, canserve several purposes.

target group Policy makers, researchers, teachers, students and journal-ists may use the information provided to assess develop-ments in European minority language schooling. They canalso use a regional dossier as a first orientation towardsfurther research or as a source of ideas for improvingeducational provision in their own region.

Education and lesser used languages 2

link with EURYDICE In order to link these regional descriptions with those ofnational educational systems, it was decided to follow theformat used by EURYDICE, the European education in-formation network in the European Union. EURYDICE pro-vides information on the administration and structure ofeducation in member states of the European Union. Theinformation provided in the regional dossiers is focussed onlanguage use at the various levels of education.

contents The remainder of this dossier consists firstly of an intro-duction to the region being studied, followed by six sectionswhich each deal with a specific level of the educationalsystem. These brief descriptions contain factual informationpresented in a readily accessible way. Sections eight to tencover research, prospects and summary statistics. Fordetailed information and political discussions about lan-guage use at the various levels of education, the reader isreferred to other sources.

1 Introduction

language Scots, an Indo-European, Germanic language like English,is descended from Anglo-Saxon, specifically from anorthern form of it whose speakers had reached the southeast of what is now Scotland by the seventh century AD. Bythis time too, the Scots had come from Ireland with theirGaelic language, and they gradually began to extend theirpower till, by the eleventh century, the King of Scots ruledover most of what is now mainland Scotland, with Gaelic asthe dominant language. However, from the eleventh century,strong southern influences came to bear. ManyAnglo-Norman noble families and monasteries moved upfrom north-east England. Although their own language wasNorman-French, that of their retainers and followers was aform of northern English with strong Scandinavianinfluences noticeable in modern Scots. This developing


language, then known as Inglis, spread very rapidly,especially through trade in the newly-founded burghs, andsoon reached most of the east and south-west of the country.Cultural contact led to the importation of new words into thelanguage, from French, Latin, Dutch and Gaelic.Written records in Scots survive from the late fourteenthcentury onwards. By the early sixteenth century, Scots waswell on the way to becoming an all-purpose nationallanguage, just as modern English was developing south ofthe border. (Gaelic was by now confined to western andnorthern areas and the Western Isles).Events however, soon led to a process of anglicizationwhich has continued to this day. The Scottish Reformationin 1560, the Union of the Crowns in 1603 when the court ofJames V1 moved to London, the Union of the Parliaments in1707 caused English to become the language of governmentand formal society, though the vast majority of peoplecontinued to speak Scots.

languagecharacteristics

The Scots language has a wide range of dialects. In Shetlandand Orkney, there is strong Norse influence while mainlandScotland has three main dialect divisions. The ScottishNational Dictionary refers to major dialect divisions:Shetland and Orkney, North, Central, and South. North isdivided into North and North East, Central into East Central,West Central, and South West Central. Scots is also spokenin Northern Ireland where it is known as Ulster Scots; thisdossier will concern itself only with Scots spoken inScotland.One of the greatest barriers to Scots being acknowledged asa distinct language in Scotland is its close proximity toEnglish. As both are Germanic languages, from a commonroot and sharing much vocabulary, modern Scots tends toexist on a continuum with broad Scots at one end andScottish Standard English (SSE) at the other. This situationis roughly similar to the continuum that exists in Dutch/German and Danish/ Norwegian. No controversy exists withthese languages in establishing whether they are dialects orlanguages. The Scots at the broad end of the continuum is


phonologically, grammatically, lexically and idiomaticallyquite different from English. However, for many Scots,particularly in urban areas, their language might contain amixture of English with remains of a Scots grammaticalstructure. All this leads to a denigration of the status ofScots and the frequent accusation that the language ismerely an inferior version of English, the better-knownworld language.The influence of the mass media and education, mainlydelivered in English, hascontributed to the weakening ofScots as a language of prestige, although some gradualchanges in this situation are occasionally becoming evident.In the Scottish Parliament, in recess from 1707 until 1999,there is now a Cross Party Group on the Scots language. inthe Scottish Parliament in recess since 1707 until Scotlandand England united politically in 1999 The stated aim of thisgroup is to ’promote the cause of Scots, inform Members ofthe culture and heritage of the language and highlight theneed for action to support it.’ The Group will shortlylaunch a Declaration of Linguistic Rights for Scots,modelled on the Barcelona Universal Declaration ofLinguistic Rights.There is frequent debate, amongst language interest groups,about standardisation of the language. There are variationsin the spelling of much Scots vocabulary from region toregion. Currently, the Scottish National Dictionary As-sociation presents the most common spelling as the head-word in an entry, followed by other less common variations.Many Scots users, particularly creative writers, prefer toretain all the variations in Scots orthography. There is,however, another body of Scots speakers and writers whowould like to see some form of standardisation. Within thisgroup there is debate about which form of Scots shouldbecome the standard.

population Statistics on the number of Scots speakers are estimates onlyas a language question has not been included in any nationalCensus despite strong campaigning. According to theGeneral Register Office which administers the national


Census, statistics cannot easily be collated for Scots becausemany respondents would not be certain how to respond tothe central question asked i.e. ’Do you speak Scots?’However, some statistics are available from a 1996 trialsurvey from the General Register Office (GRO) for the 2001Census which suggested an estimated 1.5 million speakers.In another research study in 1995, Aberdeen UniversityScots Leid Quorum indicated a statistic of 2.7 millionspeakers. The GRO researchers acknowledge that their ownresearch questions were not as detailed or systematic asthose of Aberdeen University, including only rearedspeakers of the language and not including learners. Thesubstantially greater statistic from the Aberdeen Universityresearch results from an additional clause in the question’Do you speak Scots?’ When respondents were given thefurther prompt of ’…or a dialect of Scots such as Borderetc’ greater recognition was recorded. Until there is agreater recognition that what they speak is actually Scotsand not badly pronounced, grammatically inferior English,the question will not be included. According to the GROthere is not yet sufficient linguistic self-awareness amongstthe Scottish populace to record statistics accurately.Language activists continue to lobby the Register to includethe question, nevertheless, in the hope that this itself willraise the level of awareness about the language and promptthe population to consider its use of language.Until the Government agrees to include a Scots languagequestion in the national Census, it remains difficult toprovide more accurate figures. In the meantime, there seemsto be widespread consensus that, across all of mainlandScotland, a large number of Scottish pupils and theirfamilies are Scots speakers in some form or another.(Boththe quoted research studies above only asked questions ofpeople over 18 years old.) Speakers of the language can befound in all parts of Scotland, less so in the traditionallyGaelic speaking Highlands and Islands. The ScottishNational Dictionary refers to major dialect divisions:Shetland and Orkney, North, Central, and South (North is


divided into North and North East, Central into East Central,West Central, and South West Central. Scots has influenced the language of overseas communitiesin Canada, USA, Australia and New Zealand, their Scotsbeing somewhat diluted as a result of intermarriage andlengthy residence abroad.

status At the moment, the Scots Language does not have officialstatus in the is not recognised as an official language of theUnited Kingdom and there is no national legislation as suchto protect and maintain the language. However, in 2001,Scots was given Part II recognition through the EuropeanCharter for Minority Languages. In reality this has had littleeffect so far on the treatment of the language in Scotland orin the educational arrangements for the language inScotland.

status of languageeducation

Scots currently has no official status in the educationsystem.

education system Although part of the United Kingdom, Scotland has its owneducational system, which is distinct from that of England,Wales and Northern Ireland. Education is one of the powersdevolved from Westminster to the Scottish Parliament andthere is a Minister for Education and an EducationDepartment within the Scottish Executive.As with the rest of the UK, schooling is compulsory for allchildren between the ages of 5 and 16. There is nurseryprovision at age 4 and pupils may elect to stay on at schoolfor one or two years beyond the statutory school-leavingage. 95% of pupils are educated in the public sector and, ofthese, around 17% are educated in denominational publicschools, almost all Roman Catholic. Most private schoolsare located in the cities and towns and the great majority ofdenominational schools are located in urban areas inLowland Scotland.

administration The administration of education in Scotland operates at twolevels, state and local authority. Overall responsibility for


state-funded education lies with the Scottish ExecutiveEducation Department (SEED). The Minister for Educationis ultimately responsible for educational policy but receivesadvice and guidance from the Department and from otherrelevant agencies and major funding decisions are taken bythe Minister.Educational provision at local level is determined by each ofthe 32 local authorities. Although funded mainly by centralgovernment block grant, the local authority determines theconfiguration and level of local provision and is responsiblefor implementing national policies and guidelines within itsarea. Recruitment of teachers, provision of buildings andresources and in-service teacher training are among theresponsibilities of the local authorities. In recent years, anumber of functions have been devolved from localauthority to school level and parents have been given agreater stake in the running of schools through enhancementof the role and powers of School Boards.

inspection Within SEED, Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Education(HMIE) are responsible for inspecting schools, assessing thequality of education at all levels of the statutory system andadvising on issues relating to standards. Until recently,HMIE also had a substantial role in policy formulation.Local authorities have Quality Assurance units which mirrorthe functions of the HMIE and seek to raise standardslocally.Her Majesty’s Inspector of Schools’ report on English in theseries ’Effective Learning and Teaching in ScottishSecondary Schools’ (1992) states ’it should be the aim ofEnglish teaching throughout the secondary school todevelop the capacity of every pupil to use, understand andappreciate the native language in its Scots and Englishforms.’1

However, on the evidence of inspections carried out in mostschools, this aim, in reference to Scots, is rarely met. It isalso rare that the Inspectorate enquire of schools whetherany attempt is being made to develop pupils’ capacity withregard to Scots.


curriculum andassessment

In June 1993, when the Scottish Office Education De-partment issued National Guidelines on the education of5-14 year olds, the Guidelines advocated the inclusion ofScots literature in the curriculum and the ScottishConsultative Council on the Curriculum began producingteaching materials in support of this inclusive policy. TheNational Guidelines, in particular English Language, butalso the Expressive Arts and Personal and Social develop-ment, contained opportunities for including Scots in thecurriculum. The Scottish Executive states the Guidelinesaim which was to ’foster a sense of personal and nationalidentity through pupils’ experience and study of Scotswriting and Scots song and through their consciousawareness and use of Scots language’.All state-funded schools comply to some extent with theNational Guidelines issued by the Scottish Executive. Thereare Documents advising on curricular content for EnglishLanguage (in which Scots language is subsumed),Environmental Studies, Expressive Arts, Religious andMoral Education. In recent years, assessment has beengradually introduced into the primary school stages in theform of externally produced tests which can be administeredat a time deemed appropriate by the individual teacher.Pupils are assessed at some point in Primary 4 and Primary7 in curricular areas such as Language and Maths. Allsecondary schools present pupils for the nationally agreedStandard Grade, Higher and Advanced Higherexaminations. Standard Grades in chosen subjects may beexamined after four years of secondary education, Highersafter five years and Advanced Higher after six years. Theexaminations are administered by the Scottish QualificationsAuthority (SQA) and recent alterations to the Higher andAdvanced Higher examinations are still ongoing in somesubject areas.In Scotland, because there are National Guidelines ratherthan a compulsory curriculum as in England and Wales,teachers are not obliged to include any Scots language


element in their classrooms, even although supportivestatements have been made in official documents.The Scottish Executive’s Education Department, in their’Scots Language Factsheet’, endorses this democraticstance, stating that the curriculum in Scotland is not pre-scribed by statute and that the responsibility for the deliveryand content of Scots language in the curriculum rests withindividual education authorities and headteachers. Thisincludes both the extent to which Scots is included in thecurriculum and the level of in-service teacher trainingprovided.

support structures Learning and Teaching Scotland is the national body whichprovides advice to the Scottish Executive Education Depart-ment. Formed from two previous organisations, the ScottishConsultative Council on the Curriculum (SCCC) and theScottish Council for Educational Technology (SCET), thisbody also produces support material for schools. Localauthority advisers and resource centres are available forschool support in certain areas.

2 Pre-school education

target group Since 1999 there has been substantial provision of pre-school education for children aged three and four with aguaranteed place in pre-school for all four-year-old children.Nursery education is administered by local authorities butprivate and voluntary sector agencies can also providefacilities.

legislation Pre-school education is non-statutory but is governed bychild-care legislation included in the Children’s Act of 1999and the Children (Scotland) Act of 1995.

language use There are no Scots medium playgroups or nurseries. Nosubstantial group of Scots-speaking parents have, as yet,united to request or provide a Scots medium playgroup. The increased provision of nurseries and playgroups for


Scottish children has provided an earlier opportunity forchildren to leave the home environment and language.Observations have been made by the Scots LanguageResource Centre that, without Scots speakers in thenurseries and Scots materials such as stories, songs andnursery rhymes, the anglicisation of children’s speech isbeing started at an even earlier age than previously. As with the parents of school-age children, many familieswish to encourage better English in their offspring, pre-suming that their broad Scots is not compatible with thisaim. This opinion still exists because young parents continueto believe that their own school experience, wherein theywere taught not to value Scots, is correct. Indeed, manyparents view Scots as a hindrance to their children’s futureeducational and vocational aims even although the familiescontinue to speak it fluently.The 1997 consultation document for ’Education in the EarlyYears’ from Scottish Office for Education and IndustryDepartment (SOEID) stated ’Discussion of educationalpriorities would be incomplete without special reference toGaelic-medium pre-school education’. The Nationalguidance on A Curriculum Framework for Children 3-5issued in 1999 by the Scottish Consultative Committee onthe Curriculum (Scottish CCC) makes reference to the useof Gaelic as a medium of learning in pre-school centres, butdoes not acknowledge the possible existence of any Scotsdimension in the language of young children. The EarlyIntervention scheme was launched in 1999 but, despitelobbying by activists, no reference was made in thedocument to Scots.

teacher training A range of qualifications is available to nursery schoolteachers and assistants. Teachers are required to have aprimary teaching qualification and an optional Early YearsEducation certificate. Scottish Vocational Qualifications(SVQs) in Early Child Care and Education are available tonursery assistants. No qualifications exist for nurseryteachers or assistants to train in Scots language.


3 Primary education

target group Primary education is compulsory for seven years for allchildren from five years of age.

structure Curriculum and assessment in primary schools is governedby the 5-14 National Guidelines devised by national com-mittees and working groups representative of the teachingprofession and interested parties. The curriculum is dividedinto five broad areas, Language, Mathematics, Environ-mental Studies, Expressive Arts and Religious and MoralEducation. The Language area includes English, Gaelic andModern Languages, but no Scots.The 5-14 Curriculum extends into the first two years ofsecondary school and is divided into five levels. Theselevels define attainment targets in various strands of activitywithin the curricular area. Programmes of study to facilitatethe achievement at all levels and there is a system ofnational testing in core subject areas at Level B and LevelD. The core subject areas are Language and Maths. The5-14 Guidelines afford schools considerable autonomy inimplementing the Guidelines, in selecting what to teach andin deciding how to teach it.

legislation The 1980 Education (Scotland) Act and the Standards inScotland’s Schools Act (2000) govern primary schooleducation.

language use Scots mainly features in primary schools as part of the studyof poetry and prose. It is not taught as a subject and is usedas the medium of instruction only if the teacher’s ownlanguage happens to be Scots, although many teachersprefer to deliver lessons in Scottish Standard English ratherthan Scots.Scottish Office Education Department’s NationalGuidelines on English 5-14 has been the main officialdocument since 1991.This document makes several


references to non-standard English and Scots in sections onScottish Culture and Diversity of Language and Culture.The document recognises that the language of a pupil ’willsometimes be a dialect and that pupils should be allowed touse their mother tongue throughout the school withcommunity languages displayed, for example, on the class-room walls and used in notices’.The Document also states that ’schools’ first tasks are tovalue pupils’ spoken language and help pupils to be con-fident and creative in their own language and becomeaware of language diversity, appreciating the range ofaccents. Pupils should be introduced to stories, poems andtexts which use dialect…’

No formal assessment has been carried out to establish howwidespread the teaching of Scots is in Scottish primaryschools. Any evidence has been gathered through the studyof schools offering in-service training to staff, the responsesof teachers to random questioning and the results of a fewoptional studies by students in Teacher Education In-stitutions. It is widely accepted that the inclusion of Scotsvaries greatly across the country, with interested individualsteaching pupils about Scots (though not necessarily inScots), and non-interested teachers omitting it entirely fromthe curriculum.

4 Secondary education

target group Secondary education is compulsory for all young peoplefrom the ages of twelve till the age of sixteen. Many remainat school for a further two years until the age of eighteen.

structure The curriculum of the first two years of secondary schoolfollows the 5-14 curriculum, while the next two, Years 3 and4, are covered by the Standard Grade syllabus. The HigherStill syllabus and assessment arrangements govern thecurriculum during the optional 5th and 6th years. Thesecondary school is divided into stages known as lowerschool, middle school and upper school.


The curriculum is set, in the main, from Scottish ExecutiveEducation Department guidelines, although local educationauthorities have influence over the curricula and timetablingof their own schools.

legislation The main instrument of legislation governing secondaryeducation is the 1980 Education (Scotland) Act passed bythe Westminster Government. The provisions of this Acthave been supplemented by pieces of legislation such as theScottish Parliament’s Standards in Schools etc Act 2000.

language use Scots-language teaching is subsumed into the Englishdepartments of Scottish secondary schools. There is nodiscrete department for Scots and it is not taught as alanguage. Generally, if included in the curriculum, it isintroduced to the pupils through literature in Scots. Someteachers whose natural voice is Scots will deliver lessons inthis although there are no written textbooks in which themedium of instruction is Scots. For the teacher of English,the model user of ’good speech’, there are considerabledifficulties incurred in using Scots as the medium ofeducation. This issue has never been discussed at manage-ment level and is not made clear in any Executive Guide-lines. It is compulsory at Higher level that pupils study aScottish text although, in practice, this might be written inEnglish rather than Scots language. It is, therefore, possiblefor some pupils to receive no introduction to Scots literatureor language throughout the duration of their school life. Formany pupils the 25th January, the birthdate of Robert Burns,the 18th century Scots poet, is a time of celebration of Scotslanguage and poetry when the bard’s works are recited.During this time, Scots is admired and presented to pupils asa worthy language. It is of great concern to supporters of thelanguage that, outwith 25th January, the status of thelanguage sinks again and Scots receives scant attention inschools, even for fluent native speakers of Scots whosefamily language is Scots.Scots is sometimes used as the language of instruction inother subject departments by Scots-speaking secondary


teachers. There is no official schools’ policy on the use ofScots by teaching staff. There is still reported condemnationof pupils who speak Scots. Many pupils give anecdotalinformation of their own personal experiences in which theyare asked to repeat statements in English rather than Scots,the most common being the use of ’yes’ being encouragedrather ’aye’. Generally, the use of Scots by pupils andteachers is not discussed or given consideration as an issueof importance.The Government’s Higher Still programme of assessment forEnglish and Communication (1997) encourages ’substantialemphasis on Scottish texts and the languages in which theyare expressed’. The study (though not examination) of aScottish text is still demanded by syllabus arrangements butthere is no compulsory assessment of it. In effect, it has beendropped. It is possible for a pupil to undertake a Scottishlanguage topic as a specialist study for Higher English. Theopportunity is seldom taken. Candidates are encouraged ’towrite in Scots where appropriate’ as part of their creativewriting paper.At Advanced Higher Level, in the sixth year of secondaryeducation, there are optional units on Scottish Language.Again the literature sections might be set in, or based upon.Scottish culture and society but are written in English. TheScottish Language optional paper requires in-depth focus onScots language through various topics. This is the first timeScots language has become examinable at this level in the Curriculum. The first paper was set for examination in 2001although no pupils have yet opted to take it.

Learning and Teaching Scotland is the chief advisory bodyto the Scottish Executive Education Department on teachingand learning materials in Scotland. Over the years it hasprovided statements within its literature in support of Scotslanguage and literature. 1976 Scottish Literature in the Secondary School: TheScottish Education Department’s Scottish Central Committeeon English (SCCE) produced a report on the study ofScottish Literature in Schools: Scottish Literature in the


Secondary School. (1976) The chapter on Scots was pre-ceded by a caveat inserted by the publishing body. Thisstated that two topics lay outside the remit of thesub-committee but seemed too important to ignore. Thesewere the Scots Language and the Gaelic Literary Tradition.The document made clear that the statements on these topicswere the personal views of two authorities on Scots andGaelic, that they were personal statements and did notnecessarily reflect the views of the then Scottish CentralCommittee on English. The SCCE stated that it recognisedthat these areas of knowledge were too little studied by Scotsteachers of English.

teaching material The situation for secondary-school materials is similar to thatof the primary schools with commercial publishers beingreluctant to produce Scots language material for a relativelysmall market. Occasionally, education authorities orindividual teachers prepare their own material. In 1996 ’TheKist/A’ Chiste’ Scottish Languages Project was launched, ananthology of Scots and Gaelic literature accompanied byaudio tapes, teacher and classroom support materials. Thiswas co-funded by the Scottish Consultative Council on theCurriculum and a commercial London publisher. Materialwas supplied by education authorities across the country. Itis now partially out-of-print. Only the anthology is availableand there are no immediate plans for reprint. AnotherLondon publisher has launched ’Turnstones 1’, a languagebook for first year secondary pupils in 2001. The first of aset of six books for each year of the secondary curriculum,these books incorporate Scots and English together.The Association for Scottish Literary Studies (ASLS), anacademic body, has for many years produced materialssuitable for the secondary Scottish curriculum. Various othersmall publishers produce limited amounts of Scots materialwhen grant funding is available.Shorter dictionaries, some specifically for schools, arepublished by the Scottish National Dictionary Association.


5 Vocational education

target group Vocational education begins after the school-leaving age of16.

structure Vocational education is provided mainly by schools andFurther Education colleges. Following a major Governmentreview, a new system of Post 16 education was put in placein 1999. Known as Higher Still, the new system created aunified curriculum and assessment structure that embracespost-compulsory education and training below Highereducation level. It seeks to remove artificial barriers be-tween academic and vocational subjects and aims to provideopportunity for all students to continue their studies at alevel appropriate to them. Higher Still qualifications areoffered in over 50 subject areas and are available at fivedifferent levels - Access, Intermediate 1, Intermediate 2,Higher and Advanced Higher. A key feature of the newqualifications is that they comprise units which can be takenindividually, grouped together into courses or built up intolarger Scottish Group Awards. A Higher Still courseconsists of 3 units, each requiring 40 hours of study. Underthe Higher Still programme, two separate certification bodieshave been brought together under one new agency known asthe Scottish Qualifications Authority which administers andcertificates the new system of National Qualifications.In addition to the Higher Still National Qualificationscourses, Further Education (FE) colleges offer a range ofvocational qualifications including Higher NationalCertificates (HNCs), Higher National Diplomas (HNDs),Professional Development Awards (PDAs) and ScottishVocational Qualifications (SVQs).

legislation Vocational education lies within the remit of two depart-ments of the Scottish Executive – the Department ofEducation and the Department of Enterprise and LifelongLearning. School education is the responsibility of theDepartment of Education, while further education is over-


seen by the Department of Enterprise and Lifelong Learning.Vocational education in schools is governed by the 1981Education (Scotland) Act and the Scottish Parliament’sStandards in Scotland’s Schools etc. Act 2000. Scotland’s 46 further education colleges, most of which usedto be run by local authorities, became independent entitiesfollowing legislation in 1992. The colleges are governed bythe 1992 Further and Higher Education Act (Scotland) andare funded by the Scottish Further Education FundingCouncil.

language use Scots is not taught as a subject in any Vocational or Furthereducational establishment. The lecturer may speak inform-ally in Scots, or occasionally deliver lectures through themedium of Scots or Scottish-English, if it is the lecturer’snative language. There is no official policy on the use ofScots in FE.

6 Higher education

structure The number of universities in Scotland has increased from 8to 13 with the upgrading in the 1990s of five formerpolytechnics to university status. Of the 13, 10 are located inthe cities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and Dundee.The universities of Aberdeen, Edinburgh, Glasgow and StAndrews are the longest established and traditionaluniversities.Students are accepted into the universities by successfullygaining passes at an appropriate level in Higher Grades,Advanced Higher and A level examinations. The number ofuniversities in Scotland has increased from 8 to 13 in recentyears mainly by colleges being given university status.The Higher Education sector also includes a number of otherinstitutions such as The Royal Scottish Academy of Musicand Drama and the Glasgow School of Art.Universities and other Higher Education institutions arefunded by the Scottish Higher Education Funding Council.


Thirteen Further Education colleges and institutions in thenorth of Scotland, including the Gaelic College in the Isle ofSkye and Lews Castle, have combined in a bid to winuniversity status. The proposed University of the Highlandsand Islands would be a federal collegiate institution withcampuses throughout the Highlands and Islands. The project,which has won the backing of the Westminster Governmentand Scottish Executive, is now known as the UHIMillennium Institute (UHIMI). The Institute aims to gain fulluniversity status within the next five years.In the south west of Scotland a new academic establishmenthas been sited on the Crichton Campus in Dumfries. Thissite hosts a Glasgow University Campus which deliversHumanities courses including Scottish Studies. It is also anumbrella campus for several vocational colleges such asNursing and Business and intends to develop further.

language use Extensive undergraduate teaching of Scots is largelyconfined to the English Language Department at Edinburghand Glasgow Universities. Teaching about the history anddevelopment of Scots currently forms part of the under-graduate provision in the English Language Departments atboth universities and is included in English classes; Glasgowand Aberdeen also include an optional module on ’ScotsLanguage’ in a taught Master’s degree aimed at teachersre-training for the new Higher and Advanced Highercurriculum. A ’primer’ to encourage undergraduate interestand research into Scots is planned for publication byEdinburgh University Press in 2002.Most students write in English at university level althoughone documented example exists of a university student com-pleting all his degree examinations in Scots. There are no settests in Scots at any level even when the subject beingexamined is Scots.Scots is used in classes as the language of instruction if it isthe native voice of a lecturer or student. There is no formalpolicy about the use of Scots.

teacher training All teachers must train for secondary education through a


one year post-graduate course after completing their uni-versity degree. This presents students with a PostgraduateCertificate in Education (Secondary). Teachers training forprimary education may follow this method also, graduatingwith an equivalent Primary Certificate, but many choose toenter the four-year Bachelor of Education (Honours) Degree.Training is delivered in seven Teacher Education Institutionswhich are schools or faculties of a University. Trainee teachers do not require to study Scots and there is norequirement for them to do so. Generally, reference to thelanguage exists in the English Department. There are nocourses or certificates available for trainee teachers seekingexpertise on Scots. The only concentration possible on Scotsduring teacher-training is when a student elects to researchand write about Scots as part of a dissertation or thesis.Recently, the Faculty of Education of Strathclyde Universityintroduced a taster session (compulsory for all 3rd yearB.Eds) of two hours on promoting Scots in the classroomand an Extended Study(10 hours) for third year students(around 15 each year). This year there are 7 students whohave chosen Scots as their major project subject in 4th year.

in-service training There is no systematic or regular provision of in-servicetraining for teachers at secondary level. All in-service is atthe discretion of individual education authorities in Scotland.Priorities of the Scottish Executive resulting in increasedfunding for particular subject areas can influence in-serviceprovision.Provision for Scots language in in-service reached aparticularly high level in 1992 after the publication of the5-14 National Guidelines from the Scottish Executive. AsScottish culture was given supportive encouragement in thedocument, some education authorities provided in-servicetraining for staff. Since then the focus has gradually lessenedand fewer Scots In-service opportunities are provided.Intermittently, courses are offered such as a series of eveningworkshops at Newbattle Abbey College in relation to thenew Scottish Language Advanced Higher. The annual ASLS“Schools and Further Education Conference” offers a


language paper each year and the ASLS LanguageCommittee runs regular courses in Scots. There is stillclearly a desire for training as evidenced by attendance atconferences, including a recent co-organised event by ateacher education institution, the Scots Language ResourceCentre and the Cross Party Group for Scots language in theScottish Parliament. There is, however, no ScottishExecutive Education Department funding specifically forScots.

pre-service training The situation is similar for pre-service (initial training)training in Teacher Education Institutions. Some optionalunits are available at Bachelor of Education degree level anda small number of students choose to write a dissertation onScots language in the curriculum. Strathclyde University now run a taster session (compulsoryfor all 3rd year B.Eds) of two hours on promoting Scots inthe classroom and an Extended Study(10 hours) for thirdyear students (around 15 each year). Some students (7 in2001)have chosen Scots as their major project subject in 4thyear. Anecdotal evidence suggests that while students are notencouraged to teach through the medium of Scots duringteaching practice, they are supported in their teaching ofScottish literature in Scots, if they wish to do so.

teaching material The provision of instructional material for Scots has beenfraught with difficulties for many years. Many Scottishpublishers regard Scots as a minority interest and notcommercially viable and thus refuse to publish material in,or about, Scots for fear of low sales. Government-supportedinitiatives have been few and usually require support from acommercial publisher. The Scottish National Dictionary Association has producedschool materials in recent years and, when funding allows, iscommitted to future publications. Several small publisherssuch as Merlin Press, Watergaw and Scotsoun producededicated Scots language materials for education whenfunding can be found from the Scottish Arts Council oreducation authorities. A substantial Scottish Arts Council


Lottery funded award has recently been made to a group ofindividuals for proposed publication of educational materials(The Itchy-Coo Project). The Scots Language ResourceCentre recently published ’Scotspeak’, text and audiomaterials to assist the teaching of Scots dialectpronunciation.

7 Adult education

structure Education for adults in Scotland is provided by localauthorities through Community Education Departments, byHigher and Further Education institutions through Depart-ments of Adult and Continuing Education and by a range ofpublic and private agencies. The sector has been boosted inthe recent past by Government promotion of the concept ofLifelong Learning and the creation of a ministry in theScottish Parliament for Enterprise and Lifelong Learning.This has led to initiatives such as the introduction ofindividual learning accounts by which an adult undertaking atraining programme receives a contribution (currently £175)towards the cost of the course or class, although this schemewas discontinued in 2001. The emphasis on lifelong learningand the trend towards early retirement from work has led to aburgeoning of provision of daytime classes in universitiesand colleges.

Scots classes Opportunities exist for adults to attend Scots-languageclasses in a small number of locations. Intermittently, uni-versities provide classes for example in Edinburgh, Dundeeand Aberdeen, although often these are less about becominga proficient Scots speaker or literate in the language, andmore focused on cultural and historical aspects of thelanguage or on creative writing.

8 Educational research

Post-graduate research into aspects of Scots takes place atvarious institutions around the world; however, activity is


patchy and is not systematic. Bodies in Scotland that act as afocus for research are:The Elphinstone Institute at the University of Aberdeenwhich focuses particularly on the sociological situation inNorth East Scotland.The Department of Celtic and Scottish Studies, EdinburghUniversity which focuses on ethnology of Scottish folkculture.Finally, in the Scots Corpus, Glasgow and EdinburghUniversity have begun a new grant-funded project to create asearchable computerised corpus of Scotland’s languagesbeginning with written and spoken contemporary Scots/Scottish English. Funded for two years, initially, it is hopedthat this will become a long-term on-going project. A general problem lies in where the academic study of Scotsshould be situated. There are no specific Scots departmentsin Scottish universities. At Edinburgh University, Scotsresearch takes place in the Department of Linguistics andEnglish Language, and also in the Department of Celtic andScottish Studies. At Glasgow University it is in theDepartment of English Language and in the Department ofScottish Literature that the language is studied. Scottishliterature, which includes Scots, is studied in the Englishdepartments at the universities of Edinburgh, Aberdeen,Stirling, St. Andrews and Strathclyde. Scots- languagedictionary research is carried out by Scottish LanguageDictionaries, an independent body based in Edinburgh. Itbuilds on the resources of the Scottish National Dictionaryand the Dictionary of the Older Scottish Tongue and thesehistorical works are currently being converted into electronicforms in the University of Dundee.

9 Prospects

In summary, there is no compulsory Scots education andvery little is taught in schools. The amount taught variesaccording to the enthusiasm and interest of individualteachers. There is a lack of official status for the language


although supportive statements are made in documents. TheSecondary school level may have the best prospects in termsof the study of literature in Scots although the actualencouragement of the spoken language remains a lowpriority.

material The provision of materials remains a cause for concern aspublishing new materials and maintaining resources alreadyin print are areas of major difficulty. Publishers are reluctantto publish for such a small market. Without ring- fencingfunds or providing more assistance for materials andin-service for teachers, the teaching of Scots will continue tobe conducted by a minority of interested teachers.The Glasgow/Edinburgh University launch of a new corpusof Scots text and speech and the recent grant of a NationalLottery Award for the production of educational materialsare important stimuli for the publication of more resources.

legislation The return of a Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh, followingpolitical devolution in the UK, may herald a more optimisticfuture for the Scots language. This is suggested by theformation of a Cross Party Group for Scots Language in theParliament. This group is compiling a Statement ofLinguistic Rights for Scots and the Committee has alsosupported an education conference for school teachers. Another positive development is the ratification of theEuropean Charter for Scots for Part II, although there are noimmediate indications of significant Government support forincreased policy statements or financial assistance for thelanguage in education.Recent Parliamentary statements, in response to questionsraised, have even given cause for concern. The Executivestated that it, ’does not consider that any action is necessaryto comply with the European Charter for Regional orMinority Languages’,and ’has not formulated any policy onthe numbers of speakers of Scots’, and ’has not set anytargets to increase the numbers of Scots speakers’.In spite of this, the current Scots Language Factsheet fromthe Scottish Executive, last updated in April 2001, continues


to make supportive statements. For example, it quotes the5-14 Curricular Guidelines’ statement that their aim is tohelp teachers develop pupils’ communicative abilities andknowledge about language in both standard English andforms of Scots relevant to their experience. In reality, manypupils receive no education in, or about, Scots language andmany report that their spoken language, if Scots, isfrequently not valued.Prospects would be good if the Executive’s objectives weremet:’There is, therefore, continuing support on the part of theScottish Executive, the Scottish Consultative Council on theCurriculum, and the Scottish Qualifications Authority whichis designed to assist schools in making their pupils aware ofthe richness and diversity of language, including Scots, inintroducing them to a range of Scottish literature, and inencouraging them to develop ability to understand and tocommunicate effectively in forms of Scots.’Moreover, the collating of statistics seems unlikely to occurfor some time as it has been decided, by the GeneralRegister Office, that, while the Scottish people continuespeaking Scots and various dialects of it, it has been decidedthat further language awareness raising is required beforethe National Census will include a Scots question in order toprovide statistical evidence.Hence, predicting the prospects for the language is verydifficult at this point. Much work remains to be done atgovernment and educational levels to prevent the situationcontinuing. It is to be hoped that the objectives andprinciples of Part II of the European Charter will eventuallybe met.

public support Another major obstacle is the perception of Scots, by a largemajority of the Scottish people, including good Scotsspeakers, as an inferior version of English, despite its vibrantexistence in family life, literature and society. Greaterinclusion in the media, formal situations and education of theScots language would certainly help to upgrade the inferiorstatus of Scots.


Current international research confirms both the value offirst language literacy as well as the potential economicbenefits of Scots in the field of cultural tourism. It is to behoped these might also assist in improving prospects for thelanguage in coming years.Activists and supporters of the language continue tocampaign very hard to alter the status and provision forScots. Many strive for a structured approach to languageplanning and maintenance and it remains a complex area. Abasic human rights issue is being ignored when fluentspeakers of the language receive no education in or abouttheir own language. Worse still are the examples of childrenwhose Scots is denigrated in the school environment.It would seem logical to take an optimistic viewpoint at atime when Scotland has its own parliament to considerScottish matters, but obstacles clearly remain to hinderprogress.

Endnotes

1. Apart from Standard Scottish English (SSE), broad Scotsis also referred to.

10 Summary Statistics

There are no statistics available on the Scot’s language ineducation.


Education system in Scotland(Eurydice)


References and Further reading

main official textsregulating theteaching of Scots.(These would notbe regarded aslegal texts, but asofficialpublications)

5-14 English Language Guidelines (1991) ScottishExecutive Education DepartmentThe arrangements for examinations contain some Scots Higher Still Development Unit ’Arrangements forEnglish and Communication’ (1997) Edinburgh: Scot-tish CCC

publications Corbett, J. (1997) Language & Scottish Literature.Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

EURYDICE and CEDEFOP (1995) Structures of theeducation and initial training systems in the Europeanunion. Luxembourg: Office for official publications inthe European Community.

5-14 English Language Guidelines (1991) ScottishExecutive Education Department.

Higher Still Development Unit ’Arrangements for Eng-lish and Communication’ (1997) Edinburgh: ScottishCCC

Horsburgh, D. & Murdoch, S. (1998) Kennin yer earsefae yer Alba: the Scottish Office, the Gaelic Lobby andthe Scots Language A Discussion Document, Aberdeen:Aiberdeen Univairstie Scots Leid Quorum.

Jones, C. (1997) Edinburgh History of the ScotsLanguage, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Kay, B. (1986) Scots the Mither Tongue, Darvel:Alloway Publishing.


Lorvik, M. (1995), The Scottis Lass Betrayed? Scots inEnglish Classrooms, Dundee: Scottish ConsultativeCouncil on the Curriculum.

McArthur T. & Aitken A.J. (1979) Languages ofScotland, Edinburgh: Chambers: The Association forScottish Literary Studies. Occasional Paper; number 4.

McClure, D. (1997) Why Scots Matters, Edinburgh:Saltire Society

McLeod, I. & McNeacail, A. (1995) Scotland: alinguistic double helix. Brussels: The European Bureauof Lesser Used Languages (EBLUL).

MacGillivray, A.(ed.)(1997) Teaching ScottishLiterature: Curriculum and Classroom Applications,Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Murdoch, S. (1995) Language Politics in Scotland,Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Scots Leid Quorum.

Niven, L. & Jackson, R. (1998) The Scots Language:Its Place in Education, Dumfries: Watergaw.

Purves, D. (1997) Scots Grammar, Edinburgh: SaltireSociety.

National Cultural Strategy (2000), Edinburgh: ScottishExecutive.

Robertson, A.G. Boyd (2001) Gaelic; the GaelicLanguage in Education. Regional Dossiers Series.Mercator- Education, Fryske Akademy. Ljouwert/Leeuwarden, The Netherlands.

The Scots Language and the Teacher of English inScotland (1975). In: Scottish Literature in theSecondary School: SCCE.


Scots Language Factsheet (2000) Edinburh: ScottishExecutive Education Department, Arts and CulturalHeritage Division.

Scots Language: A Report on the Scots LanguageResearch carried out by The General Register OfficeFor Scotland in 1996. Edinburgh: GNRO for Scotland.

Scottish Consultative Council on the CurriculumScottish-English: The Language Children Bring toSchool (1981), Dundee: SCCC.

Thomson, D, ed, (1988) Gaelic and Scots in Harmony:Proceedings of the Second International Conference onthe Languages of Scotland. Glasgow: University ofGlasgow, Department of Celtic and Scottish Studies.


Addresses

official bodies Scottish Executive Education DepartmentVictoria QuayLeithEdinburghEH6 6QQTel 0131 244 0343Fax 0131 244 0353e-mail:[email protected] http://www.scotland.gov.uk

Learning and Teaching ScotlandGardyne RoadBroughty FerryDundeeDD5 1NYtel: 01382 455053fax:01382 4436445/6e-mail:[email protected]

Scottish Qualifications AuthorityIronmills RoadDalkeithMidlothianEH22 1LEtel 0131 663 6601fax 0131 654 2664e-mail:[email protected]

General Teaching Council for ScotlandClerwood House96 Clermiston Rd.,EdinburghEH112 6UTtel: 0131 314 6000


fax: 0131 314 6001e-mail:[email protected]

Scottish Higher Education Funding Council97 Haymarket StreetEdinburghEH12 5HDtel: 0131 313 6500 fax: 0131 313 6501e-mail:[email protected]

useful contacts Scots Language Resource CentreA.K. Bell LibraryYork PlacePerthPH2 8EPTel 01738 440 199Fax 01738 477 010e-mail:[email protected]://www.pkc.gov.uk/slrc/index.htm

Scottish Language Dictionaries27 George SquareEdinburghEH8 9LDtel/fax 0131 650 4149e-mail:[email protected]://www.snda.org.uk

Scots Language SocietyA.K.Bell LibraryYork PlacePerthPH2 8EPTel 01738 440 199Fax 01738 477 010e-mail: [email protected]


http://www.pkc.uk/slrc/index.htm

Dauvit HorsbrochHonorary Research Fellow,Research Institute of Irish and Scottish Studies,Humanity Manse,19 College Bounds,University of Aberdeen,Old Aberdeen.AB24 3UGtel 01224 274440

Department of Celtic and Scottish StudiesModern Languages Building16 University GardensGlasgow UniversityGlasgowG12 8QQ

Saltire Society9 Fountain Close22 High StreetEdinburghEH1 1TFtel 0131 556 1836e-mail:[email protected]

Association of Scottish Literary Studies (ASLS)c/o Department of Scottish HistoryUniversity of Glasgow9 University GardensGlasgowG12 8QHtel 0141 330 5309

Bibliography of Scottish Literature in Translation(BOSLIT)National Library of Scotland


George IV BridgeEdinburghEH1 1EWtel 0131 226 4531www.nls.uk

Scottish Arts Council12 Manor PlaceEdinburghEH3 7DDtel 0131 240 2443/2444e-mail:help.desk.sac.org.ukwww.sac.org.uk

The Scottish Publishers AssociationScottish Book Centre137 Dundee StreetEdinburghEH11 1BGtel 0131 228 6866e-mail:[email protected]

Scotsoun ProductionsPO Box 7015GlasgowG44 3WJDepartment of Celtic and Scottish StudiesUniversity of Edinburgh


Other websites on minority languages

Mercator www.mercator-central.orgGeneral site of the Mercator-project. It will lead you to thethree specialized centres:

Mercator-Education www.mercator-education.orgHomepage of Mercator-Education: European Network forregional or minority languages and education. The site con-tains the series of regional dossiers, a database with organi-sations and bibliography and many rated links to minoritylanguages.

Mercator-Media www.aber.ac.uk/~merc/Homepage of Mercator-Media. It provides information onmedia and minority languages in the EU.

Mercator-Legislation

www.troc.es/ciemen/mercator Homepage of Mercator-Legislation. It provides informationon minority languages and legislation in the EU.

European Union http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/langmin.html At the website of the European Union an explanation isgiven of its support for regional or minority languages.

Council of Europe http://conventions.coe. int/European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.(1992) and Framework Convention for the Protection ofNational Minorities (1995) European Treaty Series/Sériedes traités européens ETS 148 and 157, Strasbourg.

Eurydice www.eurydice.org Eurydice is the information network on education inEurope. The site provides information on all Europeaneducation systems and education policies.

EBLUL www.eblul.org/ Homepage of the European Bureau for Lesser UsedLanguages. This site provides general information on lesserused languages as well as on projects, publications andevents.




website

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network Mercator-Education is part of an information service andresearch network of three centres. They provide reliableand in depth information on regional or minority languagesin co-operation with many experts throughout Europe.Mercator-Education is hosted at the Fryske Akademy,Leeuwarden. Mercator-Media resides at the University ofWales (Aberystwyth) and Mercator-Legislation at Ciemen(Barcelona).

newsletter An electronic or printed newsletter with current develop-ments concerning regional or minority lanugages in educ-ation is distributed to people and organisations.

Q&A

publications

Through the Question and Answer Service we can informyou about any subject related to education in minority orregional languages in the European Union.

Regional dossiers are published on a regular base to pro-vide basic information on schooling in minority languageregions in the European Union. The latest Mercator Guide to Organisations (MGO) waspublished in 1998. It contains some 500 relevant addressesof institutes and services. During the years we have published our extended studieson pre-primary education, primary education, teachertraining and learning materials. Topical case studies and aselective bibliography have also been published. A list ofall our publications is available.

Available dossiers in this seriesBasque; the Basque Language in Education in France Basque; the Basque Language in Education in SpainBreton; the Breton Language in Education in FranceCatalan; the Catalan Language in Education in SpainCornish; the Cornish Language in Education in the UKCorsican; the Corsican Language in Education in FranceCroatian; the Croatian Language in Education in AustriaFrisian; the Frisian Language in Education in The Netherlands (3rd)German; the German Language in Education in Alsace, France (2nd)Galician; the Galician Language in Education in SpainGaelic; the Gaelic Language in Education in the UKIrish; the Irish Language in Education in Northern IrelandIrish; the Irish Language in Education in the Republic of IrelandLadin, the Ladin Language in Education in ItalyMeänkieli and Sweden Finnish; the Finnic Languages in Education in SwedenNorth-Frisian; the North Frisian Language in Education in GermanyOccitan; the Occitan Language in Education in FranceSami; the Sami Language in Education in SwedenSlovenian; the Slovenian Language in Education in Austria Sorbian, the Sorbian Language in Education in GermanySwedish; the Swedish Language in Education in FinlandWelsh; the Welsh Language in Education in the UK

Regional Dossiers Series
