Sahoo Soumendra Et. Al

Sahoo Soumendra et. al. / JPBMS, 2010, 8 (20)

1 Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences (JPBMS), Vol. 08, Issue 08

Available online at www.jpbms.info

JPBMS

JOURNAL OF PHARMACEUTICAL AND BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES

Tamarind Seed Polysachharide: A Versatile Biopolymer For Mucoadhesive Applications

Soumendra Sahoo 1, Rashmirekha Sahoo 2, , and Padma Lochan. Nayak 3 1Associate Professor, Ophthalmology, Melaka Manipal Medical College,Malaysia.

2Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Science & Technology, Nilai University College, Nilai, Malaysia. 3P.L.Nayak,Chairman PL Nayak Research Foundation & Institute of Nanobiotechnology, Neelachal Bhavan, Bidyadharpur,

Cuttack- 753004, Odisha, India.

Abstract: Polysaccharide based biomaterials are an emerging class in several biomedical fields such as tissue regeneration, particularly for cartilage, drug delivery devices and gel entrapment systems for the immobilization of cells. Important properties of the polysaccharides include controllable biological activity, biodegradability, and their ability to form hydrogels. Most of the polysaccharides used derived from natural sources; particularly, tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP), alginate and chitin, three polysaccharides which have an extensive history of use in medicine, pharmacy and basic sciences, and can be easily extracted from tamarind kernel powder, marine plants (algae kelp) and crab shells, respectively. The recent rediscovery of poly-saccharide based materials is also attributable to new synthetic routes for their chemical modification, with the aim of promoting new biological activities and/or to modify the final properties of the biomaterials for specific purposes. These synthetic strategies also involve the combination of polysaccharides with other polymers. Key words: Polysaccharides; TSP, Ocular, Mucoadhesive, Drug Delivery.

Introduction: Since the early 1950s, the application of polymeric materials for medical purposes is growing very fast. Polymers have been used in the medical field for a large number of important implants and devices (permanent, intermediate, or short term). They are used, for instance, as vascular, orthopedic, and ophthalmologic implants; catheters; hemodialyzers; and blood bags, bone repair, and many other medical fields. Indeed, many of the biomaterials are in contact with blood, and some undesirable events occur when blood proteins and cells interact with the polymers. Despite their extensive use, as well as numerous scientific and clinical investigations, the general problem of biocompatibility is not completely solved during the last 50 years. Polysaccharides: Polysaccharides are a structurally diverse group of biological macromolecules of widespread occurrence in nature. They are composed of repetitive structural features that are polymers of monosaccharide residues joined to each other by glycosidic linkages. In this way they differ structurally from proteins and nucleic acids. Polysaccharides present the highest capacity for carrying biological information since they have the greatest potential for structural variability. The amino acids in proteins and the nucleotides in nucleic acids can interconnect in only one way while the monosaccharide *Corresponding Author:- Dr. Soumendra Sahoo., MBBS, MS, PhD Candidate (Medicine), Associate Professor, Ophthalmology, Melaka Manipal Medical College Malaysia. Contact no:- 006 012 9417331.

units in oligosaccharides and polysaccharides can interconnect at several points to form a wide variety of branched or linear structures.As a consequence, this enormous potential variability in polysaccharide structure allows for the flexibility necessary for the precise regulatory mechanisms of various cell-cell interactions in higher organisms such as man. Polysaccharides, also called glycans, consist of monosaccharides and their derivatives. If a polysaccharide contains only one kind of monosaccharide molecule, it is known as a homopolysaccharide, or homoglycan, whereas those containing more than one kind of monosaccharide are heteropolysaccharides. The most common constituent of polysaccharides is D-glucose, but D-fructose, D-galactose, L-galactose, D-mannose, L-arabinose, and D-xylose are also frequent. Some monosaccharide derivatives found in polysaccharides include the amino sugars (D-glucosamine and D-galactosamine) as well as their derivatives (N-acetylneuraminic acid and N-acetylmuramic acid), and simple sugar acids (glucuronic and iduronic acids). Homopolysaccharides are often named for the sugar unit they contain, so glucose homopolysaccharides are called glucans, while mannose homopolysaccharides are mannans. Polysaccharides differ not only in the nature of their component monosaccharides but also in the length of their chains and in the amount of chain branching that occurs. Although a given sugar residue has only one anomeric carbon and thus can form only one glycosidic linkage with hydroxyl groups on other molecules, each sugar residue carries several hydroxyls, one or more of which may be an acceptor of glycosyl substituents. This ability to form branched structures distinguishes polysaccharides from proteins and nucleic acids, which occur only as linear polymers. The main functions played by polysaccharides in nature are either storage or structural functions. By far

ISSN NO- 2230 - 7885 Review Article

http://www.jpbms.info/

Sahoo Soumendra et al. / JPBMS, 2011, 8 (20)


the most common storage polysaccharide in plants is starch, which exists in two forms: α- amylose and amylopectin. Structural polysaccharides exhibit properties that are dramatically different from those of the storage polysaccharides, even though the compositions of these two classes are similar. The structural polysaccharide cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer in the world. Found in the cell walls of nearly all plants, included marine algae, cellulose is one of the principal components, providing physical structure and strength. Marine derived cellulose of animal origin, tunicin, extracted from tunicates – invertebrate sea animals – is a material of choice, since it is highly crystalline. Polysaccharides of algal origin include alginate, agar and carrageenan. Agar (or agar-agar) is an unbranched polysaccharide obtained from the cell membranes of some species of red algae, primarily from the genuses Gelidium and Gracilaria, or seaweed, largely used as gelatin and thickener in food industry, and as a gel for electrophoresis in microbiology. Chemically, it is constituted by galactose sugar molecules; it is the primary structural support for the algae’s cell walls. Carrageenans are polysaccharides of galactan with alternating 1,3- and 1,4-linked galactose residues, which fill spaces between the cellulosic plant structure of seaweeds; they are used in the food processing industry for their gelling, thickening and stabilising properties. Polysaccharides are relatively complex carbohydrates. They provide good mechanical properties for applications as fibers, films, adhesives, rheology modifiers, hydrogels, emulsifiers and drug delivery agents. By far the majority of carbohydrate materials in nature occur in the form of polysaccharides. By our definition, polysaccharides include not only those substances composed only of glycosidically linked sugar residues, but also molecules that contain polymeric saccharide structures linked via covalent bonds to amino acids, peptides, proteins, lipids and other structures. For instance, some polysaccharides have proven to enhance the contact between drug and human mucosa due to their high mucoadhesive properties. Polysaccharides, such as HEC, HA and TSP, may be expected to reside in the precorneal area for relatively prolonged periods, in virtue of their mucoadhesivity and/or viscosity, which slow down the clearance via the nasolacrimal drainage system. Besides chitosan, numerous polysaccharides were evaluated as mucoadhesive ophthalmic vehicles: polygalacturonic acid, xyloglucan, xanthan gum, gellan gum, pullulan, guar gum, scleroglucan and carrageenan. Also, in the case of polysaccharides, the formation of macromolecular ionic complexes with drugs improved the bioa-vailability and lengthened the therapeutic effect when compared to drug solutions .Toxicological studies indicate that xyloglucan is very well tolerated by conjunctival cells, has cell protective proper ties and is able to reduce drug-related toxicity (e.g. fluoroquinolones, timolol, merthiolate) probably due to its mucin-like structure. Xyloglucan might promote wound healing depending on its influence on the integrin recognition system [1-13]. Timo lol, in association with xyloglucan, has a prolonged duration of action, and is suitable for ocular administration in cases of elevated intraocular pressure [14]. In recent years a good understanding of polysaccharide is used widely in food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The main use is to give appropriate texture to

the products. Thus the polysaccharides used in such way are called texture modifier. Among hydrophilic polymers, polysaccharides are the choice material due to their nontoxicity and acceptance by regulating authorities [15]. Polysaccharides like cellulose ethers [16], xanthan gum[17] , scleroglucan [18], locust bean gum[19], and gaur gum[20] are some of the natural polysaccharide which have been evaluated in hydrophilic matrix for drug delivery system. Although tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) is used as ingredient in food material and in pharmaceuticals has not been evaluated as hydrophilic drug delivery system. TSP is a galactoxyloglucan isolated from seed kernel of Tamarindus indica. It possesses properties like high viscosity, broad pH tolerance and adhesively [21]. This led to its application as stabilizer, thickener, gelling agent and binder in food and pharmaceutical industries. In addition to these other important properties of TSP have been identified recently. They include non-carcinogenicity [22] mucoadhesivity, biocompatibility [23], high drug holding capacity [24] and high thermal stability[25, 13]. This led to its application as excipient in hydrophilic drug delivery system [23-24]. Since TSP is an important excipient, the present study was undertaken to elucidate release kinetics of both water-soluble and water insoluble drugs from this matrix. Tamarind Seed Polysachharide: Tamarindus indica L., commonly known as tamarind tree is one of the most important multipurpose tree species in the Indian sub-continent. It is a large evergreen tree with an exceptionally beautiful spreading crown, and is cultivated throughout almost the whole country, except in the Himalayas and western dry regions [26-27] (ICFRE, 1993, Rao et al., 1999). The tamarind fruit pulp has been an important culinary ingredient in India for a very long time. Almost all parts of the tree find some use or other in food, chemical, pharmaceutical and textile industries, and as fodder, timber and fuel [28-29]. In India, tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is an economically important tree which grows abundantly in the dry tracts of Central and South Indian States. Indian production of tamarind is about 3 lakh (0.3 million) tonnes per year. The hard pod shell is removed (deshelled) when the fruit is ripe and the fruit is the chief acidulant used in the preparation of foods. The shells are discarded as waste and since it is available free of cost, only the transport cost is involved for hauling it from the point of generation for wastewater treatment. Hence, recycling of this waste for wastewater treatment would not only be economical but also help to solve waste disposal problems. Rough estimates are available on production of tamarind in India. One estimate has production at over 3 lakh tonnes in 1994– 95. Tamarind cultivation is concentrated in the states of Tamil Naidu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Kerala [30] (Jambulingam and Fernandes, 1986; Anon., 1997; George and Rao, 1997; Rao, 1997; Vennila and Kingsley, 2000).Among 52 spices under the purview of the Spices Board (Govt. of India), tamarind occupies sixth position in terms of export earnings (George and Rao, 1997). It is exported as fresh, dry and paste. Export of tamarind seed also takes place both in unground and ground forms. Export of tamarind and seed in different forms for five years from 1992– 93 is provided by Anon.) (1996a, 1996b).[31-34] Tamarind products are exported to around 60 countries. Pulp loss during storage was very



low in black polyethylene (0.18%) and plastic (0.17%) compared to phoenix mat (1.35%) and metal (1.53%) [

35](Ramakumar et al., 1997). Tamarind Fruit: Fruits and seeds: The fruits are pods 5-10(-16) cm long x 2 cm broad, oblong, curved or straight, with rounded ends, somewhat compressed and indehiscent although brittle (Figure 1). The pod has an outer epicarp which is light grey or brown and scaly. Within is the firm but soft pulp which is thick and blackish brown. The pulp is traversed by formed seed cavities, which contain the seeds. The outer surface of the pulp has three tough branched fibres from the base to the apex. Figure 1: Photograph of Tamarind seeds

Each pod contains 1-12 seeds which are flattened, glossy, orbicular to rhomboid, each 3-10 x 1.3 cm and the centre of each flat side of the seed marked with a large central depression. Seeds are hard, red to purple brown, non arillate and ex-albuminous. Seed chambers are lined with a parchment like membrane. Cotyledons are thick. Seed size is very variable and there are (320-)700(-1000) per kilo [36-38](von Carlowitz, 1986; Hong et al., 1996; El-Siddig et al., 2000). Pods ripen about 10 months after flowering and can remain on the tree until the next flowering period, unless harvested [39-40]. Seeds: The seed comprises the seed coat or testa (20-30%) and the kernel or endosperm (70-75%) [41-42]. Tamarind seed is the raw material used in the manufacture of tamarind seed kernel powder (TKP), polysaccharide (jellose), adhesive and tannin. The seeds are also used for other purposes and are presently gaining importance as an alternative source of protein, rich in some essential amino acids. Unlike the pulp the seed is a good source of protein and oil. There has been considerable interest amongst chemists, food technologists and nutritionists in the study of the properties of tamarind seeds e.g. recent work on stabilisation of xyloglucans of the tamarind seed polysaccharide [43] and the gelling behaviour of polyose from tamarind kernel powder so that pectin/polyose mixes can be recommended [44]. Whole tamarind seed and kernels are rich in protein (13-20%), and the seed coat is rich in fibre (20%) and tannins (20%) (Table 1). Panigrahi et al. (1989) reported that whole tamarind seed contains 131.3 g/kg crude protein, 67.1g/kg crude fibre, 48.2 g/kg crude fat, 56.2 g/kg tannins and trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) of 10.8, with

most of the carbohydrate in the form of sugars. The trypsin inhibitor activity is higher in the pulp than in the seed, but both are heat labile. According to Ishola et. al. [45], the seed also contains 47 mg/100g of phytic acid, which has minimal effect on its nutritive value@�N� also contains 14-18% albuminoid tannins located in the testa. According to Purseglove [46], the seeds contain 63% starch and 4.5-6.5% of semi drying oil. Both pulp and the seeds are good sources of protein (269.3 g/kg), oil (109.1 g/kg) and calcium [47]. Table 1: Composition of Tamarind seed, kernel and testa (%)

Tamarind seeds are reported as a source of food or food ingredients due to the presence of proteins [48]. The crude protein and nitrogen free extracts comprise 15.5% and 59% of the seed, respectively. Pentose sugars constitute approximately 20% of the soluble sugars. Mannose (17-35%) and glucose (11.80%) were the principal soluble sugars.[ 49-50] Alkali extraction of the seeds showed that about 70% of the proteins were extractable. The protein isolated was relatively high in lysine (406 mg/g N), phenylalanine, tyrosine (520 mg/g N) and leucine (496 mg/g N)[50] (Marangoni et al., 1988). The seeds are an important source of proteins and valuable amino acids [51]. Albumins and globulins constitute the bulk of the seed proteins. The seed is rich in cystine and methionine but threonine and tryptophan are limiting (Table 2). Tamarind has a very good balance of essential amino acids. Except for the limiting amino acids, threonine and tryptophan the value of other amino acids is as high or higher than the FAO reference protein (FAO, 1970). The content of sulphur amino acids, 3.5% is equally divided between methionine and cystine, and is unusually high for legumes, while its high lysine content is similar to that of many food legumes, such as soybean, chickpea, groundnut and cowpea [52-53] . Tamarind seed protein has a very favourable amino acid balance; hence it could be used not only to complement cereals but also to supplement legumes with lower methionine and cystine contents. Since production is high in tamarind and as the seed constitutes over 40% of the pod, a high protein yield can be harvested from the seeds.



Table 2: Amino acid content of Tamarind and some food legumes, mg/g N (Total N)

Seed Kernel Oil: The seed oil is a golden yellow, semi-drying oil, which in some respects resembles groundnut oil. Andriamanantena et al. [54] extracted the oil with hexane and a mixture of chloroform and methanol; the yield was 6.0-6.4% and 7.4-9.0%, respectively. The major fatty acids were palmitic, oleic, linoleic, and eicosanoic. The lipids contained a relatively large proportion of unsaturated fatty acids, with linoleic acid (36-49%) in the highest concentration. Other major fatty acids are oleic acid (15-27%) and palmitic acid (14-20%) [ 55]. Sterols, beta-amyrin, campesterol and beta-sitosterol have been identified in the unsaponifiable matter of the seeds (Table 3).

Table 3: Fatty acid composition of Tamarind seed oil

The seed kernel is rich in phosphorus (68.4-165 mg / 100g), potassium (273610 mg / 100 g) and magnesium (17-118 mg / 100 g) (Table 4). The macronutrients, calcium, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus, however,

were low in comparison with other cultivated legumes [ 56-

57]. Table 4: Mineral content of Tamarind pulp, seed kernel and testa

Tamarind Kernel Powder: The major industrial use of the seeds is in the manufacture of Tamarind Kernel Powder (TKP). It is prepared by decorticating the seed and pulverising the creamy white kernels. The decorticated seed is ground by machines to the required mesh size to obtain a yield of 55-60%. The powder tends to deteriorate during storage under humid conditions, hence storage in a dry place in moisture proof containers is important. Mixing with 0.5% of sodium bisulphite before packing will prevent enzymatic deterioration. The TKP will become rancid and brown if stored inadequately and the storage ability and colour will be better if it is defatted [58]. The general characteristic of a good tamarind seed powder is that it should have the characteristic flavouring when dissolved in water and be free of any burnt or other undesirable flavours; it should have good keeping quality and be free from any insect pests, fungal growth or extraneous materials. The TKP, when boiled in water containing boric acid and phenol as preservatives, gives a very good paper adhesive. In India, TKP is used as a source of carbohydrate for the adhesive or binding agent in paper and textile sizing, and weaving and jute products as well as textile printing [59]. The sizing property of TKP is due to the presence of up to 60% of the polysaccharide. A high grade adhesive from tamarind seed kernels could be prepared by roasting the seeds at 110 TKP can be mixed with other concentrates to make ca. 25% manufactured cattle feed. Another commercial application can be in production of varnish [60], and TKP can be used as a vegetable clarifier [61] Tamarind xyloglucan:



Figure 2: Chemical structure of Tamarind seed gum

Xyloglucan is a major structural polysaccharide in the primary cell wall of higher plants. Cell growth and enlargement are controlled by the looseness of a thin net of microfibrils made of cellulose. Xyloglucan cross-links these cellulose microfibrils and provides the flexibility necessary for the microfibrils to slide. Seeds of the tamarind tree (Tamarindus indica) contain a xyloglucan. Tamarind seed xyloglucan is used as a food additive in Japan. The flow behavior of the solution is very close to Newtonian, and very stable against heat, pH and shear. The various applications of tamarind seed xyloglucan include thickening sauce, ice cream, dressing and processed vegetables. Tamarind seed xyloglucan is expected to find new food applications, serving as a thickener and stabilizer, gelling agent, ice crystal stabilizer and starch modifier, etc. It is called ‘ageing free starch’ because its property is similar to starch but is more stable. Xyloglucan has the same main chain structure as cellulose, but it has side-chains that bind to the main chain. These side-chains play an important role in determining its structure and make xyloglucan water-soluble and impart various rheological and biological functions. Tamarind xyloglucan is obtained from the endosperm of the seed of the tamarind tree, Tamarindus indica ( 62. Purified, refined tamarind xyloglucan is produced in Japan and is permitted as a thickening, stabilizing, and gelling agent. Tamarind xyloglucan has a (1→4)- β -D-glucan backbone that is partially substituted at the O-6 position of its glucopyranosyl residues with α -D-xylopyranose [63] . Some of the xylose residues are β -D-galactosylated at O-2 [63]. Although tamarind xyloglucan itself does not form a gel, gel can be obtained under appropriate conditions, such as by adding some substances or removing substituents. Tamarind xyloglucan forms a gel in the presence of 40-65% sugar over a wide pH range [64]. It also forms a gel in the presence of alcohol or by removing galactose residues from tamarind xyloglucan [65-66] . Isolation of Tamarind Seed Polysachharide (TSP), Galactoxyloglucan: The isolation of TSP was performed by following the method reported earlier [8]. 20 g of tamarind kernel powder was added to 200 ml of cold distilled water to prepare slurry. The slurry was poured into 800 ml of boiling distilled water. The solution was boiled for 20 min with continuous stirring. The resulting solution was kept overnight and centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 20 min. The supernatant liquid was separated and poured into twice the volume of absolute alcohol with continuous stirring. The precipitate obtained was washed with absolute

ethanol and air-dried. The dried polymer was milled, passed through sieve no.60 and stored in a desiccator until further use.

Figure 3: Chemical structure of tamarind seed polysaccharide

TSP is a new formulation derived from the tamarind seed. The main component of tamarind seed has been identified as a non-ionic, neutral, branched polysaccharide consisting of a cellulose-like backbone that carries xylose and galactoxylose substituents [67]. The configuration of TSP gives the product a 'mucin-like' molecular structure, [68] thus conferring optimal mucoadhesive properties. Research has also shown that, at the concentrations present in the ophthalmic formulations studied, TSP has an important characteristic that makes it similar to natural tears, i.e. its ability to crystallise in a fern-like shape + .It has been suggested that the similarity of the structure of TSP to endogenous mucin may allow a formulation containing this polymer to adhere readily to the ocular surface for prolonged periods and provide sustained relief from the symptoms of dry eye [70]. Indeed, studies undertaken to date suggest that TSP may have some benefits over Hyalurnic acid relating to ocular retention time, wound healing properties and relief of dry eye symptoms [68, 71] .Overall, TSP has several physicochemical properties that make it suitable for the management of dry eye syndrome (Table 5 )and which potentially have distinct advantages over currently available preparations. Figure 4: Configuration of TSP



Table 5: Physicochemical properties of TSP

Mucoadhesive polymer TSP in ocular drug delivery: The eye is a unique organ that is virtually impermeable to most environmental agents. Continuous tear flow, aided by the blink reflex, mechanically washes substances from the ocular surface and prevents the accumulation of microorganisms. In addition, lysozyme, lactoferrin, secretory immunoglobulins, and defensins are present at high levels in tears and can specifically reduce bacterial colonization of the ocular surface [ 72-73] . Figure 5: Schematic presentation of the ocular structure with the routes of drug kinetics illustrated.

The numbers refer to following processes: 1) transcorneal permeation from the lacrimal fluid into the anterior chamber, 2 ) non-corneal drug permeation across the conjunctiva and sclera into the anterior uvea, 3) drug distribution from the blood stream via blood-aqueous barrier into the anterior chamber, 4 ) elimination of drug from the anterior chamber by the aqueous humor turnover to the trabecular meshwork and Sclemm's canal, 5) drug elimination from the aqueous humor into the systemic circulation across the blood-aqueous barrier, 6 ) drug distribution from the blood into the posterior eye across the blood-retina barrier, 7) intravitreal drug administration, 8) drug elimination from the vitreous via posterior route across the blood-retina barrier, and 9) drug elimination from the vitreous via anterior route to the posterior chamber Since most pathogens cannot penetrate the intact corneal layer, corneal infections derive essentially from a failure of the protective mechanisms that maintain ocular surface integrity. Defects in the tear film, chemical or foreign body trauma, allergic hypersensitivity reactions, and overuse of contact lenses, as well as complications after laser in situ keratomileusis, can result in injury to the ocular surface and predispose the cornea to infection [74-75]. Because of its high incidence and potential complications,bacterial

keratitis is one of the most threatening ocular infections. Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus frequently cause severe keratitis that may lead to progressive destruction of the corneal epithelium and stroma [76-77]. Infectious keratitis due to these organisms often causes corneal scarring, corneal perforation, and blindness if aggressive and appropriate therapy is not promptly initiated [78-79]. Successful therapy of bacterial keratitis must be able to rapidly attain high drug concentrations at the site of infection. Since the cornea is not vascularized, it is not readily permeated by systemically administered drugs, which are therefore generally not used for the treatment of keratitis [79]. On the other hand, topical treatment may fail to achieve therapeutically active drug levels in the cornea, as continuous tear flow reduces the bioavailability of topically applied antibiotics and the corneal epithelium acts as a barrier against drug penetration. For this reason, standard treatment of severe bacterial keratitis requires administration at frequent intervals (every 15 to 60 min for 48 to 72 h) of eyedrops often containing fortified (more concentrated than commercially available solutions) solutions of fluoroquinolones or multiple antibiotics, usually a cephalosporin and an aminoglycoside [79, 80- 82] . However, this regimen not only is disruptive to the patient and usually necessitates hospitalization, but it has also been associated with in vitro toxicity to the corneal epithelium [83-89]. Efforts are now directed to testing new antimicrobials that better permeate the cornea and to developing systems capable of prolonging the contact time between antibiotics and the corneal tissue, thereby potentially enhancing intracorneal delivery of ophthalmic medicaments. A mucoadhesive polymer extracted from tamarind seeds (xyloglucan, or tamarind seed polysaccharide [TSP]) has been described as a viscosity enhancer showing mucomimetic, mucoadhesive, and bioadhesive activities Several features make TSP an attractive candidate as a vehicle for ophthalmic medicaments, since it (i) is completely devoid of ocular toxicity ; Saettone et al., patent application); (ii) has recently been put on the market (TSP; Farmigea S.p.A., Pisa, Italy) as a tear fluid substitute because of its activity in preventing alterations of the corneal surface known as keratoconjunctivitis sicca [90]; (iii) increases the corneal-wound healing rate (5); (vi) reduces the in vitro toxicity exerted by timolol, methiolate, and fluoroquinolones on human conjunctival cells [91]; and (v) significantly increases the corneal accumulation and intraocular penetration of gentamicin and ofloxacin when administered topically to healthy rabbits [ 92-94]. TSP can be considered a promising vehicle for topical ocular administration of antibiotics. Its application could possibly replace the use of fortified solutions of antimicrobials and reduce the necessity for repeated drug administration at frequent intervals, thereby potentially lowering corneal toxicity and increasing patient compliance. Sumati et.al. [95] have reported the release behaviour of drugs from tamarind seed polysaccharide tablets This study examines the sustained release behaviour of both water-soluble (acetaminophen, caffeine, theophylline and salicylic acid) and water insoluble (indomethacin) drugs from tamarind seed polysaccharide isolated from tamarind kernel powder. It further investigates the effect of incorporation of diluents like microcrystalline cellulose and lactose on release of caffeine and partial cross-linking



of the polysaccharide on release of acetaminophen. Applying exponential equation, the mechanism of release of soluble drugs was found to be anomalous. The insoluble drug showed near case II or zero order release mechanism. The rate of release was in the decreasing order of caffeine, acetaminophen, theophylline, salicylic acid and indomethacin. An increase in release kinetics of drug was observed on blending with diluents. However, the rate of release varied with type and amount of blend in the matrix. The mechanism of release due to effect of diluents was found to be anomalous. The rate of release of drug decreased on partial cross-linking and the mechanism of release was found to be super case II. Tamarind seed polysaccharide can be used for controlled release of both water-soluble and water insoluble types of drugs. Zero order release can be achieved taking sparingly soluble drug like indomethacin from TSP. The rate of release can be controlled by using suitable diluents like lactose and microcrystalline cellulose. For water-soluble drugs the release amount can also be controlled by partially cross linking the matrix. The extent of release can be varied by controlling degree of cross-linking. Sumathi et al., [96] have studied the role of modulating factors on release of caffeine from tamarind seed polysaccharide tablets. This study examines the role of modulating factors such as polymer ratio, drug loading particle size, compaction pressure and amount of lubricant on release of caffeine from tamarind seed polysaccharide, which is a hydrophilic matrix for drug delivery system. The following observation on release rate were made using Korsmeyer’s and Higuchi’s equations : (i) the compaction pressure had no significant effect on release, (ii) the effect of particle size of polysaccharide on release was insignificant except in the range of 250-150 microns, (iii) the increase in polymer content showed decrease in both rate of release and dissolution, (iv) the increase in drug loading showed the rate of release and dissolution decreased (v) the presence of lubricant up to 2 % had no effect on the rate of release. The mechanism of release was found to be anomalous (n> 0.5) in all the cases. Diffusion of caffeine from tamarind seed polysaccharide matrix was found to be dependant on the gel concentration. The rate of release of caffeine from this matrix decreased with increase in loading of drug. Except for particle size range of 250-150 microns all other sizes have no effect on drug release rate. The compaction pressure and amount of lubricant up to 2% has no influence on rate of release. Ghelardi et al., [97]have reported that the mucoadhesive polymer extracted from tamarind seed improves the intraocular penetration and efficacy of rufloxacin in topical treatment of experimental bacterial keratitis. Bacterial keratitis is a serious infectious ocular disease requiring prompt treatment to prevent frequent and severe visual disabilities. Standard treatment of bacterial keratitis includes topical administration of concentrated antibiotic solutions repeated at frequent intervals in order to reach sufficiently high drug levels in the corneal tissue to inhibit bacterial growth. However, this regimen has been associated with toxicity to the corneal epithelium and requires patient hospitalization. In the present study, a mucoadhesive polymer extracted from tamarind seeds was used for ocular delivery of 0.3% rufloxacin in the treatment of experimental Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus keratitis in rabbits. The polysaccharide significantly increased the intra-aqueous

penetration of rufloxacin in both infected and uninfected eyes. Rufloxacin delivered by the polysaccharide reduced P. aeruginosa and S. aureus in the cornea at a higher rate than that obtained by rufloxacin alone. In particular, use of the polysaccharide allowed a substantial reduction of S. aureus in the cornea to be achieved even when the time interval between drug administrations was extended. These results suggest that the tamarind seed polysaccharide prolongs the precorneal residence times of antibiotics and enhances drug accumulation in the cornea, probably by reducing the washout of topically administered drugs. The tamarind seed polysaccharide appears to be a promising candidate as a vehicle for the topical treatment of bacterial keratitis. Jhang et al., [98] have studied the preparation and characterization of tamarind gum/sodium alginate composite gel beads to be used for biomedical applications. A two-step preparation and the characterization of composite gel beads of tamarind gum (2.0 wt %) and sodium alginate (0.6 wt %) as spherically well shaped forms are reported. In the first step, the prepared solution containing tamarind gum and sodium alginate was extruded as small drops by means of syringe into a stirred calcium chloride (CaCl2, 3.0 wt%) at 4ºC and then in the second step the beads were soaked in solidified agent solution (Na2B4O7, 2.0 wt%). Thus, we obtained composite gel beads with diameter range between 2 and 3 mm. We have demonstrated the properties of the composite beads, such as morphological, thermal stability and functional groups characterized by different techniques (i.e., SEM, DSC, and FTIR). The swelling behaviour in response to pH variation as well as the mechanical strength of the composite gel beads are examined and reported. The results have demonstrated that the composite gel beads not only have the advantages of rather rough surface, three-dimensionally network structure, and high anti-acid and anti-alkali properties, they are not prone to breakage under load. The composite gel beads prepared are potentially useful as polymeric carriers or supports in biotechnology and biochemistry applications. In this study, spherically well shaped composite gel beads were produced using very cheap biopolymers (i.e., tamarind gum and sodium alginate). The composite gel beads were evaluated based on morphology, mechanical strength, FTIR data, thermal stability, and acid/alkali resistance. All these special characteristics make the tamarind gum-sodium alginate beads particularly interesting for biomedical applications. In addition, we would like to underline that our results are of good reproduction and all the experiments were conducted in triplicates. Therefore, composite gel beads are promising as a potentially good support to be employed in immobilized cell carrier technology and fermentation industry with good economical feasibility and good quality. Patel et al. [99] have evaluated the tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) as a mucoadhesive and sustained release component of nifedipine buccoadhesive tablet & comparison with HPMC and Na CMC. The buccal mucoadhesive tablets of nifedipine were fabricated with objective of avoiding first pass metabolism and prolonging duration of action. The mucoadhesive polymers used in formulations were carbopol (cp934), hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC K4M), carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC), and tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) .These



formulations were characterized for physiochemical parameters, in vitro retention time, in vitro bioadhesive strength, percent hydration and drug release. The modified in vitro assembly was used to measure the bioadhesive strength of tablets with fresh goat buccal mucosa as a model tissue. The best mucoadhesive performance and in vitro drug release profile were exhibited by the tablet containing carbopol and TSP in the ratio of 1:1. This formulation was more comfortable to the user due to less erosion, faster hydration rate, and optimum pH of surrounding medium.The aim of present study was to evaluate TSP as a mucoadhesive, sustained release polymer and to develop bioadhesive drug delivery for nifedipine with prolonged effect and to avoid first pass metabolism. The mucoadhesive formulation of nifedipine, in form of buccoadhesive tablet were developed to a satisfactory level in term of drug release, bioadhesive performance, physiochemical properties, and surface pH with formulation containing carbopol and TSP in ratio of 1:1. The TSP is comparable with Na CMC in respect of drug release and bioadhesive strength but TSP is better than Na CMC because the erosion of tablets containing Na CMC is more and hence it won’t be good feeling for patient in mouth. Deveswaran et al., [100] have reported the design and characterization of diclofenac sodium tablets containing tamarind seed polysaccharide as release retardant. Polysaccharides are the choice of materials among the hydrophilic polymers used as they are nontoxic and most acceptable by the regulating authorities. The tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) was isolated from tamarind kernel powder and this polysaccharide was utilized in the formulation of matrix tablets containing Diclofenac Sodium by wet granulation technique and evaluated for its drug release characteristics. Hardness of the tablets was found to be in the range of 4.0-6.0 kg/cm2. The swelling index increased with the increase in concentration of TSP. Increase in polymer content resulted in a decrease in drug release from the tablets. The tablets showed 96.5-99.1% of the labeled amount of drug, indicating uniformity in drug content. The drug release was extended over a period of 12 h.. The release of the formulations matched with the marketed sustained release tablets with a similarity factor of 83.52. The in-vitro release data of the formulations followed zero order kinetics. The result of the present study demonstrated the isolated TSP can be used as a drug release retardant, which was evident, from the results. The drug release was extended over a period of 12 hours and the mechanism of drug release was observed to be following zero order release. Thus the polymer could serve as a new effective drug release retardant with better patient compliance. Rolando et al.,[101] have studied the tolerability and performance of tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) in treating dry eye syndrome: results of a clinical study. One of the problems arising from available preparations for dry eye syndrome is the limited residence time of products on the ocular surface. In this paper, we look at an innovative new treatment for dry eye, tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP). TSP possesses mucomimetic, mucoadhesive and pseudoplastic properties. The 'mucin-like' molecular structure of TSP is similar to corneal and conjunctival mucin 1 (MUC1), a transmembrane glycoprotein thought to play an essential role in protecting and wetting the corneal surface and may explain its

increased retention on the eye surface. This study has demonstrated that TSP 0.5% and 1% are comparable to HA 0.2% according to the variables measured in the study. Due to the absence of both onset and incidence of adverse events reported throughout the study, it is concluded that all treatments demonstrated optimal tolerability and are suitable for frequent use in the therapy of dry eye. Statistically significant improvements between baseline and final visits were observed with respect to tear film break up time and corneal and conjunctival damage. However, the results obtained with the subjective VAS symptom scores suggest benefits of the TSP 1% formulation. It is possible that the effects seen with TSP could translate into significant differences in objective clinical measurements in a larger study population. Furthermore, data analyses indicate that TSP might, over a period of time, produce improvement in tear film stability, thereby improving eye conditions and overall patient quality of life. Pongsawatmanit et al., [102] have studied influence of tamarind seed xyloglucan on rheological properties and thermal stability of tapioca starch. Effects of xyloglucan (XG) on rheological properties and thermal stability of tapioca starch (TS) were investigated. Mechanical spectra of 5% w/w TS/XG mixtures changed from gel behavior to concentrated solution and showed higher loss tangent (G00/G0) with increasing XG concentration. Rapid visco-analysis profiles of 5% TS/XG mixtures at different mixing ratios revealed that peak and final viscosities increased with increasing XG content. From steady shear measurements at 25 0C, viscosities of gelatinized TS/ XG mixtures were higher than those of TS pastes, while flow curves of both TS and TS/XG pastes showed shear thinning behavior. Apparent viscosities at 50 s_1 of TS and TS/XG pastes decreased with increasing temperature but the activation energy of TS/XG mixtures was lower than that of TS alone according to the Arrhenius plot, indicating improved heat stability of TS. Water separation of TS/XG pastes was also lower compared with that of TS alone from freeze–thaw cycle experiments. The results suggest that XG imparted more viscous, liquid-like rheological properties and heat stability to the gelatinized TS/XG mixtures. At a total polysaccharide concentration of 5% (w/w) TS and TS/XG mixtures, XG contributed the liquid-like properties to the mixtures as shown by an increase in the mechanical loss tangent (G00/G0) with increasing XG concentration. The flow curves of all 5% TS/XG mixtures showed shear thinning behavior and the viscosity of the mixtures increased with increasing XG content as shown by both RVA and steady shear measurements. The influence of XG on thermal stability can be described by the Arrhenius plot with a lower activation energy (Ea) and less water separation from freeze–thaw cycle measurement on gelatinized TS/XG mixtures compared to that for TS alone. Goyal et.al [103] have reported the Graft Copolymerization of Acrylamide onto Tamarind Kernel Powder in the Presence of Ceric ion. Tamarind kernel powder (TKP), a natural xyloglucan polysaccharide is derived from the seeds of Tamarindus indica Linn., a common and most important tree of India and South East Asia. TKP is used in cotton sizing, (CAN)-nitric acid initiation system. The reaction conditions were optimized for grafting with respect to the effect of the concentrations of CAN, nitric acid, TKP, AA, time, and reaction temperature. The



maximum percentage grafting (%G) and percentage grafting efficiency (%GE) were found to be 231.45 and 93.66%, respectively. _ 2008 Wiley Periodicals as a wet-end additive in the paper industry, as a thickening, stabilizing, and gelling agent in the food industry. Chemical modification of TKP through grafting has received considerable attention to impart new functional groups for different applications. Keeping this in view, graft copolymerization of acrylamide (AA) onto TKP was carried out in an aqueous medium using a ceric ammonium nitrate. The mechanism of grating is furnished below. Figure 6 : The mechanism of grating

Conclusion: A biodegradable glycosaminoglycan and a galactoxyloglucan polysaccharide extracted from tamarind (Tamarandus indica Linn. Family, Leguminosae) called as TSP has been found to have a wide application in pharmaceutical industry specially in ophthalmic applications. A mucoadhesive polymer extracted from tamarind seeds (xyloglucan, or tamarind seed polysaccharide [TSP]) has been described as a viscosity enhancer showing mucomimetic, mucoadhesive, Several features make TSP an attractive candidate as a vehicle for ophthalmic medicaments, since it (i) is completely devoid of ocular toxicity ; (ii) has recently been put on the market as a tear fluid substitute because of its activity in preventing alterations of the corneal surface known as keratoconjunctivitis sicca ; (iii) increases the corneal-wound healing rate ; (vi) reduces the in vitro toxicity exerted by timolol, methiolate, and fluoroquinolones on human conjunctival cells ; and (v) significantly increases the corneal accumulation and intraocular penetration of gentamicin and ofloxacin when administered topically to healthy rabbits . Acknowledgement: The authors are thankful to Dr.S.Sasmal, CRRI, Cuttack and Miss Rajashree Nanda for various suggestions.

References: 1.J.L. Greaves, C.G. Wilson, Treatment of diseases of the eye with mucoadhesive delivery systems, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 1993, 11, 349 – 83. 2.M.B. Sintzel, S.F. Bernatchez, C. Tabatabay, R . Gurny, Biomaterials in ophthalmic drug delivery, Eur. J . Pharm. Biopharm. 1996, 42, 358 – a 74. 3.F. Madsen, K. Eberth, J.D. Smart, A rheological examination of the mucoadhesive/mucus interaction: the effect of mucoadhesive type and concentration, J . Control. Release 1998, 50, 167 – 78. 4.G. Meseguer, R . Gurny, P. Buri, A. Rozier, B . Plazonnet, Gamma scintigraphic study of precorneal drainage and assessment of miotic response in rabbits of various ophthalmic formulations containing pilocarpine, Int. J. Pharm. 1993, 95, 229 – 34. 5.S. Burgalassi, P. Chetoni, M.F. Saettone, Hydrogels for ocular delivery of pilocarpine: preliminary evaluation in rabbits of the influence of viscosity and of drug solubility, Eur. J . Pharm. 1996, 42, 385 – 92. 6.M.F. Saettone, D. Monti, M.T. Torracca, P. Chetoni, Mucoadhesive ophthalmic vehicles: evaluation of polymeric low viscosity formulations, J. Ocul. Pharmacol. 1994, 10, 83 – 92. 7.S. Burgalassi, P. Panichi, P. Chetoni, M.F. Saettone, E. Boldrini, Development of a simple dry eye model in the albino rabbit and evaluation of some tear substitutes, Ophthalmic Res. 1999, 31, 229 – 35. 8.M. Albasini, A. Ludwig, Evaluation of polysaccharides intended for ophthalmic use in ocular dosage forms, Farmaco 50 1995, 50, 633 – 642. 40:223234, 9.E. Verschueren, L. Va n Santvliet, A. Ludwig, Evaluation of various carrageenans as ophthalmic viscolysers, S.T.P. Pharma Sci. 1996, 6, 203 – 10. 10.M.F. Saettone, D. Monti, B. Giannaccini, L. Salminen, R. Huupponen, Macromolecular ionic complexes of cyclopentolate for topical ocular administration. Preparation and preliminary evaluation in albino rabbits, S.T.P. Pharma Sci. 1992, 2, 68 – 75. 11.S. Burgalassi, P. Chetoni, L. Panichi, E. Boldrini, M.F. Saettone, Xyloglucan as a novel vehicle for timolol: pharmacokinetics and pressure lowering activity in rabbits, J. Ocul. Pharmacol. Ther. 2000, 16, 497 – 509. 12.L. Raimondi, L. Sgromo, G. Banchelli, I . Corti, R. Pirisino, E. Boldrini, A new viscosity enhancer for ophthalmic preparations devoid of toxicity for human conjunctival cells, J. Toxicol., Cutan. Ocul. Toxicol. 2000,19, 31 – 42. 13.S. Burgalassi, L. Raimondi, R. Pirisino, G. Banchelli, E. Boldrini, M.F. Saettone, Effect of xyloglucan (tamarind seed polysaccharide) on conjunctival cell adhesion to laminin and on corneal epithelium wound healing, Eur. J . Ophthalmol. 2000, 10, 71 – 76. 14.M. D’Amico, C. Di Filippo, E. Lampa, E. Boldrini, F. Rossi, A. Ruggiero, A. Filippelli, Effects of timolol and timolol with tamarind seed polysaccharide on intraocular pressure in rabbits, Pharm. Pharmacol. Commun. 1999, 5, 361 – 64. 15.Bonferoni, M.C., Rossi, S., Tamayo, M., Pedraz, J.L., Dominguez_Gil, A. and Caramella, C., On the employment of λ-Carrageenan in a matrix system, I. Sensitivity to dissolution medium and comparision with Na carboxymethyl cellulose and Xanthan gum. J. Control Release.1993 , 26,119-27. 16.Ford, JL., Ribinstein, MH., McCaul, F., Hogan, JE. and Edgar, PJ., Importance of drug type, tablet shape and added diluents on drug release kinetics from



hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose matrix tablets. Int J Pharm, 1987, 40,223-34, 17.Talukdar, M,M., and Plaizier-Vercammen J. Evaluation of xanthan gum as a hydrophilic matrix for controlled release dosage form preparations. Drug Dev Ind Pharm. 1993 , 19(9),1037-46 18.Risk, S., Duru, D., Gaudy, D. and Jacob, M., Natural polymer hydrophilic matrix: influencing drug release factors Drug Dev Ind Pharm, 1994, 20(16),2563-74 19.Sujja-areevath, J., Munday, DL., Cox, PJ., and Khan, KA., Release characteristics of diclofenac sodium from encapsulated natural gum mini-matrix formulations. Int J Pharm, 1996, 139,53-62 20.Khullar, P., Khar, R.K. and Agarwal, S.P., Evaluation of guar gum in the preparation of sustained-release matrix tablets. Drug Dev Ind Pharm.1998 , 24(11),1095-99. 21.Rao, PS., Ghosh, TP. and Krishna, S., Extraction and purification of tamarind seed polysaccharide. J Sci Ind Research (India). 1946, 4,705 22.Sano, M, Miyata, E, Tamano, S, Hagiwara, A, Ito, N. and Shirai, T., Lack of carcinogenicity of tamarind seed polysaccharide in B6C3F mice, Food and Chem Toxicol.1996, 34,463-67. 23.Burgalassi, S., Panichi, L., Saettone, MF., Jacobsen, J. and Rassing, MR., Development and in vitro/ in vivo testing of mucoadhesive buccal patches releasing benzydamine and lidocaine. Int J Pharm. 1996, 133,1-7 24.Kulkarni, D, Ddwivedi, DK., Sarin, JPS. and Singh, S., Tamarind seed polyose: A potential polysaccharide for sustained release of verapamil hydrochloride as a model drug. Indian J Pharm Sci. 1997, 59(1),1-7. 25.Saettone, M.F., Burgalassi, S., Giannaccini, B., Boldrini, E., Bianchini, P., and Luciani, G., Ophthalmic solutions viscosified with tamarind seed polysaccharide, PCT Int. Appl. WO 1997, 28,787. 26.ICFRE (1993), Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.). Technical bulletin, Forest Research Institute, Dehradun, India, p. 16. 27.Rao, Y S, Mary,K., Mathew ,L and Potty S N (1999), ‘Tamarind Tamarindus indica L.)Research – A Review’, Ind. Jour. of Arecanut, Spices and Medicinal Plants. 1999, 1(4),127–45. 28.George C K and Rao Y S (1997), ‘Export of Tamarind from India’, Proc. Nat. Sym. onTamarindus indica L., Tirupathi (A.P.), organized by Forest Dept. of A.P., India, 1997, 27, 156–61. 29.Dager J C, Singh G and Sngh N T (‘Evolution of crops in agroforestry with teak (Tectoma grandis), maharukh (Ailanthus excelsa) and tamarind (Tamarindus indica) on reclaimed salt-affected soils’, Journal of Tropical Forest Science. 1995, 7(4), 623–34. 30.Jambulingam, R and Ferenandes, E C M ‘Multipurpose trees and shrubs on farmlands in Tamil Nadu State (India)’, Agroforestry System., 1986, 4(1), 17–32. 31.Anon, A. Area and Production of Spices in India and the World. Spices Board, Cochin, India. .1997, 5, 231 32.Rao Y S (1997), ‘Cumbum-Lower Camp Variety of Tamarind – A Boon to Farmers’,Proc. Nat. Sym. on Tamarindus indica L, Tirupathi (A.P.), organized by Forest Dept.of A.P., India, 27–28 June, 1997, 27–28 , 124–6. 33.Vennila, ENNILA P and Kingsley, A R P (2000), ‘Tamarind Concentrate’, Spice India, 2000, 13(9), 6. 34.Aon, A., Spices Export Review, 1995–96. Spices Board, Cochin, India. ANON. Spices Statistics. Spices Board, Cochin, India. 1996, 4, 453

35.Ramakuma M V, Babu C K, SubramanyaA S, Ranganna B and Krishnamurty K C ‘Development of a Tamarind Dehuller and Short-term Storage of Pulp’, Proc. Nat. Sym. on Tamarindus indica L., Tirupathi (A.P.), organized by Forest Dept. of A.P., India, 1997, 27–28, 145–50. 36.Von Carlowitz, P.G. (1986) Multipurpose Trees and Shrubs Seed Directory. International Council for Research Agroforestry, Nairobi: 1986,265. 37.Hong, T.D., Linnington, S. and Ellis R.H. (1996) Seed Storage Behaviour: A Compendium. Handbook for Genebanks No.4 International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Rome. 1996, 5, 436. 38.El-Siddig, K., Ebert, G. and Ludders, P. (2000) Emergence and early seedling growth of Tamarindus indica L. from geographically diverse populations in the Sudan. Angewandte Botanik, 2000 ,74(1/2), 17-20. 39.Rama Rao, M. Flowering Plants of Travancore. Dehra Dun India. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh. 1975, 2, 484. 40.Chaturvedi, A.N. Firewood farming on the degraded lands of the Gangetic plain.U. P. Forest Bulletin No.50. Lucknow, India Government of India Press. 1985, (1), 286. 41.Coronel, R.E. (1991) Tamarindus indica L. In Plant Resources of South East Asia, Wageningen, Pudoc. No.2. Edible fruits and nuts. (Eds.) Verheij, E.W.M. and Coronel, R.E., PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia: 1991, 2 , 298-301. 42.Picout, D.R., Ross-Murphy, S.B., Errington, N. and Harding, S.E. (2003) Pressure cell assisted solubilization of xyloglucans: Tamarind seed polysaccharide and detarium gum. Biomacromolecules, 2003, 4(3), 799-07. 43.Shankaracharya, N.B. (1998) Tamarind - Chemistry, Technology and Uses - a critical appraisal. Journal of Food Technology, 1998,35(3): 193-08. 44.Marathe, R.M., Annapure, U.S., Singhal, R.S. and Kulkarni, P.R. (2002) Gelling behaviour of polyose from tamarind kernel polysaccharide. Food Hydrocolloids, 2002, 16(5),423-26. 45.Panigrahi, S., Bland, B. and Carlaw, P.M. (1989) Nutritive value of tamarind for broiler chicks. Journal of Animal Feed Science and Technology, 1989, 22(4), 285-93. 46.Ishola, M.M., Agbaji, E.B. and Agbaji, A.S. (1990) A chemical study of Tamarindus indica (Tsamiya) fruits grown in Nigeria. Journal of Science, Food and Agriculture, 1990,51, 141-43. 47.Purseglove, J.W. (1987) Tropical Crops. Dicotyledons, Longman Science and Technology.1987, 204-206. 48.Anon (1976) Tamarindus indica L. In The Wealth of India (Raw Materials Series) Vol.X: 144-122. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. 1976 ,X, 144-22. 49.Morad, M.M., El Magoli, S.B. and Sedky, K.A. (1978) Physico-chemical properties of Egyptian tamarind seed oil. Fette Seifen Anstrichmittel.1978 80,357-59. 50.Marangoni, A., Alli, I. and Kermasha, S. (1988) Composition and properties of seeds of the true legume Tamarindus indica. Journal of Food Science, 1988, 53, 1452-55. 51.FAO (1970) National Studies, FAO/UN, Rome No. 1970 , 24,50-52. 52.de Lumen, B.O., Becker, R. and Reyes, P.S. (1986) The nutritive value of tamarind seed for broiler chicks. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 1986 ,22(4), 285-93. 53.de Lumen, B.O., Becker, R. and Reyes, P.S. (1990) Legumes and a cereal with high methionine/cyctine



contents. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 1990, 34, 361364. 54.Andriamanantena, R.W., Artuad, J., Gaydofn, E.M., Iatrides, M.C. and Chavalier, J. L. (1983) Fatty acid and sterol composition of malagasy tamarind kernels. Journal of the American Oil Chemist’s Society, 1983, 60(7), 1318-21. 55.Singh, P.P. (1973) Oxalic acid content of Indian foods, Quarterly. Plant. Materials. Vegetables. 22, 335, Chemical Abstracts, 79: 135506w. . 1973, 22, 335 56.Bhattacharya, P.K., Bal, S. and Mukherji, R.K. (1994) Studies on the characteristics of some products from tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) kernels. Journal of Food Science and Technology (India), 1994, 31(5), 372-76. 57.Parvez, S.S., Parvez, M.M., Nishihara, E., Gemma, H. and Fujii, Y. (2003) Tamarindus indica L. leaf is a source of allelopathic substance. Plant Growth Regulation, 2003, 40(2), 107-15. 58.Sivarama Reddy, G., Jaganmohan Rao, S., Achyutaramayya, D., Azeemoddin, G. and Tirumala Rao, S.D. (1979) Extraction, characteristics and fatty acid composition of tamarind kernel oil. Journal of Oil Technology Association (India), 1979, 11 91-93. 59.Khoja, A.K. and Halbe, A.V. (2001) Scope for the use of tamarind kernel powder as a thickener in textile printing. Man Made Textiles in India, 2001, 44(10), 403-07. 60.Kumar, K.P.V. and Sethuraman, M.G. (2000) Aricanut fibre and tamarind seed coat as raw materials for varnish preparation. Bulletin of Electrochemistry, 2000 ,16(6), 264-66. 61.Mungare, T.S., Jadhav, H.D., Shinde, U.S., Jadhav, B.S. and Jaswant, S. (2001) Clarification technique in quality jaggery making - a review. Cooperative Sugar, National Federation of Cooperative Sugar Factories Ltd, New Delhi, India. 2001, 32(12),1013-17. 62.Glicksman, M. (1986)Tamarind seed gum. In “Food Hydrocolloids, Vol. III”, Edited by Glicksman M., CRC Press, Florida, 1986 ,III,191-02. 63.Gidley, M. J., Lillford, P. J., Rowlands, D. W., Lang, P., Dentini, M., Crescenzi, V., Edwards, M., Fanutti, C., and Reid, J. S. G. (1991) Structure and solution properties of tamarind-seed polysaccharide. Carbohydr. Res., 1991 ,214, 299-14. 64.Nishinari, K., Yamatoya, K., and Shirakawa, M. (2000) Xyloglucan. In “Handbook of Hydrocolloids”, Edited by Phillips, G. O., Williams, P. A., Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, pp 2000,247-67. 65.Reid, J. S. G., Edwards, M. E., and Dea, I. C. M. (1988) Enzymatic modification of matural seed gum. In “Gums and Stabilisers for the food Industry 6”, Edited by Phillips, G. O., Williams, P. A., and Wedlock, D. J., IRL Press, Oxford, pp. 1988, 6,391-98. 66.Shirakawa, M., Yamatoya, K., and Nishinari, K. (1998) Tailoring of xyloglucan properties using an enzyme. Food Hydrocoll., 1998,12, 25-28. 67.Saettone M, Burgalassi E, Boldrini P, Bianchini G: Luciani: International patent application PCT/IT97/00026. 1997. 68.Mannucci LL, Fregona I, Di Gennaro A: Use of a new lachrymal substitute (T S Polysaccharide) in Contactology. J Med Contactology and Low Vision 2000, 1(1), 6–9. 69.Mannucci LL, Fregona I, Mannucci A: Aspetti della cristallizzazione di differenti sostituti lacrimali in uso in Contattologia. EuVision Superficie Oculare 2004, 1(04),6-11.

70.Burgalassi S, Panichi L, Chetoni P, Saettone MF, Boldrini E: Development of a simple dry eye model in the albino rabbit and evaluation of some tear substitutes. Ophthalmic Res 1999, 31,229-35. 71.Lindsay B: J Pharm Pharmacol 2000:37. 72.Alexandrakis, G., E. C. Alfonso, and D. Miller. 2000. Shifting trends in bacterial keratitis in south Florida and emerging resistance to fluoroquinolones. Ophthalmology 2000,107, 1497–1502. 73.Bourcier, T., F. Thomas, V. Borderie, C. Chaumeil, and L. Laroche. 2003. Bacterial keratitis: predisposing factors, clinical and microbiological review of 300 cases. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2003, 87,234–38. 74.Callegan, M. C., R. J. O’Callaghan, and J. M. Hill. 1994. Pharmacokinetic considerations in the treatment of bacterial keratitis. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1994 ,27,129–49. 75.Cutarelli, P. E., J. H. Lass, H. M. Lazarus, S. C. Putman, and M. R. Jacobs. 1991. Topical fluoroquinolones: antimicrobial activity and in vitro corneal epithelial toxicity. Curr. Eye Res1991,10,557–63. 76.Holland, S. P., J. S. Pulido, T. K. Shires, and J. W. Costerton. 1993. Pseudomonas aeruginosa ocular infections, p. 160–176. In R. B. Fick (ed.), Pseudomonas aeruginosa: the opportunist. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Fla. 1993, 18,160–76 77.Liesegang, T. J. 1988. Bacterial and fungal keratitis, p. 217–270. In H. E. Kaufman, B. A. Barron, M. B. McDonald, and S. R. Waltman (ed.), The cornea. Churchill Livingstone, New York, N.Y. 1988,217–70 78.Mallari, P. L., D. J. McCarty, M. Daniell, and H. Taylor. 2001. Increased incidence of corneal perforation after topical fluoroquinolone treatment for microbial keratitis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2001, 31,131–33. 79.McClellan, K. A. 1997. Mucosal defense of the outer eye. Surv. Ophthalmol. 1997, 42,233–46. 80.Alexandrakis, G., E. C. Alfonso, and D. Miller. 2000. Shifting trends in bacterial keratitis in south Florida and emerging resistance to fluoroquinolones. Ophthalmology 2000,107, 1497–1502. 81.Bourcier, T., F. Thomas, V. Borderie, C. Chaumeil, and L. Laroche. 2003. Bacterial keratitis: predisposing factors, clinical and microbiological review of 300 cases. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2003, 87,234–38. 82.Callegan, M. C., R. J. O’Callaghan, and J. M. Hill. 1994. Pharmacokinetic considerations in the treatment of bacterial keratitis. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 1994,27,129–49. 83.Cutarelli, P. E., J. H. Lass, H. M. Lazarus, S. C. Putman, and M. R. Jacobs. 1991. Topical fluoroquinolones: antimicrobial activity and in vitro corneal epithelial toxicity. Curr. Eye Res. 1991, 10,557–63. 84.Holland, S. P., J. S. Pulido, T. K. Shires, and J. W. Costerton. 1993. Pseudomonas aeruginosa ocular infections, p. 160–176. In R. B. Fick (ed.), Pseudomonas aeruginosa: the opportunist. CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, Fla. 1993,160–76 85.Liesegang, T. J. 1988. Bacterial and fungal keratitis, p. 217–270. In H. E. Kaufman, B. A. Barron, M. B. McDonald, and S. R. Waltman (ed.), The cornea. Churchill Livingstone, New York, N.Y. 1988, 217–70 86.Mallari, P. L., D. J. McCarty, M. Daniell, and H. Taylor. 2001. Increased incidence of corneal perforation after topical fluoroquinolone treatment for microbial keratitis. Am. J. Ophthalmol. 2001,131,131–33. 87.McClellan, K. A. 1997. Mucosal defense of the outer eye. Surv. Ophthalmol. 1997. 42,233–46.



88.Raimondi, L., G. Sgromo, R. Banchelli, I. Corti, R. Pirisino, and E. Boldrini. 2000. A new viscosity enhancer for ophthalmic preparations devoid of toxicity for human conjunctiva cells. J. Toxicol. Cut. Ocular Toxicol. 2000. 19,31–42. 89.Schaefer, F., O. Bruttin, L. Zografos, and Y. Guex-Crosier. 2001. Bacterial keratitis: a prospective clinical and microbiological study. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2001 85,842–47. 90.Burgalassi, S., L. Panichi, P. Chetoni, M. F. Saettone, and E. Boldrini. 1999. Development of simple dry eye model in the albino rabbit and evaluation of some tear substitutes. Ophthalmic Res. 1999, 31,229–35. 91.Burgalassi, S., L. Raimondi, R. Pirisino, G. Banchelli, E. Boldrini, and M. F. Saettone. 2000. Effect of xyloglucan (tamarind seed polysaccharide) on conjunctiva cell adhesion to laminin and on corneal epithelium wound healing. Eur. J. Ophthalmol. . 2000,10,71–76. 92.Gangopadhyay, N., M. Daniell, L. Weih, and H. R. Taylor. 2000. Fluoroquinolone and fortified antibiotics for treating bacterial corneal ulcers. Br. J. Ophthalmol. 2000, 84,378–84. 93.Garg, P., A. K. Bansal, S. Sharma, and G. K. Vemuganti. 2001. Bilateral infectious keratitis after laser in situ keratomileusis: a case report and review of the literature. Ophthalmology 2001,108,121–25. 94.Ghelardi, E., A. Tavanti, F. Celandroni, A. Lupetti, C. Blandizzi, E. Boldrini, M. Campa, and S. Senesi. 2000. Effect of a novel mucoadhesive polysaccharide obtained from tamarind seeds on the intraocular penetration of gentamicin and ofloxacin in rabbits. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 2000 ,46,831–34. 95.S. Sumathi, Alok R. Ray (2002).Release behaviour of drugs from Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide tablets Centre for Biomedical Engineering , J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci 5(1), 2002,5(1), 12-18 96.Sumathi S. and Alok R. Ray (2003). Role of modulating factors on release of caffeine from tamarind seed

polysaccharide tablets. Trends Biomate Artif. Organs. Vol 2003, 17 (1), 41-46. 97.Emilia Ghelardi, Arianna Tavanti, Paola Davini, Francesco Celandroni, Sara Salvetti, Eva Parisio, Enrico Boldrini, Sonia Senesi, and Mario Campa. (2004). A Mucoadhesive Polymer Extracted from Tamarind Seed Improves the Intraocular Penetration and Efficacy of Rufloxacin in Topical Treatment of Experimental Bacterial Keratitis. Antimicrobial Agent and Chemotherapy.2004, 48, (9), 3396–01. 98.Ji Zhang, Shengjun Xu, Shengtang Zhang, and Zhaoli Du (2008). Preparation and Characterization of Tamarind Gum/Sodium Alginate Composite Gel Beads Iranian Polymer Journal, 2008 ,17 (12), 899-06. 99.Bhavin Patel, Ashok Bhosale, Shrawaree Hardikar, Ganesh hauling Swati Mutha (2009). Evaluation of Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide (TSP) as a Mucoadhesive and sustained release component of nifedipine buccoadhesive tablet & Comparison with HPMC and Na CMC. International Journal of PharmTech Research, 2009,1(3), 404-10. 100.R.Deveswaran , Sindhu Abraham, S.Bharath, B.V.Basavaraj, Sharon Furtado, V.Madhavan (2009). Design and Characterization of Diclofenac sodium tablets containing Tamarind seed polysaccharide as Release retardant. International Journal of PharmTech Research, 2009, 1 (2), 191-195. 101.Maurizio Rolando and Cristiana Valente (2007). Establishing the tolerability and performance of tamarind seed polysaccharide (TSP) in treating dry eye syndrome: results of a clinical study. BMC, Ophthalmology, 2007. 7, 5. 102.Pongsawatmanit, R., Ikeda, S., & Miyawaki, O. . Effect of sucrose on physical properties of alginate dispersed aqueous systems. Food Science and Technology Research, 1999, 5, 183–87. 103.Puja Goyal, Vineet Kumar, Pradeep Sharma Graft Copolymerization of Acrylamide onto Tamarind Kernel Powder in the Presence of Ceric ion Journal of Applied Polymer Science 2008,108, 3696–01

Documents

Sahoo Soumendra Et. Al