RTI & Behavior: Motivating the Struggling Student in ... · Five Strands of Mathematical Proficiency(NRC, 2002) 1. Ud t diUnderstanding: C h di th ti l t ti d Comprehending mathematical

Response to Intervention

RTI & Behavior: Motivating the Struggling Student in Struggling Student in Grades 3-12

Jim Wrightwww.interventioncentral.org

www.interventioncentral.org


Access PPTs and other materials from this workshop at:

http://www.interventioncentral.org/lansing158





Intervention Centralwww interventioncentral orgwww.interventioncentral.org



Motivating Students: Agenda… 1. Understanding the Central Role that

Motivation Plays in Student Success

2. Defining ‘Motivation’ (and Related Behavioral Principles )p )

3. Analyzing Why a Student Lacks Motivation and Selecting Appropriate Strategies Selecting Appropriate Strategies

4. Helping Teachers to Proactively Manage I t ti d B h i t O ti i St d t Instruction and Behaviors to Optimize Student Motivation


5. Reviewing Additional Internet Resources


RTI & Behavior: Motivating the Struggling Student

Identifying a Student’s ‘Stage of Identifying a Student s Stage of Learning’. How can the Instructional Hierarchy help teachers to better Hierarchy help teachers to better match students to academic i t ti ( d ti t ll interventions (and sometimes tell us why a student is unmotivated)?

www.interventioncentral.org 6


Instructional Hierarchy: Identifying a St d t’ St f L iStudent’s Stage of Learning

The Instructional Hierarchy-IH (Haring et al., 1978) is a y ( g , )helpful framework to analyze stages of student learning. The Instructional Hierarchy breaks learning process into several levels, shifting from skill acquisition through skill mastery toward full integration of the skill into the student's academic repertoire student s academic repertoire.

B li ki ti l t d t' t t kill t th By linking a particular student's target skill to the corresponding IH learning stage, the teacher can gain insight into what instructional supports and strategies


insight into what instructional supports and strategies will help that student to attain academic success.

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Instructional Hierarchy: 5 Stages



1. Acquisition Intervention: Cover-Copy-Compare

In this intervention to promote acquisition of lli / b l d th f t th spelling/vocabulary words or math facts, the

student is given a sheet with the spelling words th f t ith Th t d t l k t or math facts with answers. The student looks at

each spelling or math model, covers the model b i fl d i it f th briefly and copies it from memory, then compares the copied version to the original

t d l (Ski M L hli & L correct model (Skinner, McLaughlin & Logan, 1997).



9 x 7 = 63 9 x 7 = 63

9 x 2 = 189 x 4 = 36

Cover-Copy-Compare Math

9 x 4 36

9 x 1 = 9p

Fact Student Worksheet

9 x 9 = 819 x 6 = 549 x 3 = 27

9 5 459 x 5 = 459 x 10 = 90


9 x 8 = 72


product product

laughter

stringCover-Copy-

Compare Spelling

string

summerp p g

Student Worksheet

distractneighborstable

hgeographyspool


strict





2. Fluency Intervention: Explicit Time DrillThe teacher hands out a math-fact worksheet. Students are told that they will have 3 minutes to work on problems are told that they will have 3 minutes to work on problems on the sheet. The teacher starts the stop watch and tells the students to start work At the end of the first minute the students to start work. At the end of the first minute, the teacher ‘calls time’, stops the stopwatch, and tells the students to underline the last number written and to put students to underline the last number written and to put their pencils in the air. Then students are told to resume work and the teacher restarts the stopwatch This process work and the teacher restarts the stopwatch. This process is repeated at the end of minutes 2 and 3. At the conclusion of the 3 minutes the teacher collects the


conclusion of the 3 minutes, the teacher collects the student worksheets (Rhymer et al., 2002).

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3. Retention Intervention: Repeated ReadingThis intervention targets reading fluency (Lo, Cooke, & Starling, 2011). The student is given a passage and first g, ) g p g'rehearses' that passage by following along silently as the tutor reads it aloud. Then the student reads the same passage aloud several times in a row, with the tutor giving performance feedback after each re-reading.p g

If a teacher uses a fluency-building strategy such as t d di b t t biti t l th t repeated reading but sets an ambitious outcome goal that

is above the minimum benchmark for success, the lti ' l i ' t l t t ti f


resulting 'overlearning' can support long-term retention of the skill.

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4. Endurance Intervention: Fixed-Time EscapeAn idea to increase student endurance provides breaks between gradually lengthening work intervals ('fixed-time escape': adapted from Waller & Higbee, 2010). This strategy can be used with groups or individual students.

The teacher first selects a target activity for endurance-building (e.g., independent reading). The teacher then sets the length of work periods by estimating the typical length of time that the student or group will currently engage in the activity (e.g., 5 minutes) before becoming off task or disruptive The teacher also minutes) before becoming off-task or disruptive. The teacher also decides on a length for brief 'escape' breaks (e.g., 2 minutes)--times when students can stop work and instead take part in


times when students can stop work and instead take part in preferred activities.

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4. Endurance Intervention: Fixed-Time Escape (Cont.)At the start of the intervention, the teacher directs the student or group to begin the target work activity At the end of the work group to begin the target work activity. At the end of the work interval (e.g., 5 minutes), the teacher announces that the student or group can take a short break (e.g., 2 minutes). When that break is over, students are directed to again begin work.

This sequence (work interval, escape interval) repeats until the scheduled work period is over. As students are able successfully to remain engaged during work periods, the teacher can gradually extend the length of these work periods by small increments, while reducing and then fading escape breaks until work periods reach


reducing and then fading escape breaks, until work periods reach the desired length.

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Response to Intervention5. Generalization Intervention: Self-Correction

Ch kli tFor a student who does not always generalize the skill of carefully checking math assignments before turning them in the teacher

Checklists

checking math assignments before turning them in, the teacher can work with that student to create a math self-correction checklist (Uberti, Mastropieri, & Scruggs, 2004). ( , p , gg , )

Teacher and student meet to create a checklist of that student's Teacher and student meet to create a checklist of that student s most common sources of errors on math assignments. The student is then expected to use the checklist to review math work before submitting to the teacher. This intervention strategy can be adopted to other disciplines (e.g., writing assignments) as well. A d l t d h kli t b ll t d ith i t t


And completed checklists can be collected with assignments to verify student use.

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Response to InterventionCommon Core State Standards: Language

St d d f 6 12Standards for 6-12


Source: National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers. (2010). Common core state standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors. Retrieved from http://www.corestandards.org/ p. 54

Response to InterventionSentence Combining

Students with poor writing skills often write sentences that lack Students with poor writing skills often write sentences that lack ‘syntactic maturity’. Their sentences often follow a simple, stereotyped format. A promising approach to teach students use of di erse sentence str ct res is thro gh sentence combining diverse sentence structures is through sentence combining.

In sentence combining, students are presented with kernel sentences and given explicit instruction in how to weld these kernel sentences into more diverse sentence types either

by using connecting words to combine multiple sentences into – by using connecting words to combine multiple sentences into one or

– by isolating key information from an otherwise superfluous sentence and embedding that important information into the base sentence.

Sources: Saddler, B. (2005). Sentence combining: A sentence-level writing intervention. The Reading Teacher, 58, 468-471.


Strong, W. (1986). Creative approaches to sentence combining. Urbana, OL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skill & National Council of Teachers of English.

Response to InterventionFormatting Sentence Combining Examples









Group Activity: Instructional HierarchyGroup Activity: Instructional Hierarchy

• In your groups, discuss the Instructional Hierarchy and how you might use it to better match

Instructional Hierarchy: Stages1. Acquisition

you might use it to better match students to intervention.

• Be prepared to share your ideas

2. Fluency3. Maintenance• Be prepared to share your ideas

with the group. 4. Endurance5. Generalization




Understanding Motivation. What does the term ‘motivation’ mean and does the term motivation mean and what impact does it have on student

d i f ?academic performance?



Defining Motivation: ActivityDefining Motivation: Activity

At your table:

Di th t ‘ ti ti ’• Discuss the term ‘ motivation’.

• Come up with a definition of this term • Come up with a definition of this term that you feel would be appropriate to share with your teaching staffshare with your teaching staff.



Childhood and Beyond Longitudinal Project Childhood and Beyond Longitudinal Project • 3 cohorts of children (about 250 children per cohort)

were followed across elementary middle and high were followed across elementary, middle and high school. (Children were recruited from 4 middle-class school districts in the midwest.)school districts in the midwest.)

• In the subject areas of math, language arts, and sports, students were asked each year to rate their ycompetence in the subject and their valuing of it.


Source: Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.


Childhood and Beyond Longitudinal Project: Some Fi diFindings

• Ratings of both competence and value declined for all 3 subject areas (math language arts and sports) for boys and girls as they grew older(math, language arts, and sports) for boys and girls as they grew older.

• Girls rated themselves lower in competence in math throughout school—until grade 12, when boys and girls converged in their ratings (because boys’ ratings declined faster than did girls’ ratings).

• Across all grade levels, boys rated themselves significantly less competent than did girls in language artscompetent than did girls in language arts.

• Not surprisingly, boys’ and girls’ valuing (enjoyment, liking) of a subject area correlated with perceived ability. Generally, boys and girls who rated themselves as lowest in ability also rated their valuing of the subject area as lowest.


Source: Jacobs, J. E., Lanza, S., Osgood, D. W., Eccles, J. S., & Wigfield, A. (2002). Changes in children’s self-competence and values: Gender and domain differences across grades one through twelve. Child Development, 73, 509-527.

Response to InterventionFive Strands of Mathematical Proficiency (NRC, 2002)

1 U d t di C h di th ti l t ti d 1. Understanding: Comprehending mathematical concepts, operations, and relations--knowing what mathematical symbols, diagrams, and procedures mean.

2 C ti C i t th ti l d h ddi bt ti 2. Computing: Carrying out mathematical procedures, such as adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing numbers flexibly, accurately, efficiently, and appropriately.

3. Applying: Being able to formulate problems mathematically and to devise strategies for solving them using concepts and procedures appropriately.

4. Reasoning: Using logic to explain and justify a solution to a problem or to extend from something known to something less known.

5. Engaging: Seeing mathematics as sensible, useful, and doable—if you work at it—and being willing to do the work.


Source: National Research Council. (2002). Helping children learn mathematics. Mathematics Learning Study Committee, J. Kilpatrick & J. Swafford, Editors, Center for Education, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Response to InterventionDefinitions of ‘Motivation’

Motivation “refers to a student's willingness, need, desire and

Source: Bomia, L., Beluzo, L., Demeester, D., Elander, K., Johnson, M., & Sheldon, B. (1997). The impact of teaching strategies on intrinsic motivation. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early compulsion to participate in, and

be successful in, the learning

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 418 925)

process.”

“Motivation is typically defined as Source: Excerpted from Chapter 11 of Biehler/Snowman, PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED

the forces that account for the arousal, selection, direction, and

TO TEACHING, 8/e, Houghton Mifflin, 1997.


continuation of behavior.”

Response to InterventionUnmotivated Students: What Works

M ti ti b th ht f h i t di i1. the student’s expectation

of success on the task

Motivation can be thought of as having two dimensions:

………………10……………… 0………………10of success on the task

2. the value that the student places Multiplied by

………………10X 0...…………

……………… 0X 10...…………

………………10X 10...…………p

on achieving success on that learning task

00

100

10100

The relationship between the two factors is multiplicative. If EITHER of these factors (the student’s expectation of success on the task OR the student’s valuing of that success) is zero then the ‘motivation’ product will student s valuing of that success) is zero, then the motivation product will also be zero.Source: Sprick, R. S., Borgmeier, C., & Nolet, V. (2002). Prevention and management of behavior problems in secondary schools In M A Shinn H M Walker & G Stoner (Eds ) Interventions for


problems in secondary schools. In M. A. Shinn, H. M. Walker & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp.373-401). Bethesda, MD: National Association of School Psychologists.


Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic MotivationIntrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation

“An intrinsically motivated behavior [is defined as] one for which there exists no recognizable reward except the activity itself (e.g., reading). That is, behavior that

t b tt ib t d t t l t l i ll cannot be attributed to external controls is usually attributed to intrinsic motivation.”“ an extrinsically motivated behavior refers to …an extrinsically motivated behavior refers to behavior controlled by stimuli external to the task.” p. 345


Source: Akin-Little, K. A., Eckert, T. L., Lovett, B. J., & Little, S. G. (2004). Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or best practice. School Psychology Review, 33, 344-362.


Intrinsic Motivation: Is There Any Utility to This C t t?Construct?

By definition, intrinsic motivation is supported by the reinforcing quality of the activity alone As a reinforcing quality of the activity alone. As a construct, ‘intrinsic motivation’ may be untestable, because the reinforcer cannot be directly observed or because the reinforcer cannot be directly observed or experimentally manipulated.

“Intrinsic motivation has been defined as behaviors performed in the absence of observable external reinforcement Defining any construct in terms of what reinforcement. Defining any construct in terms of what it is not does little to advance the course of science.”p. 358


Source: Akin-Little, K. A., Eckert, T. L., Lovett, B. J., & Little, S. G. (2004). Extrinsic reinforcement in the classroom: Bribery or best practice. School Psychology Review, 33, 344-362.


Reframing ‘Intrinsic Motivation’ as the H di k f G d T hHandiwork of Good Teachers

• When a student appears to be ‘intrinsically motivated’ to complete a task that student has advanced through the complete a task, that student has advanced through the stages of the Instructional Hierarchy to independence.

To reach his or her current state of academic competence, however, the student needed to move through the usual stages of learning and required lots of close teacher support, encouragement, and extrinsic reinforcement.

When students are observed who seem to be ‘intrinsically motivated’ by academics then it’s likely that we are


motivated by academics, then, it s likely that we are observing the excellent handiwork of past teachers!

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Motivation in Action: ‘Flow’



Definition of the ‘Flow’ StateDefinition of the Flow State

“Being completely involved in an activity for its own sake. The ego falls away. Time flies. Every action, movement, and thought y , , gfollows inevitably from the previous one, like playing jazz Your whole being is like playing jazz. Your whole being is involved, and you're using your skills to the utmost ”utmost.--Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi


Source: Geirland, J. (Septermber, 1996). Go with the flow. Wired Magazine. Retrieved March 19, 2007, from http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/4.09/czik_pr.html


Qualities of Activities that May Elicit a ‘Flow’ State

• The activity is challenging and requires skill to complete• Goals are clear• Feedback is immediate• There is a ‘merging of action and awareness’. ‘All the attention g g

is concentrated on the relevant stimuli’ so that individuals are no longer aware of themselves as ‘separate from the actions they are performing’they are performing

• The sense of time’s passing is altered: Time may seem slowed or pass very quicklyp y q y

• ‘Flow’ is not static. As one acquires mastery over an activity, he or she must move to more challenging experiences to

i hi ‘fl ’


continue to achieve ‘flow’Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row


Flow Channel

(High)• Student D: High Skills, High Challenge

Anxiety( g )

Dsall

enge

s

B d

Cha

Boredom(Low)

(High)(Low)Skill

www.interventioncentral.org 41Source: Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row

Skills


The Gordian Knot: A Symbol for an Intractable Problem

Solved Through an Innovative gApproach

• The Gordian Knot was a relic kept in an ancient temple in The Gordian Knot was a relic kept in an ancient temple in the kingdom of Phrygia. The knot was so intricate and cunningly woven together that no person could untie it cunningly woven together that no person could untie it.

• One day, the Macedonian military conqueror Alexander the Great visited the temple to view the knot When told the Great visited the temple to view the knot. When told that many had tried without success through the ages to untie it Alexander studied the knot closely then


untie it, Alexander studied the knot closely—then unsheathed his sword and cut it in two.

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Student Motivation: Cutting the ‘Gordian K t’ b R f i th I i Ob bl Knot’ by Reframing the Issue in Observable

(and Fixable) TermsStep 1: Redefine ‘motivation’ as academic engagement: e.g., The student chooses “to engage in active accurate

d i di ” (Ski P & D i academic responding” (Skinner, Pappas, & Davis, 2005).

Step 2: Build staff support for this mission statement: “When a student appears unmotivated it is the school’s When a student appears unmotivated, it is the school s job to figure out why the student is unmotivated and to find a way to get that student motivated.”


y g

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Source: Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.



Reasons for Poor Motivation. What are reasons that students can be are reasons that students can be unmotivated—and how can teachers

d?respond?



Six Student Motivation Blockers (And What (Teachers Can Do)

The student cannot do the assigned work The student cannot do the assigned work. The ‘response effort’ needed to complete the assigned work seems too great work seems too great. Classroom instruction does not engage.The student fails to see an adequate pay off for doing The student fails to see an adequate pay-off for doing the assigned work. The student has low self efficacy lack of confidence The student has low self-efficacy—lack of confidence that he or she can do the assigned work. The student lacks a positive relationship with the


The student lacks a positive relationship with the teacher.

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Motivation Blocker 1: The student cannot do the assigned work.

Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem:Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem:The student lacks essential skills required to do the task.



Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)( )

• What the Research Says: When a student lacks the ycapability to complete an academic task because of limited or missing basic skills, cognitive strategies, or academic-

fenabling skills, that student is still in the acquisition stage of learning (Haring et al., 1978). That student cannot be expected to be motivated or to be successful as a learner expected to be motivated or to be successful as a learner unless he or she is first explicitly taught these weak or absent essential skills (Daly, Witt, Martens & Dool, 1997).absent essential skills (Daly, Witt, Martens & Dool, 1997).



Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)( )

• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:yThe teacher collects information (e.g., through observations of the student engaging in academic tasks; interviews with

fthe student; examination of work products, quizzes, or tests) demonstrating that the student lacks basic skills, cognitive strategies or academic enabling skills essential to cognitive strategies, or academic-enabling skills essential to the academic task.



Motivation Deficit 1: Cannot Do the Work (Cont.)( )• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: Students who are

not motivated because they lack essential skills need to be not motivated because they lack essential skills need to be taught those skills.

Direct-Instruction Format. Students learning new material, concepts, or skills benefit from a ‘direct instruction’

h (B V D H d & B i 2008 approach. (Burns, VanDerHeyden & Boice, 2008; Rosenshine, 1995; Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009).




Response to InterventionA Direct Instruction Model: Elements of

St C I t tiStrong Core Instruction…



Elements of Strong Core Instruction…












Activity: Core Instruction Fidelity Checks

• Lembke et al (2012) recommend that schools periodically use teacher self- collegial or periodically use teacher self , collegial, or administrative checks to ensure that strong explicit core instruction is occurring in classes.g

• Discuss how your school could a ‘core instruction’ checklist like the one just reviewed to ensure strong Tier 1 (core) instruction across all classrooms.


Source: Lembke, E. S., Hampton, D., & Beyers, S. J. (2012). Response to intervention in mathematics: Critical elements. Psychology in the Schools, 49(3), 257-272.

Response to InterventionMotivation Blocker 2: The ‘ ff t’ d d t ‘response effort’ needed to complete the assigned work

seems too great.

Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem:Although the student has the required skills to complete the Although the student has the required skills to complete the assigned work, he or she perceives the ‘effort’ needed to do

so to be so great that the student loses motivation.



Motivation Deficit 2: Response Effort (Cont.)( )Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing Response Effort :

• CLASS NOTES: CREATE GUIDED NOTES. Prepare a copy of notes summarizing content from a class lecture or assigned reading—with blanks inserted in the notes where key facts or concepts should appear. As information is covered during lecture or in a reading assignment the covered during lecture or in a reading assignment, the student writes missing content into blanks to complete the guided notes.guided notes.




• USE A PEER TO HELP IN STARTING ASSIGNMENTS. If a student finds it difficult to get organized and begin independent seatwork activities, select a supportive peer or adult in the classroom who can get the student organized and started on the assignmentand started on the assignment.




• DEVELOP A STUDENT SELF-CHECK ERROR CHECKLIST. Meet with the student and generate a short list of the most common errors that the student habitually makes on course assignments (e.g., ‘In writing assignments some words are illegible’ ‘Not all words at assignments, some words are illegible , Not all words at sentence beginning are capitalized’.) Format that list as a customized error-correction checklist. Instruct the student to customized error correction checklist. Instruct the student to review completed assignments using the error-correction checklist before turning in the work.




• Start Assigned Readings in Class. Whenever the teacher assigns a challenging text for students to read independently (e.g., as homework), the teacher (or perhaps a skilled student reader) reads the first few paragraphs of the assigned reading aloud while the class follows along the assigned reading aloud while the class follows along silently in their own texts. Students are then expected to read the remainder of the text on their own. read the remainder of the text on their own.




• Begin Challenging Homework Assignments in Class. When assigned challenging homework, students are paired off or divided into groups and given a small amount of class time to begin the homework together, develop a plan for completing the homework formulate questions about the completing the homework, formulate questions about the homework, or engage in other activities that will create the necessary momentum to motivate students then to necessary momentum to motivate students then to complete the work independently.




• ‘Chunk’ Assignments. The teacher breaks a larger student assignment into smaller ‘chunks’. The teacher provides the student with performance feedback and praise for each completed ‘chunk’ of assigned work (Skinner, Pappas, & Davis 2005)Davis, 2005).



TUTORIAL: How To…Increase Motivation Through ‘High-Probability’ Requests

High probability requests are a useful technique to motivate High-probability requests are a useful technique to motivate students to engage in assigned classwork (Lee, 2006). The teacher first identifies an academic activity in which the ystudent historically shows a low probability of completing because of non-compliance. The teacher then embeds within that low-probability activity an introductory series of simple, brief 'high-probability' requests or tasks that this same student has an established track record of completing (Belfiore has an established track record of completing (Belfiore, Basile, & Lee, 2008).



TUTORIAL: How To…Increase Motivation Th h ‘Hi h P b bilit ’ R t (C t )Through ‘High-Probability’ Requests (Cont.)

Here are 4 steps to using high probability requests:Here are 4 steps to using high-probability requests:

1 Identify incidents of non-compliant behavior The teacher 1. Identify incidents of non-compliant behavior. The teacher notes academic work-situations that initially have a low probability for completion because of student non-p y pcompliance (e.g., writing a journal entry; completing a worksheet with reflective questions tied to a reading

)assignment). The teacher also determines whether non-compliance in each situation occurs within that task or in transitioning to that task


transitioning to that task.

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2. List high-probability tasks. Next, the teacher generates a list of hi h b bilit t k th t th t d t i lik l t l ith high-probability tasks that the student is likely to comply with. These tasks should be brief (i.e., take 5 seconds or fewer to complete) and should logically link to the low probability complete) and should logically link to the low-probability activity.

For example, if the low-probability event is getting the student to start the writing of a journal entry (transitioning between academic activities), easy, high-probability tasks associated with beginning the writing task might include 'organize your writing materials' 'write a title' and 'list 3 ideas for the journal


writing materials , write a title , and list 3 ideas for the journal entry'.

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3. Create activities with embedded high-probability tasks. The t h th k th l b bilit k it ti t teacher then reworks the low-probability work-situation to embed within it a series of high-probability tasks. St ti ti it If th t t i t t th t d t t t iti • Starting an activity: If the target is to get the student to transition efficiently from one activity to another, the teacher inserts 3 high-probability requests at the start of the activity to create high probability requests at the start of the activity to create behavioral momentum.

• Continuing an activity: If the goal is to prod the student to Continuing an activity: If the goal is to prod the student to efficiently complete an independent assignment without hesitating between items, the teacher inserts 3 high-probability


requests before each challenging item on the assignment.

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4. Introduce the activities. The teacher rolls out the activities, now t l d t i l d b dd d hi h b bilit t k retooled to include embedded high-probability tasks or

requests.

The teacher is careful, when presenting directives aloud to the student, to pace those directives briskly: letting no more than 10 , p y gseconds elapse between student completion of one request and teacher delivery of the next request. The teacher should also monitor the student's performance. If the student does not comply quickly with selected high-probability requests, the teacher should replace those requests on future assignments


teacher should replace those requests on future assignments with others that elicit prompt compliance.

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TIP: Consider using high-probability sequences to motivate h l ti l whole groups or even an entire class.

F l i t t i ht d id t i t 3 ' ' • For example, an instructor might decide to intersperse 3 'easy' (high-probability) items between each 'challenge' item on a math computation worksheet to be assigned to all students for math computation worksheet to be assigned to all students for independent seatwork.

• Or a teacher may routinely introduce in-class writing Or a teacher may routinely introduce in class writing assignments by first verbally directing students to 'take out paper and pen', 'write your name on the paper', and 'copy this


journal topic onto your paper'.

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Helping the Student Who is ‘Under Water’ Who is Under Water With Late Assignments: A Assignments: A Structure for Teacher Student Teacher–Student Conferences


Response to InterventionNegotiating Missing Work: Student-Teacher

C fConferenceWhen students fall behind in their classwork, they can quickly enter a downward spiral Some students become quickly enter a downward spiral. Some students become overwhelmed and simply give up. In such cases the teacher may want to meet with the In such cases, the teacher may want to meet with the student –and if possible, a parent--to help that student to create a work plan to catch up with late work. p pAt the meeting, the teacher and student inventory what work is missing, negotiate a plan to complete that overdue g, g p pwork, and perhaps agree on a reasonable penalty when late work is turned in. All attending then sign off on the

k l Th h l h h h


work plan. The teacher also ensures that the atmosphere at the meeting is supportive.

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C f (C t )Conference (Cont.)Here in greater detail are the steps that the teacher and student would follow at a meeting to renegotiate missing student would follow at a meeting to renegotiate missing work:

1 Inventory All Missing Work The teacher reviews with the 1. Inventory All Missing Work. The teacher reviews with the student all late or missing work. The student is given the opportunity to explain why the work has not yet been pp y p y ysubmitted.



C f (C t )Conference (Cont.)

2 N ti t Pl t C l t Mi i W k Th t h 2. Negotiate a Plan to Complete Missing Work. The teacher and student create a log with entries for all missing assignments Each entry includes a description of the assignments. Each entry includes a description of the missing assignment and a due date by which the student pledges to submit that work. This log becomes the p g gstudent’s work plan. Submission dates for late assignments should be realistic--particularly for students who owe a considerable amount of late work and are also trying to keep caught up with current assignments.





C f (C t )Conference (Cont.)3. [Optional] Impose a Penalty for Missing Work. The

teacher may decide to impose a penalty for the work teacher may decide to impose a penalty for the work being submitted late. Examples of possible penalties are a reduction of points (e.g., loss of 10 points per a reduction of points (e.g., loss of 10 points per assignment) or the requirement that the student do additional work on the assignment than was required of his or her peers who turned it in on time. If imposed, such penalties would be spelled out at this teacher-t d t f A lti h ld b b l d student conference. Any penalties should be balanced

and fair, permitting the teacher to impose appropriate consequences while allowing the student to still see a


consequences while allowing the student to still see a path to completing missing work and passing the course.

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C f (C t )Conference (Cont.)4. Periodically Check on the Status of the Missing-Work

Plan If the schedule agreed upon by teacher and Plan. If the schedule agreed upon by teacher and student to complete and submit all late work exceeds two weeks, the teacher (or other designated school two weeks, the teacher (or other designated school contact, such as a counselor) should meet with the student weekly while the plan is in effect. At these meetings, the teacher checks in with the student to verify that he or she is attaining the plan milestones on time

d till t t t th b i i d dli and still expects to meet the submission deadlines agreed upon. If obstacles to emerge, the teacher and student engage in problem-solving to resolve them


student engage in problem-solving to resolve them.

76


M ti ti th R l t t St d t A ti itMotivating the Reluctant Student: Activity

• Review the two • Motivation Deficit 1: The student is • Review the two reasons for poor student motivation

• Motivation Deficit 1: The student is unmotivated because he or she cannot do the assigned work.

presented.• Discuss how your

cannot do the assigned work.

• Motivation Deficit 2: The student is yschool might identify and support students

h l k ti ti f

unmotivated because the ‘response effort’ needed to complete the

who lack motivation for these reasons.

assigned work seems too great.



Motivation Blocker 3: Classroom i t ti d t instruction does not engage.

Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The student is distracted or off-task because classroom instruction student is distracted or off task because classroom instruction

and learning activities are not sufficiently reinforcing to hold his or her attention.



researchers [shows] that when provided with a

“ ”…researchers [shows] that when provided with a choice of two or more behaviors, with all else held constant, students are more likely to choose to , yengage in the behavior that results in more immediate reinforcement, higher rate reinforcement, or higher quality reinforcement… Thus, educators can increase the probability of students choosing to engage in assigned work by students choosing to engage in assigned work by both enhancing reinforcement for assigned tasks and weakening reinforcement for competing and weakening reinforcement for competing behaviors… (Skinner et al., 2005; p. 396)


Source: Skinner, C. H., Pappas, D. N., & Davis, K. A. (2005). Enhancing academic engagement: Providing opportunities for responding and influencing students to choose to respond. Psychology in the Schools, 42, 389-403.


Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)g g ( )

• What the Research Says: In classroom settings, students can choose to respond to a variety of reinforcing events—for example, watching the teacher, interacting with peers, looking out the window at passing traffic The fact is that looking out the window at passing traffic. The fact is that classroom instruction must always compete for student attention with other sources of reinforcement (Billington & attention with other sources of reinforcement (Billington & DiTommaso, 2003; Skinner, Pappas, & Davis, 2005). There are two ways that the instructor can increase the student’s motivation to attend to classroom instruction: (1) by decreasing the reinforcing power of competing (distracting) ti li d/ (2) b i i th i f i f


stimuli, and/or (2) by increasing the reinforcing power of academic activities.

80


Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)

• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:

g g ( )

yThe teacher observes that the student is engaged in behaviors other than those related to instruction or is otherwise distracted by non-instructional events occurring in the classroom. Furthermore, the teacher has verified that the student’s lack of attention to instruction is not due the student s lack of attention to instruction is not due primarily to that student’s attempting to escape or avoid difficult classwork.difficult classwork.



Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: The teacher can

increase the inattentive student’s focus on instruction and

g g ( )

engagement in learning activities by:– Reducing the Reinforcing Power of Non-Instructional

Activities. The teacher identifies any non-instructional activities in the classroom that are competing with instruction for the student’s attention and takes steps to instruction for the student’s attention and takes steps to reduce or eliminate them.Increasing the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction – Increasing the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction. The teacher strives to boost the reinforcing quality of academic activities and instruction to better capture and


academic activities and instruction to better capture and hold the student’s attention.

82


Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Reducing the Reinforcing Power of Non-Instructional Activities:

g g ( )

• ARRANGE CLASSROOM SEATING. Arrange classroom seating to elicit the desired student behavior: (1) to promote higher rates of student engagement and on-task behavior, arrange seats in traditional rows facing the instructor; (2) to promote discussion and student questions arrange seats in promote discussion and student questions, arrange seats in a semi-circle.




g g ( )

• Create Low-Distraction Work Areas (U.S. Department of Education, 2004. For students who are off-task during independent seatwork, the teacher can set up a study carrel in the corner of the room or other low-distraction work area The teacher can then either direct the distractible area. The teacher can then either direct the distractible student to use that area whenever independent seatwork is assigned or can permit the student to choose when to use assigned or can permit the student to choose when to use the area.




g g ( )

• USE ‘VISUAL BLOCKERS’. Encourage the student to reduce distractions on assignments by using a blank sheet of paper or similar aid to cover sections of the page that the student is not currently working on.



Motivation Deficit 3: Instruction Does Not Engage (Cont.)Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Increasing the Reinforcing Power of Classroom Instruction:

g g ( )

• Use Bellringer Activities. The teacher routinely gives students ‘bellringer’ activities to work on as soon as they enter the classroom. The point of this strategy is to capture students’ attention at the outset with academically relevant activities Ideally bellringer tasks should be engaging but activities. Ideally, bellringer tasks should be engaging but also should review and reinforce previously taught content or prepare students for the upcoming lesson. or prepare students for the upcoming lesson.




g g ( )

• Provide Opportunities for Choice (Kern, Bambara, & Fogt, 2002). One efficient way to promote choice in the classroom is for the teacher to create a master menu of options that students can select from in various learning situations For example during independent assignment situations. For example, during independent assignment, students might be allowed to (1) choose from at least 2 assignment options, (2) sit where they want in the assignment options, (2) sit where they want in the classroom, and (3) select a peer-buddy to check their work. Student choice then becomes integrated seamlessly into


the classroom routine.

87



g g ( )

• Incorporate Cooperative Learning Activities into Instruction (Beyda, Zentall, & Ferko, 2002; Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2002). Teacher-directed cooperative learning activities can be highly reinforcing for adolescent students, who typically find opportunities to interact with classmates to be a strong find opportunities to interact with classmates to be a strong motivator. Cooperative learning tasks have the added advantages of promoting active student engagement and advantages of promoting active student engagement and allowing the instructor to get real-time feedback through direct observation about the abilities and learning of


individual students.

88



g g ( )

• Structure Lessons around High-Interest or Functional-Learning Goals (Kern, Bambara, & Fogt, 2002; Miller et al., 2003). A student is more likely to be engaged when academic lessons are based on ‘high-interest’ topics that interest the student (e g NASCAR racing; fashion) or that interest the student (e.g., NASCAR racing; fashion) or that have a ‘functional-learning’ pay-off—e.g., job interview skills; money management skills --that the student values skills; money management skills that the student values and can apply in his or her own life.



TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’: 6 Steps

Motivating a reluctant student to complete schoolwork is not Motivating a reluctant student to complete schoolwork is not easy. In a typical classroom, students can choose from a number of sources of potential reinforcement (Billington & p ( g &DiTommaso, 2003)--and academic tasks often take a back seat to competing behaviors such as talking with peers. One way that teachers can increase the attractiveness of schoolwork is by structuring lessons or assignments around topics or activities of high interest to the student (Miller et al topics or activities of high interest to the student (Miller et al., 2003).In fact, with planning, the teacher can set up a 'trap' that uses motivating elements to capture a student's attention


that uses motivating elements to capture a student s attention to complete academic tasks (Alber & Heward, 1996).

90

Response to InterventionTUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’

1. Choose an Academic Skill-Area. The teacher selects a significant academic-skill area in which the student is gdeficient--and this becomes the focus for the motivation trap. Examples include spelling, math computation,

b l d l t di h i l tt vocabulary development, reading comprehension, letter identification, writing/text production, and independent reading reading.

The key question to be answered in this step is: "What y q pacademic area presents the greatest hurdle to this student's success and requires his/her motivation and engagement?"



TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’2. Identify a Target Behavior. Within the more general area

of academic skill, the teacher identifies specific student academic beha iors to increase ia the moti ation trap academic behaviors to increase via the motivation trap. Examples include working to acquire basic-multiplication math facts (academic skill: math computation) reading math facts (academic skill: math computation), reading assigned articles without adult prompting (academic skill: independent reading), and writing in-class compositions of p g) g pappropriate length (academic skill: writing/text production).When selecting specific target behaviors to increase, the g p gteacher should consider starting small: that is, selecting modest academic behaviors that are easy to perform and of h t d ti


short duration.

92


TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’

2. Identify a Target Behavior (Cont). When possible, it is also a good idea to select as targets those academic behaviors good idea to select as targets those academic behaviors that can be practiced frequently and have the potential to give the student sustainable, real-world pay-offs (e.g., give the student sustainable, real world pay offs (e.g., teacher praise, improved grades, positive peer interactions, etc.).

The key question to be answered in this step is: "What ifi d i b h i f ibl i t t t t specific academic behaviors are feasible, important targets

for the student to increase?"



TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’3. Identify the Motivator: High-Interest Activities or Topics.

The driving force behind the motivation trap is an activity or topic that is of high interest to the st dent s ch as a sports topic that is of high interest to the student, such as a sports team, fashion, music, a career interest. The teacher who is uncertain what motivates a particular student can pick up uncertain what motivates a particular student can pick up clues by talking with or observing the student (e.g., noting recurring topics he/she brings up, book or article themes g p g pthat he/she is drawn to, preferred websites) or by talking with adults with a deeper knowledge of the student (e.g., l t ' t h t)last year's teacher, parent).

The key question to be answered in this step is: "What


The key question to be answered in this step is: What activity or topic is highly motivating for this student?"

94


TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’4. Link the Motivator and the Target Academic Behavior.

The teacher 'sets the motivational trap' by connecting the moti ator (acti it or topic of high interest to the st dent) ith motivator (activity or topic of high interest to the student) with the targeted academic behavior (Alber & Heward,1996). Linkages between the student motivator and target behavior Linkages between the student motivator and target behavior are limited only by the teacher's creativity.

The key question to be answered in this step is: "In what ways can the motivator (high-interest activity or topic) be linked to th d i ti it t th t d t?"the academic activity to engage the student?"



TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’4. Link the Motivator and the Target Academic

Behavior (Cont.). For example, the student who avidly follows a baseball team and is orking on m ltiplication facts might a baseball team and is working on multiplication facts might be allowed to review a favorite baseball card after every ten correct responses to flashcards correct responses to flashcards.

On another day, the same student might draw a 2-column y gtable in her notebook with the names of her favorite team and a rival at the top of the respective columns. As the student

l th f t h d th i th t blsolves math-facts, she records the answers in the table--alternating between home team and rival--and at the end of the tutoring session adds up the 'score' to determine the


the tutoring session adds up the score to determine the winning team.

96


TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’5. Assess Improvement in Student Engagement and on

the Target Academic Behavior. Before a judgment can be made abo t hether the moti ation trap is effecti e the made about whether the motivation trap is effective, the teacher must collect data on the academic skill and student interest-level interest level .

While the teacher has wide latitude in determining what kind gof data will be collected, that instructor will probably want to know two important outcomes: (1) Has the student's rate of

d i t i d? ( f ti ti ) academic engagement increased? (measure of motivation), and (2) are the student's target academic skills improving? (measure of academic mastery)


(measure of academic mastery).

97


TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’5. Assess Improvement in Student Engagement and on

the Target Academic Behavior (Cont.).

The key question to be answered in this step is: "Does the data show that the motivation trap is improving student data show that the motivation trap is improving student engagement and academic skills?“

For example, a tutor using math flashcards with a student may rate the student's daily level of participation (measure of

ti ti ) d l k l ti d f t d motivation) and also keep a cumulative record of mastered facts by day (measure of academic mastery).



TUTORIAL: How To…Set a ‘Positive Motivation Trap’6. Revise and Troubleshoot the Intervention. A positive

motivation trap is always dynamic, because conditions are al a s changing So the teacher monitors the effecti eness of always changing. So the teacher monitors the effectiveness of the trap and makes revisions and corrections as needed.

The key question to be answered in this step is: "What revisions or corrections might be needed to maintain or gstrengthen the motivation trap?“For example, as a student masters a target skill, the teacher p , g ,will want to replace it with a more ambitious academic-behavior goal. Or as a student is able to tolerate 5-minute


tutoring sessions, those sessions may be extended to 10 minutes.

99


Motivation Blocker 4: The student f il t d t ff fails to see an adequate pay-off

for doing the assigned work.

Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The student requires praise, access to rewards, or other student requires praise, access to rewards, or other

reinforcers in the short term as a temporary ‘pay-off’ to encourage her or him to apply greater effort.



Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)y ( )

• What the Research Says: The use of external rewards (‘reinforcers’) can serve as a temporary strategy to encourage a reluctant student to become invested in completing school work and demonstrating appropriate completing school work and demonstrating appropriate behaviors (Akin-Little, Eckert, Lovett, & Little, 2004). As the student puts increased effort into academics and behavior student puts increased effort into academics and behavior to earn teacher-administered reinforcers, the student may in turn begin to experience such positive natural reinforcers as improved grades, increased peer acceptance, a greater sense of self-efficacy in course content, and higher rates of t h d t l Th t h th f d


teacher and parent approval. The teacher can then fade and perhaps fully eliminate the use of rewards.

101


Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)

• How to Verify the Presence of This Motivation Problem:

y ( )

yThrough direct observation, student interview, and/or other means, the teacher has verified that instruction is effectively

ff f fdelivered and sufficiently engaging for most of the class, that the target student has the academic and related skills required for the academic work and that the student has required for the academic work, and that the student has failed to be motivated by existing incentives such as grades that are typically available in classrooms. In the teacher’s that are typically available in classrooms. In the teacher s judgment, the target student needs additional incentives (e.g., praise, rewards) to promote motivation to complete


academic tasks.

102


Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)• How to Fix This Motivation Problem:

y ( )

Praise the Student. The teacher praises the student in clear and specific terms when the student engages in the desired b h i (K & Cl 2007) Th t h i behavior (Kern & Clemens, 2007). The teacher uses praise statements at a rate sufficient to motivate and guide the student toward the behavioral goalstudent toward the behavioral goal.



Praise: Effective…and Underused

Praise can be an efficient way to raise the compliance le el of hole gro ps or indi id al st dents level of whole groups or individual students. However, studies show that praise is seldom used with general education students and is used even with general education students and is used even less often with special-needs students (Kern & Clemens, 2007). Clemens, 2007).


Source: Kern, L. & Clemens, N. H. (2007). Antecedent strategies to promote appropriate classroom behavior. Psychology in the Schools, 44, 65-75.


Motivation Deficit 4: Insufficient Student Pay-Off (Cont.)• How to Fix This Motivation Problem:

Use Rewards. The teacher establishes a reward system to

y ( )

Use e a ds e teac e estab s es a e a d syste tomotivate an individual student by implementing these steps (e.g., Kazdin, 1989):

1. Define the Target Behavior. 2. Establish Criteria for Success. 3. Choose Student Incentives. 4. Decide Whether a Point System Will Be Used. 5. Decide How the Reward is to Be Delivered.



Handoutpp 23 26 pp. 23-26



Jackpot! Reward Finderhtt // i t ti t l /http://www.interventioncentral.org/tools/jackpot-reward-finder

The Jackpot Reward Finder is a The Jackpot Reward Finder is a collection of ideas for classroom rewards for both elementary and secondary levels. Teachers can put secondary levels. Teachers can put together their own individualized menus of rewards and even create reinforcer/reward surveys to review ywith students.



Reinforcer Survey: Reinforcer Survey: Secondary Level: Created Using Jackpot! Reward Finder





• Motivation Deficit 3: The student is unmotivated because classroom instruction does not engage.


instruction does not engage.

• Motivation Deficit 4: The student is yschool might identify and support students

h l k ti ti f

unmotivated because he or she fails to see an adequate pay-off to doing


the assigned work.



Motivation Blocker 5: The student has low self-efficacy—lack of

confidence that he or she can do the assigned work.

Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The Profile of a Student with This Motivation Problem: The student has a low sense of self-efficacy in a subject area,

activity or academic task and that lack of confidence reduces activity, or academic task and that lack of confidence reduces the student’s motivation to apply his or her best effort. NOTE: Self-efficacy is the student’s view of his or her own abilities

specific to a particular academic area (e.g., mathematics) and should not be confused with self-esteem, which represents

th t d t’ l b l i f hi h lf th


the student’s global view of his or her self-worth.


Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)

What the Research Says When assessing the

y ( )

What the Research Says. When assessing the probability of a possible outcome (e.g., of winning the lottery) people are influenced by how easilythe lottery), people are influenced by how easilythey can imagine that outcome (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974; p 1127 ) Often the outcomes that we can 1974; p. 1127.) Often, the outcomes that we can most easily imagine are those that we have most often experiencedoften experienced.

www.interventioncentral.org 111Source:Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.. Science, 185, 1124-1131.


AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC: 'BIASES OFIMAGINABILITY' Th d f ti ti th t OFIMAGINABILITY'. The degree of motivation that a student brings to school work can be influenced b th ith hi h th t t d t i bl t by the ease with which that student is able to imagine positive or negative outcomes.


Source: Tversky, A. & Kahneman, D. (1974) Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.. Science, 185, 1124-1131.


EXAMPLE--AVAILABILITY: 'BIASES OFIMAGINABILITY'. A student lacks motivation to put her full effort into a math assignment because – she can vividly imagine failing the assignment

(based on past experience) but – cannot easily picture succeeding on the ca o eas y p c u e succeed g o e

assignment (because she has few if any prior examples of success to call to mind). p )

In this case, the ‘bias of imaginability’ is tilted


In this case, the bias of imaginability is tilted toward the negative and saps student motivation.

113


Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)• How to Fix This Motivation Problem:

Provide Training & Support to Students. With teacher

y ( )

guidance, struggling students can learn specific skills that can help them both to experience episodes of success (so that

b il ‘i i d’ i f t ) d t h success becomes more easily ‘imagined’ in future) and to have increased confidence in their abilities.



Motivation Deficit 5: Low Self-Efficacy (Cont.)y ( )Try These Ideas to Improve Motivation by Teacher Support and Skills Instruction:

• PROMOTE STUDENT-DEVELOPED STUDY SCHEDULES. Sit with the student to develop daily (and perhaps weekly and monthly) schedules to study material from a course or content-area. Meet periodically with the student to update these study schedules gradually placing student to update these study schedules, gradually placing full responsibility on the student to create the schedule independently and bring to the instructor for review.independently and bring to the instructor for review.




• TRAIN THE STUDENT TO REQUEST ASSISTANCE. This training is likely to include these elements: (1) providing the t d t ith i l fi kill t h t k (2) lfstudent with simple fix-up skills to use when stuck; (2) self-

identifying when the student needs outside assistance (e.g., ‘If you have worked for more than five minutes on a math If you have worked for more than five minutes on a math problem and are still not sure what to do, it’s time to get help.’); and (3) guidelines for seeking additional assistance p ) ( ) g g(e.g., ‘First, ask a peer for help. If you are still stuck, come to my desk for help.’). Create a checklist with the

i t t d t it t th t d t’ d k l


assistance steps and tape it to the student’s desk, place into his or her work folder, or post on the wall.

116



• STRUCTURE ASSIGNMENTS FOR INITIAL SUCCESS. Promote student motivation on worksheets and i d d t i t b ti i it fi t independent assignments by presenting easier items first and more challenging items later on the sheet or assignment Placing easier problems or questions first assignment. Placing easier problems or questions first provide both skills practice and reinforcement to the student.




• ACADEMIC SURVIVAL SKILLS CHECKLISTS. When academic support skills (e.g., organization, study skills) are a student motivation problem, use these checklists to teach (or re-teach) those skills.



Academic Survival Skills Checklists: A Tool to Help St d t t M Th i O L iStudents to Manage Their Own Learning

Students who would achieve success on the ambitious Common Core State Standards must first cultivate a set of general 'academic survival skills' that they can apply to any coursework (DiPerna 2006) coursework (DiPerna, 2006). Examples of academic survival skills include the ability to study effectively be organized and manage time well study effectively, be organized, and manage time well. When academic survival skills are described in global terms, though it can be difficult to define them For example two though, it can be difficult to define them. For example, two teachers may have different understandings about what the term 'study skills' means.


y

119

Source: DiPerna, J. C. (2006). Academic enablers and student achievement: Implications for assessment and intervention services in the schools. Psychology in the Schools, 43, 7-17.


Academic Survival Skills Checklists: A Tool to Help St d t t M Th i O L i (C t )Students to Manage Their Own Learning (Cont.)

A solution is to complete a 'task analysis' of a given global academic-survival skill, dividing that larger skill into a checklist of component sub-skills (Kazdin, 1989). With a checklist that breaks a global academic survival skill into components, a teacher can judge whether a student possesses the essential building block strategies that make possesses the essential building-block strategies that make up a larger global 'survival skills' term. Teachers have access to good sources of information to verify what access to good sources of information to verify what academic survival skills a student possesses, including direct observation; interviews (of the student, past teacher,


or parent); and student work products.

120Source:Kazdin, A. E. (1989). Behavior modification in applied settings (4th ed.). Pacific Gove, CA: Brooks/Cole.


Academic Survival Skills Checklist: Study Skills Example


Source: Academic Survival Skills Checklist Maker. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.interventioncentral.org/tools/academic-survival-skills-checklist-maker


















Academic Survival Skills Checklists: 5 UsesConsistent expectations among teachers. Teachers at a grade level, on an instructional team, or within an instructional department can work together to develop checklists for department can work together to develop checklists for essential global academic-survival skills. As teachers collaborate to create these checklists they reach agreement collaborate to create these checklists, they reach agreement on the essential skills that students need for academic success and can then consistently promote those skills across ytheir classrooms.

11www.interventioncentral.org 126

11


Academic Survival Skills Checklists: 5 UsesProactive student skills training. One excellent use of these checklists is as a classwide student training tool. At the start of the school year teachers can create checklists for those the school year, teachers can create checklists for those academic survival skills in which students are weak (e.g., study skills time management) and use them as tools to train study skills, time management) and use them as tools to train students in specific strategies to remediate these deficiencies. Several instructors working with the same group of students g gcan even pool their efforts so that each teacher might be required to teach a checklist in only a single survival-skill area.


22


Academic Survival Skills Checklists: 5 UsesStudent skills self-check. Teachers can use academic survival-skills checklists to promote student responsibility. Students are provided with master copies of checklists and encouraged to provided with master copies of checklists and encouraged to develop their own customized checklists by selecting and editing those strategies likely to work best for them Instructors editing those strategies likely to work best for them. Instructors can then hold students accountable to consult and use these individualized checklists to expand their repertoire of strategies gfor managing their own learning.


33


Academic Survival Skills Checklists: 5 UsesMonitoring progress of academic survival-skills interventions. Often, intervention plans developed for middle and high school students include strategies to address academic survival skill students include strategies to address academic survival-skill targets such as homework completion or organization. Checklists are a good way for teachers to measure the Checklists are a good way for teachers to measure the student's baseline use of academic survival skills in a targeted area prior to the start of the intervention. Checklists can also be used to calculate a student outcome goal that will signify a successful intervention and to measure (e.g., weekly) the t d t' i i d d f d i student's progress in using an expanded range of academic

survival-skills during the intervention period.


44


Academic Survival Skills Checklists: 5 UsesParent conferences. When teachers meet with parents to discuss student academic concerns, academic survival-skills checklists can serve as a vehicle to define expected student checklists can serve as a vehicle to define expected student competencies and also to decide what specific school and home supports will most benefit the student In addition home supports will most benefit the student. In addition, parents often appreciate receiving copies of these checklists to review with their child at home.


55


Academic Survival Skills Checklist MakerChecklist Makerhttp://www.interventioncentral.org/tools/academic-survival-skills-checklist-makerchecklist maker

The Academic Survival Skills Checklist Maker provides a starter set pof strategies to address:

•homework• note-taking• organization•study skills

ti t • time management.

Teachers can use the application to create and print customized checklists


create and print customized checklists and can also save their checklists online.


Teach the Common Core: Strategies to Help Students Take Responsibility for their Own Learning:Responsibility for their Own Learning:Rickey: Case ExampleRicky is an 8th grade student who sits quietly in class but does not Ricky is an 8th-grade student who sits quietly in class but does not participate much. He seems ‘tuned out’--but then really comes alive when the bell rings and he can go join his friends in the hall or at lunch.

Teachers rarely get classwork or homework from Ricky. In fact, this student is in danger of failing several of his courses because of incomplete

i t assignments.

But Ricky is generally organized, can be meticulous in his work when he chooses to and generally brings all work materials to class chooses to, and generally brings all work materials to class.

When his instructors look through Ricky’s cumulative folder, they find numerous notations on past report cards stating that he ‘needs to apply


numerous notations on past report cards stating that he needs to apply himself’ and ‘put more effort into his work’.


Academic Survival Skills Checklist: Example

The eighth-grade instructional team that teach Ricky start the school year proactively by creating a uniform set of Academic school year proactively by creating a uniform set of Academic Survival Skills Checklists to review with all of their students.

To create the checklists (Homework, Note-Taking, Study Skills, Organization, Time Management), the team first downloads in RTF f t th l h kli t f th A d i S i l RTF format the example checklists from the Academic Survival Skills Checklist Maker on www.interventioncentral.org.

Team members next each add their recommended edits and additions to the sample checklists email them to each other


additions to the sample checklists, email them to each other, and then spend a planning meeting finalizing these checklists.

133


Academic Survival Skills Checklist: Example

Each teacher on the team then takes responsibility during group instruction to teach the skills contained in one of the checklists instruction to teach the skills contained in one of the checklists (with one of the core instructors teaching two of the checklists).

Because Ricky continues to have missing work despite the class review of the Academic Survival Skills Checklists, the English teacher, Mrs. Sampson, tells the team that she plans to meet with Ricky individually to review two of the checklists: St d Skill d O i ti Sh ill l il t Study Skills and Organization. She will also email a courtesy copy of these two checklists to his parents in preparation for upcoming parent teacher conferences


upcoming parent-teacher conferences.

134



• Teaching Students to Use Work-Planning Skills. The student is trained to follow a Plan-Work-Evaluate-Adjust sequence as a means for increasing work completion and quality and for decreasing anxiety.


Response to InterventionTUTORIAL: How To…Help the Student Develop

Work Planning Skills: Plan Evaluate AdjustThe student is trained to follow a plan>work>self-

evaluate>adjust sequence in work planning:

Work-Planning Skills: Plan, Evaluate, Adjust

evaluate>adjust sequence in work-planning:• Plan. The student creates a work plan: inventorying a

collection of related tasks to be done setting specific collection of related tasks to be done, setting specific outcome goals that signify success on each task, allocating time sufficient to carry out each task.allocating time sufficient to carry out each task.

• Work. The student completes the work.• Self-Evaluate. The student compares actual work Self Evaluate. The student compares actual work

performance to the outcome goals to evaluate success.• Adjust. The student determines what to do differently in


Adjust. The student determines what to do differently in the future to improve performance and outcomes.

136Source: Martin, J. E., Mithaug, D. E., Cox, P., Peterson, L. Y., Van Dycke, J. L., & Cash, M.E. (2003). Increasing self-determination: Teaching students to plan, work, evaluate, and adjust. Exceptional Children, 69, 431-447.


Handout available online

www.interventioncentral.org 137Source: Martin, J. E., Mithaug, D. E., Cox, P., Peterson, L. Y., Van Dycke, J. L., & Cash, M.E. (2003). Increasing self-determination: Teaching students to plan, work, evaluate, and adjust. Exceptional Children, 69, 431-447.


Work Planning Skills: Plan Evaluate AdjustPLANNING: The teacher & student meet prior to the work

to create a plan with 3 phases to the meeting:


to create a plan, with 3 phases to the meeting:1. Task. The student describes each academic task in

clear and specific terms (e g "Complete first 10 clear and specific terms (e.g., Complete first 10 problems on page 48 of math book", "write an outline from notes for history essay"). from notes for history essay ).

For this part of the work plan, the teacher may need to model for the student how to divide larger global assignments into component tasks. in the future to improve performance and outcomes


improve performance and outcomes.






to create a plan, with 3 phases to the meeting:2. Time Allocated. The student decides how much time

should be reserved to complete each task (e g For a should be reserved to complete each task (e.g., For a math workbook assignment: "20 minutes" or "11:20 to 11:40"). 11:40 ).

Because students with limited planning skills can make unrealistic time projections for task completion, the teacher may need to provide initial guidance and modeling in time estimation


modeling in time estimation.






to create a plan, with 3 phases to the meeting:3. Performance Goal. The student sets a performance

goal to be achieved for each task Performance goals goal to be achieved for each task. Performance goals are dependent on the student and may reference the amount, accuracy, and/or qualitative ratings of the amount, accuracy, and/or qualitative ratings of the work: (e.g., for a reading assignment: "To read at least 5 pages from assigned text, and to take notes of the content"; for a math assignment: "At least 80% of problems correct"; for a writing assignment: "Rating of 4 or higher on class writing rubric")


4 or higher on class writing rubric").



Work Planning Skills: Plan Evaluate AdjustSELF-EVALUATION: The teacher & student meet after the

work to evaluate with 2 phases to the meeting:


work to evaluate with 2 phases to the meeting:1. Comparison of Performance Goal to Actual

Performance For each task on the plan the student Performance. For each task on the plan, the student compares his or her actual work performance to the original performance goal and notes whether the goal original performance goal and notes whether the goal was achieved. In addition to noting whether the performance goal was attained, the student evaluates whether the task was completed within the time allocated.



Work Planning Skills: Plan Evaluate AdjustSELF-EVALUATION: The teacher & student meet after the

work to evaluate with 2 phases to the meeting:


work to evaluate with 2 phases to the meeting:2. Adjustment. For each task that the student failed to

reach the performance goal within the time allocated reach the performance goal within the time allocated, the student reflects on the experience and decides what adjustments to make on future assignments. For what adjustments to make on future assignments. For example, a student reviewing a homework work-plan who discovers that she reserved insufficient time to complete math word problems may state that, in future, she should allocate at least 30 minutes for similar tasks


tasks.





Reinforcing Lower Rates of Help Requests: A Strategy to Address Student ‘Learned

Helplessness’



Behavior Management Strategies: Skill-Building• REINFORCING LOWER RATE OF HELP REQUESTS:

INCREASE STUDENT INDEPENDENCE. When a student t f tl k t h h l d too frequently seeks teacher help and reassurance, one strategy to fix the problem is to reinforce lower rates of help-seeking: seeking:

1. TRAIN THE STUDENT IN SELF-HELP STRATEGIES. The teacher meets with the student to generate a checklist of teacher meets with the student to generate a checklist of appropriate self-help skills (e.g., consult a glossary or dictionary, ask a peer) that should be attempted before seeking teacher help.




INCREASE STUDENT INDEPENDENCE (Cont.)2. SELECT A MAXIMUM LIMIT FOR HELP REQUESTS. The

teacher decides on a reasonable upper limit of times that the student can request help during a given period For the student can request help during a given period. For example, a teacher may decide that, during a 20-minute independent seatwork period the student should require no independent seatwork period, the student should require no more than 3 opportunities to seek teacher help.




INCREASE STUDENT INDEPENDENCE (Cont.)3. CREATE A REQUEST-MONITORING CARD. The teacher

makes a daily monitoring index-card to be placed on the student's desk The card contains a series of check off student's desk. The card contains a series of check-off boxes equivalent to the acceptable maximum of help requests--plus an 'extra' box For example if 3 is the requests plus an extra box. For example, if 3 is the maximum for allowable help requests during a period, the card contains 4 check-off boxes.



Sample Teacher-Request Monitoring CardSample Teacher Request Monitoring Card




INCREASE STUDENT INDEPENDENCE (Cont.)4. IMPLEMENT THE INTERVENTION. The teacher shows the

monitoring card to the student, presents the maximum number of times the student can request teacher assistance number of times the student can request teacher assistance during the defined academic period, and explains that each time the student requests assistance the teacher will check time the student requests assistance, the teacher will check off one of the boxes on the monitoring card. If the student requests help beyond the pre-defined upper limit, the teacher checks off the 'extra' box on the card--but does not offer assistance. For each period in which the 'extra' box

i h k d th t d t i t th t b


remains unchecked, the student earns a point that can be banked and later applied to earn privileges or prizes.


Motivation Blocker 6: The student lacks a positive relationship with

the teacher.the teacher.



Lack of Teacher-Student Relationship: What to Avoid• What the Research Says: At times, instructors and students

can fall into a ‘negative reinforcement trap’ (Maag, 2001; p. 176) that actively undercuts positive relationships: A student who has difficulty with the classwork misbehaves and is then sent by the teacher to the principal’s office Both teacher and sent by the teacher to the principal’s office. Both teacher and student are reinforced by the student’s exclusion from the classroom: The teacher is negatively reinforced by having a classroom: The teacher is negatively reinforced by having a difficult student removed from the room and the student is also negatively reinforced by being allowed to escape the g y y gchallenging classwork. Because this scenario is reinforcing to both parties, it is very likely to be repeated with increasing f l th t h i t t b k th ti


frequency unless the teacher intervenes to break the negative cycle.

151


Motivation Deficit 6: Lack of Positive Relationship (Cont.)

• How to Fix This Motivation Problem: The teacher

( )

provides the student with increased doses of positive attention at times when the student is engaging in

(appropriate behavior. (At the same time, the teacher keeps interactions with the student brief and neutral when that student misbehaves although the student otherwise is student misbehaves—although the student otherwise is held to the same behavioral expectations as his or her peers.)peers.)


Response to InterventionResearch-Based Antecedent Strategies to

I St d t B h i E lImprove Student Behaviors: ExampleA positive relationship with the teacher is often a p pcrucial factor in motivating a struggling student. The power of positive teacher-student interactions is p pillustrated in one recent study, which found that--when instructors took just a few seconds to greet inattentive j gstudents by name at the start of class--the percentage of time those students spent academically engaged p y g gduring the first 10 minutes of instruction soared from 45% to 72% (Allday & Pakurar, 2007).


( y )

153

Source: Allday, R. A., & Pakurar, K. (2007). Effects of teacher greetings on student on-task behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40, 317-320.


Behavior Management Strategies: Relationship-Building• MAINTAIN A HIGH RATIO OF POSITIVE INTERACTIONS:

BUILDING STUDENT CONNECTIONS. Teachers can i th dd f b ildi iti l ti hi ith increase the odds of building a positive relationship with any student by maintaining a ratio of at least three positive teacher-student interactions (e g greeting positive teacher-student interactions (e.g., greeting, positive conversation, high-five) for every negative (disciplinary) interaction (e.g., reprimand).( g , p )



Behavior Management Strategies: Relationship-Building• STRIVE FOR DAILY POSITIVE INTERACTIONS: BUILDING

STUDENT CONNECTIONS. If the teacher lacks a positive l ti hi ith ti l t d t th t h k th relationship with a particular student, the teacher makes the

commitment to have at least one positive verbal interaction per class period with that student (e g greeting at the door per class period with that student (e.g., greeting at the door, positive conversation, praise for student discussion comments). Whenever possible, the teacher continues to ) p ,interact in positive ways with the student throughout the rest of the class period through both verbal (e.g., praise comment after a student remark) and non-verbal (e.g., thumbs-up sign, smile) means. In all such interactions, the teacher maintains a polite respectful tone


polite, respectful tone.


Behavior Management Strategies: Relationship-Building• 'TWO-BY-TEN': STRUCTURING POSITIVE TEACHER-

STUDENT INTERACTIONS. The teacher makes a it t t h 2 i t ti ith th t d t commitment to have a 2-minute conversation with the student

across 10 consecutive school days (20 minutes of cumulative positive contact) This strategy (‘non-contingent teacher positive contact). This strategy ( non-contingent teacher attention’) can be helpful with students who lack a positive connection with the teacher.





• Motivation Deficit 5: The student is unmotivated because of low self-efficacy—lack of confidence that he


efficacy lack of confidence that he or she can do the assigned work.

yschool might identify and support students

h l k ti ti f

• Motivation Deficit 6: The student is unmotivated because he or she


lacks a positive relationship with the teacher.



Six Student Motivation Blockers (And What Teachers Can Do)

Th t d t t d th i d k The student cannot do the assigned work. The ‘response effort’ needed to complete the assigned work seems too great work seems too great. Classroom instruction does not engage.Th t d t f il t d t ff f d i The student fails to see an adequate pay-off for doing the assigned work. The student has low self efficacy lack of confidence The student has low self-efficacy—lack of confidence that he or she can do the assigned work. The student lacks a positive relationship with the


The student lacks a positive relationship with the teacher.

158



Student Self-Monitoring. How can a teacher set up a student selfteacher set up a student self-monitoring program—and how can this

ti t th t d t?motivate the student?



1. Define Behavior Target(s) to MonitorThe teacher and student meet privately to select and define one or more behaviors that the student will monitor. Targets for self-monitoring can include behaviors to increase, such as:– Focusing on the task or assignment (on-task).– Making positive statements to peers.

Self-monitoring can also focus on behaviors to decrease, such as:– Calling out.– Leaving one's seat.



1. Define Behavior Target(s) to Monitor (Cont.)

For each goal behavior, the teacher and student write a clear, specific behavioral definition that provides observable 'look-fors' to indicate when the behavior is displayed. For

l ' t k' b d b bl b d fi i it example, 'on-task' can be made observable by defining it as "eyes on the teacher or desk-work".



2. Choose a Method for Recording Self-M it i D t

The three most common methods for student self-monitoring

Monitoring Datag

are:

• Rating scale.• Checklist.• Frequency count.



Self-Monitoring Monitoring Methods:

Rating Scale



Self-Monitoring Monitoring Methods:Checklist



Self-Monitoring Monitoring Methods:

FrequencyCount



3. Choose a Self-Monitoring ScheduleBecause self-monitoring requires that the student periodically measure his or her behavior, the teacher and t d t t d id h t h d l th it i ill student must decide on what schedule the monitoring will

occur (Rafferty, 2010; Webber et al. 1993):

– Start of period or day. The student monitors at the start of the class period or school day. Sample behaviors suitable for 'start' p y pintervals include arriving to class on time and having all required work materials.End of period or day The student monitors at the end of the class – End of period or day. The student monitors at the end of the class period or school day. Sample behaviors suitable for 'end' intervals include copying homework assignments from the board and


global ratings of the student's behavior during that classroom period or school day.

166


3. Choose a Self-Monitoring Schedule (Cont.)

• Scheduled transition points through period or day. The student monitors periodically during the class period or school day, with each monitors periodically during the class period or school day, with each monitoring episode tied to a scheduled, easily identified 'transition point' that naturally occurs in that classroom setting.

• Start or end of assignments. As student academic work is often the focus of self-monitoring, a logical time-point for doing that monitoring g g p g gis when beginning or finishing assignments.

• Fixed intervals through period or day The student monitors at fixed • Fixed intervals through period or day. The student monitors at fixed periods during the class period or school day (e.g., every 15 minutes; at the top of each hour). Sample behaviors suitable for


'fixed' intervals include overall classroom behaviors, attention, social interactions, and compliance.

167


4. Decide on a Monitoring Cue– 'Beep tape'. The student is given an audio tape (or electronic audio

file) with beeps spaced at fixed intervals whose rate matches the student's self-monitoring schedule. For example, a student monitors his on-task behavior every 5 minutes on a self-rating scale using an MP3 player with an audio-file beep tape with tones g p y p pat 5 minute intervals.

Ti Th t d t t h t ti ( kit h ti ll– Timer. The student or teacher sets a timer (e.g., kitchen timer, cell-phone timer, stopwatch) for a pre-set interval. When the timer rings, the student self-monitors behavior and then the timer is reset. For example, a student in a math class sets a cell-phone timer with vibration setting for 3-minute intervals during independent work. When the timer rings the student counts up the number of math-


When the timer rings, the student counts up the number of mathcomputation problems completed during the interval.

168


4. Decide on a Monitoring Cue (Cont.)• Teacher-delivered cue. The teacher delivers a cue to the

student to remind him or her to self-monitor. For example, at the end of an in-class writing assignment, an English instructor prompts the class to review their compositions using self-correction checklists before turning in their work.g

• Student-delivered cue. The student is given responsibility to i iti t lf it i i f ll ith t f ti b initiate self-monitoring informally without use of a timer, beep tape, or other external cue. For example, a student monitoring her understanding of assigned texts during in-class independent reading is directed to use a rating scale at least 3 times during the activity to rate and record her comprehension of the text --with the student determining how to space the self-


of the text with the student determining how to space the selfchecks.

169


Tutorial: How to Use Fixed-Interval Audio Tapes in Behavior Management

When collecting data and implementing interventions the • When collecting data and implementing interventions, the educator must often pay close attention to the passage of time For example:time. For example:– An observer measuring a student's level of classroom attention

may choose to assess that student's on-task behavior every 20 seconds during an independent seatwork assignment.

– A teacher who wishes to use more praise-statements to motivate the class may attempt to praise positive student behaviors at least the class may attempt to praise positive student behaviors at least once every 3 minutes during large-group instruction.

– A student may need a reminder every 5 minutes to use


comprehension fix-up strategies during independent reading.

170


Tutorial: How to Use Fixed-Interval Audio Tapes in Behavior Management

When assessment or intervention requires that specific • When assessment or intervention requires that specific actions be performed at fixed intervals, the most obvious solution is for the educator to use a fixed-interval audio solution is for the educator to use a fixed interval audio tape. Such a tape has pre-recorded tones (i.e., 'beeps') occurring at fixed intervals (e.g., every 30 seconds; every 2 minutes; etc.) to cue the educator to collect a behavioral observation or implement an element of an intervention

l Thi k f fi d i t l di t th ' dt k' plan. Think of fixed-interval audio tapes as the 'soundtrack' for effective assessment and intervention work.



Fixed-Interval Audio Fileshttp://www interventioncentral org/http://www.interventioncentral.org/free-audio-monitoring-tapes

This web page contains audio files in This web page contains audio files in MP3 format. Each ‘tape’ lasts 30 minutes. Fixed intervals on the tapes range from 10 seconds to five gminutes.


Response to Intervention5. [Optional] Choose Rewards for

S f l B h i ChThe teacher may want to choose suitable rewards to further

Successful Behavior Changey

motivate students to use self-monitoring to move toward positive behavior change (Loftin, Gibb, & Skiba, 2005). Teachers can increase the power of a self-monitoring program by rewarding students when they consistently achieve positive ratings Here are 3 ideas for figuring out achieve positive ratings. Here are 3 ideas for figuring out what rewards will motivate a particular student:

• Watch the student in action• Watch the student in action.• Ask people who know the student well.• Administer a reinforcer survey


• Administer a reinforcer survey.

173


6. Conduct Periodic Accuracy Checks

Periodically, the teacher should check the student's self-

y

y,monitoring data and procedures--particularly at the start of the monitoring--to ensure that the student is recording accurately (Webber et al., 1993). Random spot-checks tend to result in higher-quality student self-recording data.



7. Fade the Self-Monitoring Plan

As the student attains his or her behavioral goals, self-

g

g ,monitoring procedures should be faded--that is, gradually simplified or discontinued.

The goals in fading are (1) to streamline self-monitoring so th t it b t i bl th l t hil (2) that it becomes sustainable over the long term, while (2) maintaining the student's behavioral gains.



7. Fade the Self-Monitoring Plan (Cont.)

Specific methods used in fading will vary, depending on the

g ( )

p g y, p gelements that make up the self-monitoring plan.

Fading strategies might include condensing the monitoring format (e.g., distilling a 6-item checklist for monitoring classwork-readiness into a single question: "Am I ready to work?"), changing the monitoring cue (e.g., moving from

f t l b t t t d t d li d ) use of an external beep-tape to student-delivered cues); and monitoring less frequently (e.g., having the student shift down from a daily monitoring schedule to monitoring twice


down from a daily monitoring schedule to monitoring twice per week on randomly selected days).

176

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