ROLL-ON AND ROLL-OFF SHIPS General

Sometime after containerization came a cargo revolution in the door-to-door service of Ro-Ro handling procedures.

The Ro-Ro traffic provided a shuttle service for containers as well as cutting delivery times to hours rather than weeks, previously experienced with the conventional shipping.

The Ro-Ro explosion was so great that ports changed their operations and ship design started to incorporate new concepts, to handle large vehicles.Ferry companies increased their tonnage maximums in a comparative blink of an eye. Ro-Ro is an efficient and cheap method of shipping merchandise. The new ships design include the stern door / ramp, open vehicle deck spaces, drive through capability with the bow visor. Vehicle lifts became a feature with open and enclosed deck cargo spaces.

Units could be carrying liquid or dry cargoes, they could be refrigerated or not, as their load required. However, the most important fact was that they could be delivered in the shortest period of time. The Roll-on / Roll-off concept is characterized by the transfer of cargo to and from the ship and between the cargo spaces onboard by means of vehicles.

Short port times is a main feature, the average being from about 5 hours for smallvessels to about 24 hours for big vessels. However, port time depends very much on factors as type of cargo, cargo handling equipment, port facilities etc.

The time factor was critical to ensure that goods reached markets in a pristine condition. Especially relevant to fresh produce like flowers, fruits, dairy products, meats, etc. The ships were enhanced to ensure that deadlines were achieved. Ships docking in and out carrying such cargoes could not be delayed by the need for tugs.Bow / stern thrusters became essential features of ship design. Thrusters units came alongside twin Controllable Pitch propellers, while Masters were given Pilotage Exemption Certificates.Not only were the vessels fast, but also the procedures and concepts of ship handling had been changed to meet the needs of the trade.

Ro-Ro vessels, carry everything that was once shipped by general cargo vessels. These cargoes include hazardous goods, as well as heavy-lift units.The main difference is that such items are controlled by separate legislation and generally move with less bureaucracy.

Definations Roll-on Roll-off vessel A vessel which is provided with horizontal means of access and discharge for wheeled, tracked or mobile cargoes.

Freight only Ro-Ro shipA Ro-Ro vessel with accommodation for not more than 12 (driver) passengers.

Passenger car ferryA passenger or ferry ship which has Ro-Ro access sufficient dimensions to allow the carriage of Ro-Ro Trailers and/or Ro-Ro Passenger (Ro-Pax) / Ro-Ro Cars.

Ro-Ro cargo spaceA space not normally subdivided in any way and extending to either a substantial length or entire length of the vessel in which goods are carried (packaged or in bulk, in or on rail or road cars, vehicles including road or rail tankers), trailers, containers, pallets demountable tanks in or on similar stowage units or other receptacles, can be loaded and unloaded normally in a horizontal direction. Special category spaceAny enclosed space, above or below the bulkhead deck intended for the carriage of motor vehicles with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion, into or from which such vehicles can be driven and to which passenger have access.

General arrangement modern Ro-Ro ferry (freight only) 1900m lane length

Open deck stowage of Ro-Ro cargo either side of the E/R smoke stack Chain locker at the ships sides either side of the fore and aft line to facilitate the operation of separate Port and Stbd windlass operations. Bow visor option to permit drive through capability and is not always featured. Lift to lower cargo hold may be mechanical or hydraulic operation. All cargo ramps are fitted with wheel tread, anti-skid, steel grips. All cargo decks are fitted with insert star lashing points and / or star domes. Accommodation for 12 driver/passengers.

Vehicle ramps

The design of Ro-Ro vessel ramps is influenced from the nature of the payload it is intended to transport. Generally, the cargo flow, securing and handling equipment can amount to about 5% of the lightweight tonnage. However, to avoid operational problems in the future such fittings need to take into account of the types of rolling cargo which is anticipated.

The design of the ramp should include the following:1. Length of the ramp (overall)2. Width of the ramp (overall)3. Total load on ramp (anticipated maximum)4. Maximum axle loads.5. Hinging arrangement (top, bottom or guillotine)6. Number of ramp sections and hinges within the structure 7. Maximum / minimum operating angles.8. Watertight sealing / securing arrangements9. Cleating / locking arrangements 10. Power requirements (electrical, hydraulic) with limitations11. Operational lifting / lowering times12. Supporting and preventer arrangements13. Roadway landing areas.

Commercial vehicles are limited to about six types and these need to be accommodated by respective access widths, ramp slopes, clearing heights, lane lengths, turning areas drive through facilities.Ramp slopes and break angles, should be reasonable to avoid the vehicle grounding while in transit from the ship to the shore and vice versa.

Where tidal waters are present and average rise or fall is expected, floating shore links or adjustable link spans tend to overcome excessive tidal movement, while at the same time keeping the break angle with the ships ramp manageable.

Many stern ramp arrangements open up all the transom to provide maximum width and height clearance. This effectively gives wide access to a variety of vehicles of differing lengths with comparative short load / discharge times involved.Other designs have employed stern quarter ramps (with or without bow quarter ramps). Such ramps still required to meet the design criteria of the Classification Society but must also satisfy design features to meet specific vehicle traffic like Car Carriers

Ramps are manufactured in steel with anti-skid bars on the working surface. They are usually operated by twin hydraulic cylinder actions or winch arrangement. Watertight integrity is achieved with hydraulic pressure cleating in conjunction with a hard rubber seal, with the hinge arrangement being positioned above the waterline as shown in the fig.

Internal ramps and elevatorsRo-Ro vessels have multi-deck construction with a totally enclosed main vehicle deck with access from either a stern ramp or bow door arrangement. This deck is often fitted with elevator access to a lower hold while an internal ramp to a partially covered upper vehicle deck, which permits access to the higher, uppermost continuous deck, see above figs.

Internal cargo operations Ro-Ro vesselsVehicles require wide open deck space to be able to manoeuvre. Such deck areas are lane marked to ease vehicle stowage and alignment of mixed types of vehicles, e.g. private cars and commercial trucks. The deck areas are always well-illuminated by overhead lighting and fitted with extraction fans to change the air volume 10 times every hour. Such atmosphere replenishment prevents the build of exhaust gases from drive-on, drive-off operations.Cargo vehicle decks are protected by sprinkler and/or water-drenching systems and well provided for with fire extinguishers at every 4om length. Such protection dictates that the decks must also be fitted with an adequate drainage system to clear residual waters quickly.

Vessels without bow visor facilities are generally denied drive through capabilities and usually must provide sufficient deck space to permit the turning of wagons ready for stern discharge at the arrival port. Vehicle decks have always been considered hazardous. Vehicle speed should be strictly controlled by stowing marshals and signs clearly painted to reflect basic instructions to drivers and car / passenger travellers.

Ventilation system For Ro-Pax vessels carrying more than 36 passengers must be provided with a powered ventilation system (fans) sufficient to give 10 air changes per hour in spaces designated to carry vehicles (with fuel in their tanks for their own propulsion). If the vessels carry less than 36 passengers than the venting system need only provide 6 air changes per hour.

Ventilation ducting serving such spaces should be constructed of steel and completely separated from other ventilation systems aboard the vessel. It must be capable of being controlled from outside the vehicle spaces and operable at all times when vehicles are occupying the specific areas.Where special category spaces are employed the administration may require an additional number of air changes when vehicles are being loaded or discharged.

Ventilation systems must be fitted with rapid means of shut down, in the event of fire occurring. They must also have a means of monitoring any loss or reduction in the venting capacity with such data being indicated on the navigating bridge.

Drainage systemsThe hazards of slack water on large vehicle decks results in subsequent loss of stability. The fixed pressure water spraying system, installed for fire prevention, if operated, could cause an accumulation of water on vehicle deck or decks. To ensure adequate stability at all times a suitable drainage system must be installed to effect rapid discharge of slack water. Scuppers should be fitted to ensure discharge directly overboard. Special category spaces situated above the bulkhead deck, and in all Ro-Pax vessels which have positive means of closing scuppers by valve action, must keep such valves open while the vessel is at sea in accord with the loadline convention. In case of special category spaces, the administration may require additional bilge pumping and drainage facilities over and above the specifications of SOLAS, reg II-1/21

Bilge pumping arrangements Cargo ships and passenger vessels are required to have in place bilge pumping system, capable of pumping from and draining any watertight compartment. Passenger Ships are required to have at least 3 power pumps connected to the bilge main.

Inherent dangers associated with RO-RO vesselsThe ships themselves generally have high freeboards and expect to experience high windage over and above the waterline. Cargo units are by necessity loaded with high KG value, which can be determined to the overall metacentric height (GM). In the event of bad weather conditions, these features tend to cause the vessel to roll heavily, which may generate units shifting.

To improve these conditions most Ro-Ro vessels are equipped with stabilizer units of either the fin varieties (fixed or deployable) or tank sluice systems or a combination of both tanks and fins. Tanks systems are extremely useful when loading / discharging, as they tend to keep the vessel upright throughout cargo operations. Provided over reliance on mechanical systems does not allow complacency to permit the vessel to list over, because it is coupled with imprudent loading schedules.If the vessel is allowed to list the vehicle ramp(s) are likely to become twisted. This may cause damage to the ramps themselves, but will inevitably stop all cargo units passing over the ramps.

Ro-Ro Ship stability Herald of Free Enterprise (1987), the Estonia (1994) and more recently the Tricolour (2003) with 2800 cars, and the Hyundia no.105 (2004) more than 4000 vehicles on board were the most recent incidents /accidents have rocked the world with the losses and subsequent salvage operations have generated tighter regulations for improving the conditions on board Ro-Ro ships. Improvement features include:1. The stability of the vessel must be assured as adequate, with the main deck flooded to a depth of 50cm of water.2. Cargo loading computers must have a direct link to the shoreside administration.3. The vessel must be fitted with automatic draught gauges.4. All access points to inner compartments must be monitored by CCTVs and have light open/shut indicators displayed to the navigating bridge.5. Increased drainage facilities must be fitted to vehicle decks.6. Individual units must be weighed and respective KG measured ashore for transmission to the Vessels cargo Officer

Vehicle stowage and securing (RO-Ro Ships & Car Carrier)IMO Resolution A.489(XII) Safe Stowage and Securing of Cargo Units and other entities in Ships other than Cellular Container Ships (Guidelines for Cargo Securing Manual)IMO resolution A.533(13) Elements to be taken into account when considering the safe stowage and securing of cargo units and vehicles on shipsIMO Resolution A.581(14) Guidelines for securing arrangements for the transport of road vehicles on ships.IMO Resolution A.714(17) Code for safe practice of cargo stowage and securing. Annex 4 Safe stowage and securing of wheel-based cargoes.

A stable vehicle deck needs to be maintained, so all Ro-Ro ferries are built with stabilizers of some form. However, cargo movement can still expect to occur in very rough sea conditions even when stabilization systems are operational. To prevent movement at sea individual vehicles are secured.

1. The stowage /securing of vehicles should be supervised by a responsible Ships Officer assisted by at least one other competent person.2. Vehicles must be loaded, stowed and secured in accord with the Cargo Securing Manual (CSM) (IMO Res.A.489(XII) ), as approved by the authority. 3. Lashing material used should have sufficient strength and should comply with the CSM.4. Securing points shall be provided on ships deck, spaced not more than 2.5m in the F & A direction and in the arthwartship direction not less than 2.8m and not more than 3m, same should be mentioned in the CSM of the ship.5. Minimum strength of securing point on deck should be 120kN and if more than one lashing can be attached than - no. of lashing x 120kN.6. In Ro-Ro ships the spacing and the strength may vary depending on the special consideration which may be required to stow and secure road vehicles. 7. Securing points on road vehicles shall be provided which shall be capable of accepting only one lasing, highlighted, provide effective restraints to the vehicle by the lashing and should be of adequate strength.8. Vehicles which are not provided with securing points should have those places clearly marked, where lashing may be applied.9. Cargo spaces in which wheel based cargo is to be stowed should be dry, clean and free from grease and oil.10. Vehicles should as far as possible be aligned F & A, with sufficient distance between vehicles so as to allow access through the vehicle deck. 11. The parking brake on each vehicle/unit should be applied and where possible the unit should be placed in gear. 12. Where drop loads or uncoupled units are being carried these should be landed on trestles or equivalent support, prior to being secured by chain or other suitable securing constraint.13. Road vehicles should be stowed so that the chassis are kept as static as possible, by not allowing free play in the suspension of the vehicles. By either compressing the springs by tightly securing the vehicle to the deck, by jacking up the chassis prior securing the vehicle or by releasing the air pressure on the compressed air suspension system. 14. Wheels of vehicles stowed on decks should be chocked and the hand brakes to be applied. 15. Cargoes stowed on wheel based units should be adequately secured to stowage platforms or, where provided with suitable means, toits sides. Any movable external components attached to a wheel based unit, such as derricks, arms should be adequately locked or secured in position.16. Suitable lashings against the incline should be secured and the unit left in an opposing gear.17. Vehicles should be lashed using the correct securing points provided on the vehicle and deck.18. All lashings applied whether of a hook type or other variety should be secured in such a manner that in the event of them becoming slack, they are prevented from becoming detached and should also permit tesioning during the voyage when they become slack.19. All vehicle / cargo units should be secured prior to the vessel leaving the berth and such securings should be at the masters discretion to be most effective.20. While enroute these lashings should be regularly inspected to ensure they remain effective during the time at sea. 21. Personnel engaged on vehicle deck inspections should take extreme caution against injury from swaying vehicles.22. If necessary the master may alter the ships course while such inspections are ongoing to reduce the motion on the vehicle deck.23. Lashings should only be released once the ship is secured at the berth and personnel so engaged should take care when clearing securings which may be under tension.

Note: Lashings are considered most effective at between 30deg and 60deg to the deck line. Alternatively, additional lashings may be required.

Unit securing chain lashingsRo-Ro units are secured in accordance in accord with the Cargo Securing Manual. In some short sea voyages, during the summer season and with a predominately good weather forecast, units may not even be secured other than hand brakes and left in gear.However, at the Masters discretion, chain lashings could be applied by the crew if and when circumstances dictate that securing becomes necessary. In virtually all cases, hazardous units would automatically be chained down. Chain lashings vary but can be applied between a deck star lashing point and the unit itself, then tensioned by a load-binding lever. Such lashings can be secured and tensioned quickly, and lend to labour saving. The number of lashings per unit will be variable, depending on the weight and size of the vehicle. However, a standard 40-ft unit would usually be fitted with a minimum of 6 lashings. Vehicles are built with star lashing points or elephant feet type anchor points. Lashings will have a club foot fitting into these points, with a hook at the opposite end. Alternately, hooks are used at each end. Weight bearing trestleUnloading and loading of Ro-Ro ships General precautions to be observed while working cargo include: Preventing unauthorised entry of vehicles and pedestrians into the terminal Enforcement of speed limits Segregation of vehicles and pedestrians Adequate marshalling of passenger carrying vehicles Provision of safe routes from car decks to passenger accommodation Maintain clear approach to Ro-Ro ramp Only those involved in loading/unloading allowed onto ramp If pedestrian access must be via the ramp, provide safe means of access e.g. raised walkway Ramp kept clear of obstacles Good co-ordination between ship/shore to maintan ramp at safe level/gradient Clear rules controlling movement of vehicles on/off the ship Procedures for abnormal loads Lashing teams Wear protective clothing Work in teams or in sight of each other Stand where visible to loading vehicles Use whistle stop and clear, standardised hand signals Trained and competent in lashing procedures Clear safety procedures for using ships cargo lifts Safe systems of work for Sto-Ro - especially regarding safe use of large lift trucks Control vehicle fume Ensure ships fans running before loading/unloading begins Minimise number of engines running at one time Maintain company controlled vehicles in accordance with manufacturers guidelines

General precautions to be observedFloors1. There should be no any hard, smooth floors in wet or oily areas.2. There should be no leaks of fluids onto the floor from processes or machines. Is poor drainage causing pooling of fluids? Are there any floor surface transitions not easily noticed (any ridge that is as high as afootwear sole or higher)? Is there any ice or water on cold room floors? Is the floor slippery when wet? Are any anti-slip paint, coating profiles or tapes worn smooth or damaged? Are there any isolated low steps (commonly at doorways)? Are there any trip hazards due to equipment and other objects left on the floor? Are there any raised carpet edges or holes worn in carpets? Are there any tiles becoming unstuck or curling at the edges? Are there any holes or unevenness in the floor surface?

Stairs and ramps Is the lighting insufficient for ramps or steps to be seen clearly and without glare? Do any steps have too small a rise, tread or an excessive nosing? Are any step edges (nosings) slippery or hard to see? Are the steps uneven, or are there excessive variations in step dimensions? Are handrails inadequate on stairs? Are ramps too steep, or too slippery?

Lighting Is there insufficient lighting in passageways and at flooring transitions, ramps or stairs? Does the lighting throw distracting shadows or produce excessive glare?

Outdoor areas Is there a build up of moss or other vegetation on pathways? Are there any surface transitions not easily noticed (any ridge that is as high as a footwearsole or higher)? Are there potholes in footpaths or walkways?

Housekeeping Is there a build up of polish on floors? Is there an excessive residue of detergent? Do workers have to walk on floors wet from washing? Are wet floor signs not available or not used correctly? Do you need to provide information/training/advice to contractors regarding cleaningprocedures? Is any paper, rubbish, dirt, spills etc. left on the floor? Are aisles poorly marked and cluttered? Are any anti-slip paint, coating profiles or tapes worn smooth or damaged? Are there any trip hazards due to equipment and other movable objects left lying on theground? Do spills (wet or dry) occur regularly during work processes?

Tasks Do workers have to walk or work on greasy, oily or wet floors that are not adequately slipresistant? Do loads that are carried or pushed interfere with forward vision? Are the loads to be carried excessive, or likely to upset a persons balance? Do heavy trolleys have to be pushed up ramps? Are workers hurried due to time constraints?

Footwear Do the workers safety shoes lack grip? Are the tread patterns on safety footwear too worn? Are the tread patterns clogged with dirt?

Slips and trips Over a quarter of all reportable accidents at ports are due to slips or trips. Slips and trips can be serious, resulting in broken or dislocated bones and long periods off work. They should not be accepted as one of those things. Simple steps can often be taken to prevent them happening. Typical slip and trip hazards in ports Working on uneven, wet or icy surfaces on loads Badly stowed ropes, cables, container lashing gear and other equipment Use of aluminium chequerplate surfaces on walkways and access steps when wet Discarded packaging and palletsHow the risks can be reduced Maintain floors, steps and walkways in good condition. On ships beware of oil spillages, spilt bulk cargo and trip hazards across walkways. Where a vessel is a frequent visitor, work with the Master to make sure trip hazards are painted a conspicuous colour Select suitable footwear for the task. Try out different types of footwear to see which provides most slip-resistance for the environments employees will be working in. Remember that oil resistant has nothing to do with slip resistance. Good housekeeping - encourage a see it, sort it culture to keep work areas tidy. Provide storage bins for lifting gear. Report and follow up where a work area has been left untidy by employees from other companies. Have procedures for dealing with ice and snow. Try to avoid the need to carry large or heavy objects over slippery surfaces - these can obscure a persons view and prevent them catching their fall if they do slip. Where it cant be avoided, plan the lift. Provide adequate lighting

Car carrier The multi-deck configuration of the car carrier is in itself a striking constructional feature, the decks being interlinked by a fixed internal ramp system and elevator to lower holds.Rates of movement of car units vary directly with design but 100 car equivalent units (CEUs) per 8 hour shift would not be unusual, the vessel turning round from empty, in a 48 hour period.

Some decks are set at different heights to allow different head vehicles to be carried, particularly relevant where high-sided trucks may become an optional cargo.Other features of same deck might also include higher and heavier structure to cater for the heavy-weight wheeled load. Some designs incorporate hoistable car decks offering alternative head room, as an added feature, providing additional flexibility to maximize cargo load. A vehicle cargo mix tends to offer more options to shippers as well as being convenient in permitting direct dealing with a single carrier, theSpeed of cargo operations being a direct influence for shippers and on the ships running costs. Loading and discharge are generally by a minimum of two vehicle ramps, one about the mid-ships area while a side loading, quarter ramp, has become a popular feature of many car carriers and/or PCCs and PCTCs. Fixed deck loading is usually about 2 tonne/m2 throughout, though this may vary where hoistable decks are engaged. Decks are fitted with forced ventilation fan systems to clear exhaust fumes during loading and discharge periods. As stated previously, the main disadvantage of these ships is in their construction, producing very high sided vessels which are subjected to massive wind effect when in open sea conditions. As such, they experience considerable leeway which can generate increased fuel burn over a passage. Some efforts in design features, like the rounding of the bow are and bevelled bowlines, has been incorporated in some of the latest builds in an effort to increase fuel efficiency. The ships tend to be fitted with high ballast capacity because of the designated trade not lending to full return cargoes per voyage, although some mutual exchange cargoes that are suitable for the desugn decks like palletized cargo/fork lift or tractor loading can sometimes be arranged .

Note : Car carriers do not conform to conventional Ro-Ro regulations.

Procedures for Loading and Unloading of vehicles Vehicles and mobile plant, moving in and around workplaces, have the potential to causeoccupational injuries and deaths. Reversing, loading, unloading and pedestrian movement are the activities most frequentlylinked with workplace vehicle accidents. Traffic and pedestrian movement at workplaces should be designed, planned and controlled so that pedestrians and vehicles can circulate safely. Improving workplace traffic safety, in addition to reducing work-related injuries, can alsoimprove workplace efficiency and productivity. Workplace vehicle hazards may occur during: pedestrian movement at workplaces and coming into contact with mobile equipment vehicles or plant reversing and manoeuvring arrivals and departures loading and unloading hitching and unhitching trailers mounting or dismounting from vehicles securing loads, and maintenance work.

Most at risk from vehicles at workplaces are people who work with, or interface with vehicles and mobile plant, such as: cars vans forklifts trucks semi trailers and trailers tractors loaders buses, and utilities.Other people at risk may include other workers, management, self-employed people,customers or visitors at workplaces.

Risk assessmentEmployers are required by law to carry out regular risk assessments, identify hazards, assess the risk of injury or harm, review workplace procedures regularly and consider means of controlling or reducing these risks.

Risks must be controlled according to the outline: Eliminating vehicle or pedestrian movement where possible, or removing the need forreversing. Substituting unsafe vehicles, loading facilities, road signage or road surfaces with saferones. Isolating vehicles from pedestrians or vice versa. Minimising by engineering controls (e.g. pedestrian barriers, handrails, separate access doors for pedestrians and vehicles, speed limiting vehicles). Applying administrative controls, such as: providing education, training, supervision and safe work procedures on vehicle movement at workplaces ensuring a robust documented induction process takes place within the workplace before workers commence work restricting pedestrian access in certain areas, or at certain times enforcing appropriate site speed limits preventing reversing in certain areas, or at certain times providing designated parking for work and private vehicles monitoring risks to ensure they remain as low as possible. Using personal protective equipment (PPE), such as safety boots, helmets and reflective high-visibility garments. PPE is the lowest level of control. Monitoring the effectiveness of safety changes and safe work procedures through regular inspections, checks and record keeping.

Traffic managementTraffic routesAll traffic routes, manoeuvring areas and yards should be: safe for both vehicles and pedestrians at the workplace wide enough for the largest vehicle using them one-way if possible, with adequate passing space around stationary vehicles clearly signposted to indicate restricted parking, headroom, speed limits, vehiclemovement and other route hazards surfaced with bitumen, concrete or other suitable material, and well drained free from steep gradients as far as possible (gradients that cannot be avoided should beclearly signposted, and plant should only operate on gradients if specifically designed todo so - use manufacturers instructions as a guide) designed and controlled to ensure safe vehicle movement well maintained free from obstructions, grease or slippery substances free from damage to surfaces immediately cleaned or cleared following substance spills or falls from vehicles adequately lit, particularly junctions, buildings, plant, walkways and vehicles routes, and designed to avoid extreme light variation (e.g. drivers moving from bright sunlight intodull light or vice versa).

Vehicle operators exposed to hazardous sun glare should be provided with suitable protection(e.g. broad-brimmed hats, UV-rated eyewear, sunscreen, long-sleeved shirts and longtrousers).

Clear road markings and signage should alert vehicle operators to: speed limits sharp bends junctions pedestrian crossings vehicle crossings blind corners steep gradients, and roadworks.

Pedestrian and mobile plant interactionThe safest way to protect pedestrians is to: eliminate the requirement for people and plant to operate at the same level (e.g. design thehazard out by building raised loading docks in new facilities) provide separate footpaths or walkways and eliminate pedestrian traffic where vehiclesand mobile plant operate install pedestrian barriers (e.g. inward opening gates) at building entrances and exits toprevent pedestrians walking in front of vehicles make traffic routes wide enough for safety where separating pedestrians and mobile plantis not possible mark traffic routes (e.g. paint directional lines on the floor or ground) provide separate access ways for vehicles and pedestrians into buildings or enclosures,and provide vision panels in pedestrian doors entering vehicle areas.Workplaces where pedestrians have to cross vehicle routes should have: clearly visible ground markings and signs clear pedestrian and vehicle visibility adequate lighting, and established and communicated right-of-way rules.

Parking areasOnsite parking, if provided, should enable separation between work and private vehicles.Private vehicles should be parked away from busy work areas where possible.Walkways leading to and from parking areas should be: safely surfaced clearly marked adequately lit unobstructed signposted, and separated from vehicle routes.Workers and customers, who bring private vehicles to workplaces, should be provided with,and comply with: specified safe routes clear safety signs at parking areas clear speed limit signs, and information and instruction on safe driving on workplace routes.

Loading bays and platformsLoading bays should be situated in safe and suitable locations where vehicles can bemanoeuvred easily, and near tarping areas.Where practicable, they should be protected from adverse weather conditions, and should besubject to a risk assessment and safe work procedures.Raised loading platforms should be: provided with safe access, egress and safe bays for people working at ground level clearly marked along the edges fitted with rails on the non-loading side, to reduce the risk of someone falling off the edge,and fitted with raised wheel-stop edges to prevent vehicles, such as forklifts and trolleys,rolling over the edge.

ReversingReversing accidents are a major cause of workplace injury and damage to vehicles, equipmentand premises.Most reversing accidents can be avoided by: removing the need for reversing (e.g. with drive-through loading and unloading systems) minimising the need for reversing (e.g. by reorganising loading and unloading procedures) providing clearly marked reversing areas visible to drivers and pedestrians excluding non-essential personnel from the area ensuring signalers wear high-visibility clothing and their signals can be clearly seen using radios and other communication systems ensuring drivers have another person to direct them if they cannot see clearly behindbefore reversing ensuring visiting drivers are familiar with workplace routes and reversing areas providing larger reversing areas placing fixed mirrors at blind corners fitting refractive lenses on rear windows to help drivers see blind spots fitting reversing alarms to plant, and using flashing reversing lights on vehicles, especially if workplace noise is too loud forreversing alarms to be heard.To reduce risks when reversing, keep rear vision mirrors, fixed safety mirrors andwindscreens clean and in good repair, and reversing alarms in working order, loud enough tobe heard above other work noises.Injuries can occur when people at ground level assist in hitching trailers or trailed implementsto semi trailer cabs, tractors and other prime movers. Safe procedures should ensure there is aclear form of communication between the operator and the hitcher. To prevent parked primemovers and trailers rolling, they should be parked: on level ground, preferably in a designated parking area with brake firmly applied and in gear, and with wheels chocked.Any raised attachments, such as slashers or rotary hoes on tractors, should be lowered to theground, and the engine stopped and the key removed.

Hazards However, there are things that make ro-ro ships dangerous to work on. Ro-ro ships have been criticized for a number of reasons, mainly because of one single reason safety of the ship.

Safety being the primary concern of ship owner, operator, and seafarer, lately ro-ro ship has become less famous to work on. We bring you eight reasons that make ro-ro ship is a bit dangerous to work on as compared to other ships.1. The Problem of StabilityIf a vessel maintains its stability at sea then it is safer to sail. However, the problem with the RO-RO ship is its design, which includes cargo in upper decks and accommodation at even higher levels.Even a minor shift of cargo in the ro-ro vessel can become a major threat to the stability of the ship. Similarly, hull failure leading to flooding can result in capsize of the vessel in no time. The effects of wind and bad weather on high accommodation can also disturb the ships stability.2. Low FreeboardIn Ro-Ro ships which carry only cargo, the general arrangement of cargo access door is close to the water line. In the event of listing, the door can get submerged leading to high chances for ingress of water inside the ship which will lead to capsize.3. Cargo Access DoorAs discussed above the effect of listing of the ship leads to ingress of water if the cargo doors are open or damaged. One weak point of ro-ro vessel is that sometimes the cargo door itself is used as a ramp which makes the ship more vulnerable to damages.4. Lack of BulkheadsThe subdivision of ro-ro ship from inside lacks from the transverse bulkheads, leading to lower water tight integrity when water ingress or flooding takes place. Lack of bulkhead also leads to spreading of fire more quickly as no subdivision is present to contain the fire.5. Location of Life Saving Appliances (LSA)When a ship is to be abandoned, life raft and lifeboats are used to leave the ship as soon as possible. The location of lifeboat and life rafts on ro-ro ships is usually very high, which makes it even difficult to lower them at sea especially when the ship is listing.6. Weather conditionAnother reason which acts externally on the Ro-Ro vessel is the rough weather, which may result in reduction in the stability and cause heavy rolling of the ship. Heavy rolling has lead to capsizing of ships in the past.7. Cargo stowageCargo stowage is very important operation on Ro-Ro vessel for any loose cargo (trailer, cars etc.) can give rise to a chain reaction leading to heavy shift in cargo position. The trucks and trawlers loaded on board also carry cargo inside them and any shift of that cargo can also lead to listing of the ship.8. Cargo LoadingIt is very difficult to have a sequential loading of cargo as cargo arrives on terminals at different intervals and due to lack of time on port. This further leads to uneven cargo distribution, something for which nothing can be done about. Lack of proper cargo distribution has been the reason for several ship accidents in the past.

Control measuresA control measure can be a process, procedure or action put in place to eliminate or minimisethe risk posed by specific hazards. Control measures for risks identified should be developedand implemented in consultation with workers and attention given to hazard identification andrisk controls in unfamiliar locations (e.g. when workers work off-site, or at clients homes oroffices).Workplace designChanging the workplace design can eliminate many hazards that can cause slips, trips andfalls. Design and build workplaces with safety and comfort in mind. When new facilities areto be built, or existing facilities upgraded, it is an opportunity to avoid many common hazardsby identifying potential slips, trips and falls hazards. In consultation with workers, analyse thetasks to be done by workers and the circumstances in which they will be done. Plan anddiscuss the movement paths of people and materials with architects and workers.Design should consider: cords, leads, cables and power boards lighting floor surfaces, and work functions.Some design controls to eliminate hazards include: providing power, telephone, computer and other equipment services from ducts in thefloor or from the ceiling, eliminating the need for cords on the floor ensuring adequate lighting for work areas, floors, stairs and passageways installing floor surfaces suitable for the work area, such as high friction tiles with deepprofiles for draining wet areas, and ensuring there is adequate storage space to keep materials out of work and traffic areas.FlooringThe following tips will help improve floor surfaces and minimise the risk from slips, trips andfalls: Consider the slip resistance of the floor surface (see Appendix 2 for information aboutfloor surfaces and coverings). When the flooring itself is identified as a hazard, and installing new flooring is notreasonably practicable, there are a number of floor treatments that are designed to be usedon existing flooring. This is a less expensive option than installing new flooring.However, this would be false economy if the treated floor is not sufficiently improved. Use treatments that substantially increase the surface roughness of the flooring. Be sure afloor treatment doesnt introduce a new hazard. Minimise changes in the floor level. If levels must change, install ramps rather than steps. Avoid sudden changes in floor surface texture, where possible. If such changes do occur,ensure good lighting and visual cues are in place.Page 20 of 31 When footwear in the workplace cannot be controlled (e.g. where the public have access),an effective strategy must be put in place (e.g. installing softer flooring, such as thickervinyl, cork or carpet). Increasing the roughness of surfaces can increase the slip resistanceof floors. For example, concrete finished with a steel trowel is much smoother andtherefore more slippery than concrete finished with a wooden float, or with a broom.Products that increase the surface friction will need to be maintained in accordance withthe manufacturers specifications.Stair designKey points to consider are: Ensure the proportions of the stair treads are the same throughout a flight of stairs. Apply non-slip edges (nosings) to improve safety on stairs and help give visual definitionto the edge of the stairs. Metal nosings applied to carpeted stairs should have ample taperto blend smoothly with the carpet to prevent heels catching in the back edge of the nosing. Provide clear visual cues for the start and finish of the stairs, ample lighting above thestairs, and a tread pattern that does not reduce the visual definition of the edge of eachindividual step. Provide handrails.For further information, refer to the Building Code of Australia and AS 1657 Fixed platforms,walkways, stairways and ladders - Design, construction and installation.Ramp designInstall ramps instead of stairs, if there is space to make the change in level, without too great aslope. The following should be taken into consideration when installing ramps: Ensure the slope of a ramp conforms to the appropriate Australian Standard and BuildingCode of Australia specifications. The maximum ramp slope should be 1 in 8, or 1 in 14 ifpeople with disabilities will need to use the ramp. Apply flooring with greater slip resistance on ramps than that used on level flooring. Provide clear visual cues for the start and finish of the ramps, ample lighting above theramp, as well as a suitable tread pattern in the flooring. Provide handrails on ramps, as for stairs, and provide kerbs of at least 100 mm high onboth sides to prevent trolleys running off the edge.LightingEnsure both internal and external stairways and walkways are well lit. Lighting levels shouldaccommodate changes in conditions, such as transitions from closed to open areas. For furtherinformation, refer to the AS1680 series on interior and workplace lighting.DrainageWhen installing drainage, consider the following: Provide a means of containing and draining water, or other fluids, at machines orprocesses as required. If there is a substantial amount of fluid, provide channels in the floor covered by gratings.Use gratings as flooring if the work task is very wet and/or greasy.Page 21 of 31 Surfaces should be slip resistant and not introduce a trip hazard with uneven surfaces.Duckboards, for example, may not be suitable because of uneven surfaces. Flooring that needs to be washed, or that will be wet at times, should be graded todrainage points to minimise pooling of water. The location of drains should be as close aspossible to any source of liquid, and there should be adequate drainage points provided toavoid excessive changes in floor level due to grading. Use moulded floor tiles with deep profiles for draining fluids, especially if the edges ofthe patterns are sharp. High-pressure water sprays may be needed for cleaning the tiles.Build up of hardened grease or dirt can make high profile tiles ineffective.Machinery and equipmentBefore placing any machinery or equipment, consider the following to prevent slips, trips andfalls: Carry out regular maintenance and inspection of production machinery for signs of leaks.Prevent machines spraying out liquids by adjusting or enclosing the machine. Contain liquids on the floor that may have come from production machinery. These can becontained to a small area surrounding the machine, by using a metal tray or a low concretewall. Ensure the containment area is effective, well-drained and does not introducefurther hazards. Put measures in place to deal with water from leaking pipes or condensation from airconditioning/refrigeration units in cold rooms. This can be a serious problem as pools ofwater can freeze on the floor. Use absorbent material rolls or flat sheets around the machine. Replace when they becomesoaked with fluid. Install exhaust systems to remove dusts or vapours that can settle on floors. Support electric cords and pneumatic hoses for air tools overhead to keep them off thefloor. Avoid the use of extension cords, where possible, by using battery-powered tools. Ensure work and traffic areas are clearly defined and marked. Carry out regular site clean-ups to remove rubbish. When moving materials by hand or by trolleys that are pushed, ensure materials are notstacked high so the view of the floor ahead is obscured. Maintain three points of contact when accessing or exiting forklift and truck cabins(e.g. two hands and one foot or two feet and one hand) and use ladder and/or steps wherethey are provided.WeatherWet weather increases the risk from slips, trips and falls. To prevent this from occurring: have absorbent flooring materials set into the floor at entrances to stop rainwater, snowand mud being walked indoors provide leak proof receptacles at entrances to buildings for leaving wet umbrellas, and provide leak proof plastic bags at entrances if wet umbrellas have to be carried.Page 22 of 31SpillsIf spills occur in the workplace: ensure workplace policies and procedures for cleaning up spills clearly identify who isresponsible for isolating and cleaning up the spill without delay ensure all staff is appropriately trained and instructed in the spills clean-up procedures ensure easy access to equipment and materials for cleaning up spills - use absorbentmaterials that do not leave a residue transport and carry substances in appropriate containers to avoid spills - use lids or coverswhere necessary, and use alternative containers if poor packaging causes spills.External environmentsExternal environments may also cause slips, trips and falls. Consider the following: uneven path sections are a common hazard, where the edge of one section is above orbelow the surface of an adjacent section and can be difficult to see uneven or sloping ground surfaces can be avoided or levelled lay path sections on a stable base material, which will prevent them from tilting over time,and housekeeping is needed where there are constant changes to workplace conditions, such asbuilding sites.VegetationVegetation, such as moss on external paths, can be slippery, particularly in wet and shadedareas. Use commercial products to effectively remove these contaminants. Tree roots, leaflitter and wet grass can present slips, trips and falls hazards. Good maintenance can reducethese risks.Housekeeping and cleaningCleaning procedures must be reviewed regularly. Good housekeeping involves scanning theworkplace for hazards, such as: grease build up, spills and low objects newly cleaned and wet areas where people may walk, and untidy and cluttered work areas.To ensure that housekeeping and cleaning are performed to an appropriate standard: Allow sufficient time for staff to carry out these tasks and routines. Implement policies and safe work procedures in consultation with workers. Train all relevant workers in appropriate policies and procedures, as well as in the safe useof chemicals and substances. Define the cleaning tasks, including appropriate sequencing of the work, so that thecleaners themselves are not put at risk by walking unnecessarily over wet surfaces. Ensure cleaning tasks are undertaken at an appropriate time and not during high trafficand busy periods, preferably outside normal work hours. If this is not possible, set upbarriers and warning signs to keep people off the affected areas, or provide alternativeroutes for pedestrians if the usual route is being cleaned.Page 23 of 31 Use cleaning agents and detergents, according to the manufacturers directions. Consultmanufacturers of cleaning products about suitable materials, equipment and proceduresfor minimising slipperiness, while still doing an effective cleaning job. For the safe use ofcleaning products, refer to the manufacturers information on the product label, theworkplace register of hazardous substances, and the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)for the product. Avoid build up of polish and other materials on floors (excess polish may be transferred tofootwear and become a hazard elsewhere). Maintain dry conditions where polished floors are used. Finish wet cleaning processes by vacuuming up solutions or mopping dry, to minimise thetime the floor is wet. Remove hardened grease from tiled kitchen floors, in order to benefit from any slipresistant texture of the tiles. This may require strong cleaning chemicals that should bethoroughly rinsed off with clean water. High-pressure water sprays may be necessary forcleaning profiled tiles.Training staffAll workers should have a good understanding of slips, trips and falls hazards in theirworkplace. This understanding should be developed through induction and ongoing trainingsessions. Training should also be discussed as a part of the consultation arrangements in theworkplace. Training workers is essential to ensure control measures are maintained and used.All workers play a part in maintaining good housekeeping and cleanliness. Workers must betrained to report any hazards to their supervisor and/or the person responsible for workplacehealth and safety.The training topics should include: How to recognise slips, trips and falls hazards, and the part workers can play inminimising them. What action to take in the case of spills, covering procedures to clean up spills, andimmediate action to take to warn others. The importance of regular floor surface cleaning, maintaining housekeeping andprocedures for preventing slips, trips and falls hazards. Cleaning staff should be trained onthe methods required and control procedures, such as restricting access and usingappropriate signage during cleaning to warn of slippery floors. Information on the correct use of cleaning products, which can be found on the productlabel, or from manufacturers' recommendations. The importance of cleaning footwear regularly to remove material trapped between thetreads.SignageSignage should be used to: alert people to surfaces that are wet following recent cleaning or spills, and indicate procedures, such as specific footwear required for certain locations, especially forvisitors to the workplace.Page 24 of 31FootwearWear the most appropriate footwear for the job and work environment. Refer to the workplacepolicy on footwear. Risk assessments should include the use of footwear as a control measure,where necessary.General purpose work footwear should have the following characteristics: slip resistant sole material good tread pattern rounded heel edge with good area of contact (avoid raised heels with small contact area) cushioned sole, and close, but comfortable fit.Checking that control measures are adequateRisk assessments and control measures must be reviewed regularly, or whenever there isevidence that the existing risk assessment is no longer valid.Review workplace control measures in consultation with workers when: an incident involving a slip, trip or fall occurs (even if it is a near miss) changes to the premises or nature of the work are proposed, and new equipment or work practices are introduced.Make any necessary changes to prevent a recurrence. Consider the following points whenreviewing controls: are the cleaning methods for any of the floors and paths fully specified and recorded? are all cleaning staff aware of the required methods and quality standards? are all staff trained in the procedures for dealing with spills? are all workers wearing the required personal protective equipment (PPE)? have any changes been made to floors, requiring new risks to be assessed?All managers and supervisors should be aware of their accountability for hazards relating toslips, trips and falls, including: floor quality cleaning housekeeping machinery and equipment lighting ramps stairs, and drainage.Page 25 of 31Manual tasksManual tasks are more than just lifting or carrying an object. They also include: lifting lowering pushing pulling carrying moving, and holding or restraining any object, animal or person.Manual tasks can include a wide range of activities, such as pulling a lever, restraining ananimal, or holding and operating a power tool.Research has identified five direct risk factors related to manual tasks that can cause orcontribute to musculoskeletal disorders. These are: forceful exertions working postures awkward and static repetition duration, and vibration.These risk factors outlined in the Manual Tasks Code of Practice 2000 directly stress thebody and cause injury. One of these risk factors must be identified in the task in order for arisk of injury to exist. However, the more risk factors identified the greater the risk.Forceful exertions put high levels of stress on muscles and body tissues. This includes forceexerted by the body or force impacting on the body. Examples include lifting a very heavy orawkward load from the ground (e.g. lifting a person or a 40 kilogram cement bag), or force tothe lower limbs resulting from jumping out of a vehicle.Working posturesAwkward postures are postures where joints are at or near the extreme of their movement,(e.g. your head bent to the side so your ear is by your shoulder). Exposure to awkwardpostures can cause damage to the muscles and other tissues when they occur in combinationwith forceful exertion, another awkward posture (e.g. back bent and twisted), repetitiveaction, or if held for a prolonged period.Static or fixed postures such as prolonged sitting or standing can sometimes be morefatiguing than tasks that require moderate movement. Your body has to work hard to hold theposture (leading to quicker muscle fatigue), putting greater stress on other tissue and givingyour body less flexibility to deal with unexpected changes. Awkward postures are oftencaused by poorly designed work area(s), tools, equipment or work practices.Repetition and duration involves making the same type of movement over and over (e.g.frequent lifting or working on a production line) or holding a position for a long time. Thereare even greater risks when repetition is combined with awkward postures, forceful exertions,fast movement, and/or cold conditions.Page 26 of 31The work cycle is the time taken to perform the task once without interruption. Tasksinvolving short cycle times of less than 30 seconds and performed for more than one hour areconsidered to be a risk, because the same muscles and other soft tissues are being usedcontinuously.Duration is the amount of time a person is exposed to a risk factor (e.g. vibration, awkwardpostures) without a break. Long periods of activity increase the strain and wear and tear onthe body. Duration may be considered a significant risk factor when a task is performedcontinuously for one hour or longer.VibrationExposure to continuous or high intensity vibration is a concern as it increases the strain andwear and tear on the body.There are two sources of vibration exposure according to the contact points between the bodyand the vibrating equipment: Hand/arm vibration can be caused by vibrating hand tools such as grinders, drills andcircular saws, particularly if they are not properly maintained or not appropriate for thetask. It can result in fatigue, pain, numbness, tingling, decreased sensation in the fingers,hand and arm. Whole body vibration commonly results from sitting or standing on work surfaces thatvibrate such as trucks, forklifts, tractors or platforms. It is associated with generaldiscomfort and lower back pain.For further information on manual tasks see:Sprains and strains in the transport and storage industry:http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/pdf/whs/sprains_strains_transport_factsheet2005.pdfSprains and Strains: http://www.deir.qld.gov.au/pdf/whs/sprains_strains_booklet2005.pdfPreventing manual tasks injuriesWorkers' compensation statistics show that one-third of all occupational injuries in Australiaoccur during manual tasks. This injury rate has not been reduced by traditional approaches,which concentrated on correct lifting techniques, and saw the weight of an object as the onlysource of danger. The most successful approach is a systematic one, which aims to designout' the whole range of possible causes of injury during manual tasks. Workers and theirWHSRs should be involved in this process.Common causes of manual task injuries include: lifting gates pulling taut liners curtains handling freight (including overuse injuries which develop over time), and restraining loads (use of dogs and chains).Common manual task injuries include: strains and sprains hernias disc herniations, and aggravation of degenerative conditions.