Revision Guide Preparing for the Exam

8/10/2019 Revision Guide Preparing for the Exam

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PREPARING FOR THE EXAMYouve coped with the demands of AS well done! Hopefully the AS exam is well behind you, but theknowledge you gained from revising and the exam itself should still be with you, and this will help yousucceed at A2.

If youve forgotten some of the revision and exam techniques suggested in Brody and Dwyers Revise Psychology for AS Level then a quick review of this is a good idea. Now think about how you can applythese to A2.

A2 Psychology OverviewTwo modules

Unit 3 Unit 4

50% of A2 mark 50% of A2 mark

Three essay questions Two essay questions and one structured

methodology question

1 hour 30 minutes 2 hours

30 minutes per question 40 minutes per question

25 marks per question 25 marks per essay question and 35 marks for

the methodology question

Halve the percentages to get the total A level marks at A2, as your total A level grade consists of 50% ASand 50% A2. The A2 course consists of options, particularly on Unit 3, and to a lesser extent on Unit 4.What follows is a list of the options per unit.

Unit 3: PSYA3

There are eight topics but you do not need to know all of these. The minimum you need is three topics asyou will be assessed through three essay questions.

Biological rhythms and sleep (Q1)Perception (Q2)Relationships (Q3)Aggression (Q4)Eating behaviour (Q5)Gender (Q6)Intelligence and learning (Q7)Cognition and development (Q8)

Unit 4: PSYA4

Three sections:Psychopathology: Study one mental disorder of three options: one anxiety disorder (Q1), schizophrenia(Q2), or depression (Q3).Psychology in action: Study one of three options: the psychology of addictive behaviour (Q4), anomalistic

psychology (Q5), or media psychology (Q6).Psychological research and scientific method: Compulsory (Q7).

EXAM HINT: The question numbers refer to the exam papers. It a good idea to make a mental note ofthese so that you can immediately turn to the questions you will be answering in the exam.


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One question is guaranteed per option on Unit 3. You need to have covered a minimum of three options forthe Unit 3 exam paper, but may choose to do more than this to give you a choice of questions. For Unit 4you may choose to do one of three types of mental disorder for Section One, where you need to know everyaspect of the disorder: clinical characteristics, issues with classification and diagnosis, biological and

psychological explanations, and treatments.

For the second section you have a choice of one area of applied psychology, which requires you tounderstand the area you have selected in terms of research methods, psychological approaches, issues anddebates, and the implications of research for policy and practices in everyday life.

The final compulsory section on methodology requires you to expand upon your understanding of this atAS, by studying the scientific method, design of psychological investigations, and data analysis andreporting of psychological research.

List which options you have studied for Units 3 and 4.

Using this Revision GuideEach chapter is organised on broadly the same format; minor variations may occur as appropriate to thecontent.

Whats it about? Introduces each chapter. Whats in this unit? Maps directly onto the Specification. Ask yourself Introduces each of the subsections within each option. What you need to know Identifies key content in each subsection. Content summary Includes definitions, theories, explanations. Research evidence Where appropriate this is divided into for and against. Evaluation Where possible positive and negative points have been made. Over to you Possible exam questions. Questions and essay plans Provide guidance on the range of potential questions.

This revision guide has sufficiently detailed content, when combined with study, to enable you to achievethe maximum grade, but it doesnt inundate you with too much content that you never end up using! This is

because the content has been restricted to manageable amounts. For example, where there are more thantwo theories, two have been covered in depth (which includes content summary, research evidence, andevaluation) and additional theories are covered superficially, i.e. content summary only. Thus, you have

additional content to provide breadth in your answers, and these can also be used as counter-perspectives as part of evaluation. This approach is preferable to covering all theories equally as this often means none ofthe content really achieves depth and you would have a lot more material than you need.

This approach matches what is expected of you in the exam, which is that you should know two theories indepth and use others as support. Thus, you can be confident that what is included in this revision guide

provides you with sufficient material to achieve breadth and depth and so meet the assessmentrequirements see the section How you will be assessed.

QUICK CHECK

Do you know the options you will focus on in revision? Do you know how these will be approached in this revision guide? Have a look at one of the chapters to geta better idea.

How Does A2 Differ from AS?The type of exam question. A2 requires essays rather than structured answers, except for the methodologyquestion.The ratio of AO skills is more weighted to AO2 and AO3 than AO1. The mark breakdown is 9 AO1, 12AO2, and 4 AO3 marks per 25 essay marks on both units. The 35-mark structured methodology question

breaks down to 3 AO1, 4 AO2, and 28 AO3 marks.The emphasis on application of knowledge. An in-depth understanding of how well the content relates toreal life and whether it has useful applications is a useful source of evaluation across AS and A2. It is also a

particular focus in Section (b) of Unit 4: Psychology in Action.


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Options rather than compulsory content. So choice, self-responsibility, and independence, rather than prescription! You can choose which topics to cover with your teachers approval, and you have a choiceover which content you revise as this depends on what you want to put into your essay. More than ever, thismeans your success is down to you and how well prepared you are to answer the range of exam questions.This is finite so with thorough preparation you can prepare for all eventualities even your least favouritequestions, as its best not to leave these out!

REVISION TIPSThink back to the AS topic on memory and no doubt you will remember that organisation, repetition, andmaking information meaningful all improve memory. So bear this in mind during your revision

programme. Also consider what has worked for you up to now and what hasnt, if appropria te. See howyour strategies compare with the following dos and donts.

DO DONT

Start now the exams are not ages away. Procrastinate, i.e. put off until another day.

Organise the information e.g. mind maps, flow

charts, tables, anything that summarises and

condenses the information.

Write pages and pages of disorganised notes.

Make revision personally meaningful and ACTIVE,

i.e. do something with the information use colour,

images, make your own revision aids.

Just read your notes most people dont learn

enough from reading as it i s passive and lacks

meaning.

Practise exam questions. Leave a question out because its difficult.

Leave time for repetition, i.e. revise a topic more

than once.

Think you can learn it all at once.

Revise where there are no distractions. Tell yourself the TV or music is helping.

Have regular breaks, of 5-10 minutes, not an hour! Cram with hardly any breaks or sleep!

PREPARING FOR THE EXAMYouve coped with the demands of AS well done! Hopefully the AS exam is well behind you, but theknowledge you gained from revising and the exam itself should still be with you, and this will help yousucceed at A2.

If youve forgotten some of the revision and exam techniques suggested in Brody and Dwyers Revise Psychology for AS Level then a quick review of this is a good idea. Now think about how you can applythese to A2.

A2 Psychology OverviewTwo modules

Unit 3 Unit 4

50% of A2 mark 50% of A2 mark

Three essay questions Two essay questions and one structured

methodology question


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1 hour 30 minutes 2 hours

30 minutes per question 40 minutes per question

25 marks per question 25 marks per essay question and 35 marks for

the methodology question

Halve the percentages to get the total A level marks at A2, as your total A level grade consists of 50% ASand 50% A2. The A2 course consists of options, particularly on Unit 3, and to a lesser extent on Unit 4.What follows is a list of the options per unit.

Unit 3: PSYA3

There are eight topics but you do not need to know all of these. The minimum you need is three topics asyou will be assessed through three essay questions.

Biological rhythms and sleep (Q1)Perception (Q2)Relationships (Q3)Aggression (Q4)

Eating behaviour (Q5)Gender (Q6)Intelligence and learning (Q7)Cognition and development (Q8)

Unit 4: PSYA4Three sections:Psychopathology: Study one mental disorder of three options: one anxiety disorder (Q1), schizophrenia(Q2), or depression (Q3).Psychology in action: Study one of three options: the psychology of addictive behaviour (Q4), anomalistic

psychology (Q5), or media psychology (Q6).Psychological research and scientific method: Compulsory (Q7).

EXAM HINT: The question numbers refer to the exam papers. It a good idea to make a mental note ofthese so that you can immediately turn to the questions you will be answering in the exam.

One question is guaranteed per option on Unit 3. You need to have covered a minimum of three options forthe Unit 3 exam paper, but may choose to do more than this to give you a choice of questions. For Unit 4you may choose to do one of three types of mental disorder for Section One, where you need to know everyaspect of the disorder: clinical characteristics, issues with classification and diagnosis, biological and

psychological explanations, and treatments.

For the second section you have a choice of one area of applied psychology, which requires you tounderstand the area you have selected in terms of research methods, psychological approaches, issues anddebates, and the implications of research for policy and practices in everyday life.

The final compulsory section on methodology requires you to expand upon your understanding of this atAS, by studying the scientific method, design of psychological investigations, and data analysis andreporting of psychological research.

List which options you have studied for Units 3 and 4.

Using this Revision GuideEach chapter is organised on broadly the same format; minor variations may occur as appropriate to thecontent.

Whats it about? Introduces each chapter. Whats in this unit? Maps directly onto the Specification.


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Ask yourself Introduces each of the subsections within each option. What you need to know Identifies key content in each subsection. Content summary Includes definitions, theories, explanations. Research evidence Where appropriate this is divided into for and against. Evaluation Where possible positive and negative points have been made. Over to you Possible exam questions.

Questions and essay plans Provide guidance on the range of potential questions.This revision guide has sufficiently detailed content, when combined with study, to enable you to achievethe maximum grade, but it doesnt inundate you with too much content that you never end up using! This is

because the content has been restricted to manageable amounts. For example, where there are more thantwo theories, two have been covered in depth (which includes content summary, research evidence, andevaluation) and additional theories are covered superficially, i.e. content summary only. Thus, you haveadditional content to provide breadth in your answers, and these can also be used as counter-perspectives as

part of evaluation. This approach is preferable to covering all theories equally as this often means none ofthe content really achieves depth and you would have a lot more material than you need.

This approach matches what is expected of you in the exam, which is that you should know two theories indepth and use others as support. Thus, you can be confident that what is included in this revision guide

provides you with sufficient material to achieve breadth and depth and so meet the assessment

requirements see the section How you will be assessed. QUICK CHECK

Do you know the options you will focus on in revision? Do you know how these will be approached in this revision guide? Have a look at one of the chapters to geta better idea.

How Does A2 Differ from AS?The type of exam question. A2 requires essays rather than structured answers, except for the methodologyquestion.The ratio of AO skills is more weighted to AO2 and AO3 than AO1. The mark breakdown is 9 AO1, 12AO2, and 4 AO3 marks per 25 essay marks on both units. The 35-mark structured methodology question

breaks down to 3 AO1, 4 AO2, and 28 AO3 marks.The emphasis on application of knowledge. An in-depth understanding of how well the content relates toreal life and whether it has useful applications is a useful source of evaluation across AS and A2. It is also a

particular focus in Section (b) of Unit 4: Psychology in Action.Options rather than compulsory content. So choice, self-responsibility, and independence, rather than

prescription! You can choose which topics to cover with your teachers approval, and you have a choiceover which content you revise as this depends on what you want to put into your essay. More than ever, thismeans your success is down to you and how well prepared you are to answer the range of exam questions.This is finite so with thorough preparation you can prepare for all eventualities even your least favouritequestions, as its best not to leave these out!

REVISION TIPSThink back to the AS topic on memory and no doubt you will remember that organisation, repetition, andmaking information meaningful all improve memory. So bear this in mind during your revision

programme. Also consider what has worked for you up to now and what hasnt, if appropriate. See howyour strategies compare with the following dos and donts.

DO DONT

Start now the exams are not ages away. Procrastinate, i.e. put off until another day.

Organise the information e.g. mind maps, flow

charts, tables, anything that summarises and

Write pages and pages of disorganised notes.


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condenses the information.

Make revision personally meaningful and ACTIVE,

i.e. do something with the information use colour,

images, make your own revision aids.

Just read your notes most people dont learn

enough from reading as it is passive and lacks

meaning.

Practise exam questions. Leave a question out because its difficult. Leave time for repetition, i.e. revise a topic more

than once.

Think you can learn it all at once.

Revise where there are no distractions. Tell yourself the TV or music is helping.

Have regular breaks, of 5-10 minutes, not an hour! Cram with hardly any breaks or sleep!

More Revision Tip

Think about how you learn and revise most effectively, add any further strategies that work for you, andUSE THEM!

Know what you need to cover. Make a checklist of what you need to cover, and dont keeprevising what you already know move on to what you dont.

Time management. Create your own revision programme, which includes all of your subjects andtime off. If you lapse, dont bin it! Keep to the revision timetable and try to make up the missedrevision in your time off.


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Be active. Do something with the material. For example, an IT revision aid, a mind-map, post-itnotes, revision cards, a revision tape or CD. Do a presentation to a friend, parent, pet, whoever youcan get as a captive audience just dont be passive!

Make reading meaningful. Use a highlighter for key points and key terms. Think about themeaning before continuing on to the next section. At the end of a chapter assess how much youknow and what you dont know. Do this by seeing if you can identify the topic sections within

each chapter, the sub-sections within those, key terms, key studies, theories, and evaluation. Behonest! Then re-read to increase understanding and recall. Use the Essay Plans provided to create your own model answers. Revise the Essay Plans, then

cover them up and see if you can remember the key points. Compare your plan with the original plan and then try writing it in timed conditions. This gives you the opportunity to interpret thequestion for yourself. It will show if you are forgetting key content, and the more you dosomething the faster and better you get! The model answers you produce will be much more usefulas revision aids than the Essay Plans supplied.

Use your own words. When making notes and revision aids, or writing essay plans or answers,always use your own words, as this will increase your recall and understanding.

Plan so content is enough but not too much. A plan is essential. So plan essays by summarising ina word or two what each paragraph will be about. Ideally you should have a plan for every

possible exam question!

Practice. To achieve A-grade essays you need practice. Knowledge alone is not enough, you needto be able to present this effectively in essay form. Practice in revision should guard against thegibberish effect in the exam!

Use your knowledge of stress management. So do not displace, you are in control! Use your knowledge of memory. Mnemonics, e.g. acrostics, acronyms, method of loci. According

to context-dependent memory we remember best if the cues at retrieval are the same as atencoding, so try to match your revision to the exam conditions. Both the environment, i.e. quietand distraction free, and your internal state, which will hopefully be energised but not too stressed,

both in revision and the exam! Create your own exam. Put possible questions into two envelopes, one for the Unit 3 exam paper

and one for the Unit 4 exam paper, so that you dont know which question will come up just likein the exam. This is the only way to get used to the No, not that question phenomenon.

Use a variety of revision methods. Theres no denying it revision can be tedious and stressful so

try to make it more bearable with a variety of techniques. Prioritise. There is no such thing as a photographic memory. I think this is a good thing because Icertainly dont have one! This means the only way to cope with the extensive amount ofinformation you need to know for the exam is to prioritise key points and learn a manageableamount of these.

Reinforcement. If you have worked hard be nice to yourself. Think of the reward you will get in the end. Its worth a few weeks of hard work to get this

qualification that is a passport to your future. If I had a pound for every adult who said I wishedId worked at school, I would not need to earn my living by teaching!

Dont give up. It is not all or nothing.

APPROACHESYour understanding of approaches, research methods, and issues and debates underpins all areas of

psychology but is particularly assessed on Section B, Psychology in Action, on Unit 4, so the following is asummary of the key approaches, the methodologies favoured by the approach, and an evaluation of these.Ethical issues and how the approach relates to the key debates in psychology (reductionism, determinism,nature nurture, scientific method) are also considered. This content is called synopticity because it isgeneric knowledge and evaluation of psychology, i.e. an overarching knowledge and critical understandingof fundamental psychological content, in particular METHODOLOGIES and the differentAPPROACHES/PERSPECTIVES.

Biological Approach


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The biological approach considers physical causes of behaviour, so takes an approach based on nature(known as nativism). There are three key influences:

Genetics Methods: Twin, adoption, and family concordance studies; gene mapping.Evaluation: Not 100% concordance; small samples and so limited population validity; cant separate outnature and nurture. The method is natural experiment as genetic relatedness is a naturally occurring IV,which means cause and effect cannot be inferred as the IV is not manipulated.

Neurological Methods: Brain-scanning techniques (e.g. PET, CAT, and MRI) and brain-wave recordings.Evaluation: The reliability, i.e. consistency of the measures is an issue. Also the interpretations of such datamay be subject to bias and error, which reduces confidence in the validity of the methods.

Biochemical Methods: levels of neurotransmitters and hormones are measured.Evaluation: Physiological measures have objectivity, but it is not clear if the levels are a cause, effect, orcorrelate of the phenomenon they are being linked to.

Overall evaluation: The method tends to be experimental, which means research has objectivity andtherefore scientific validity. However, experimental trials may be artificial and so effects lack validity, asdemonstrated by the placebo effect. The physiological measures are objective and precise, which increasesconfidence in validity of the data. But the biological approach is reductionist as it reduces complex

behaviour to oversimplified factors and ignores psychological factors, and so may overestimate the role ofnature and underestimate the role of nurture. Thus, psychological approaches must also be considered. Theapproach is also weakened by determinism, as it tends to ignore the free will of the individuals to controltheir own behaviour.

Behavioural Approach (Learning Theories)

The behavioural approach considers learning from the environment as the key determinant of behaviourand so takes an approach based on nurture. According to this approach we are born a tabula rasa , or blankslate, and therefore are solely a product of our experience (known as empiricism).

Classical conditioning Methods: Laboratory experiments, e.g. Pavlov showed that a stimulus response bond could be formed by pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that produces an automatic response, whereby an association islearned between the two stimuli. Thus, classical conditioning is learning through association.

Evaluation: Limited generalisability as it can only explain behaviours that are in some way linked to anautomatic response, and so works best for explaining emotional responses.

Operant conditioning Methods: Laboratory experiments. For example, Skinner demonstrated by using the Skinner box that

behaviours followed by positive consequences (positive reinforcement), or where negative consequencesare avoided (negative reinforcement), are more likely to be repeated; those followed by an unpleasantconsequence (punishment) are likely to be stamped out. Thus, operant conditioning is learning throughconsequences.

Evaluation: Explains a wider variety of stimulus response bonds, as spontaneous operants are shaped intomore fixed behaviours through reinforcement. It is not always possible to distinguish between classical andoperant conditioning.

Overall evaluation: The theories are based on only that which is observable and measurable and so aresupported by objective, scientific data. Such theories are criticised as being mechanistic as they reduce

people to machines due to the assumption that behaviour is programmed by the environment. Not only isthis reductionist and environmentally deterministic but it ignores psychological factors such as cognition.


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This is because much of the research was conducted on animals and so extrapolation (generalisability tohumans) is an issue. Neo- behaviourists have expanded on traditional learning theories, e.g. BandurasSocial Learning Theory, and this does take into account cognition, social factors, and the existence of anelement of free will.

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach uses the analogy of the brain being like a computer in the sense that the brain is aninformation processor. Thus, cognition refers to mental processing this includes memory, attention,

perception, and thought.

Methods: Laboratory experiments where attempts are made to operationalise cognition, e.g. number ofwords remembered, measures of cognitive dysfunction. Also, the computer model, where a computerrepresents the brain, has led to research into artificial intelligence, which is related back to humancognition.

Evaluation: The cognitive approach is supported by experimental data and so has scientific objectivity butmay be biased by artificiality and researcher and participant effects. Such findings would lack experimentalvalidity, both internal and external, which reduces the value of the research. Researcher bias is a particular

problem with cognitive dysfunction as this involves value judgements to determine whether cognition isfaulty or not. Another weakness is that research on thought depends on self-disclosure and so may lack

validity, as people do not always say what they really think. The computer analogy has considerablyadvanced understanding but is limited, as even the most sophisticated computer does not compare to thehuman brain. It is mechanistic and reductionist as of course we are not machines and the focus on cognitionmeans emotional, motivational, and social factors are ignored.

Psychodynamic Approach

Freud founded this perspective with psych oanalysis. The term psychodynamic means active mind, i.e. the psyche, as this is the focus of Freuds and neo -Freudian theories (Jung, Adler, Erikson). Freud considersboth nature, as he suggests the sexual and aggressive drives motivate behaviour, and nurture, as he

suggests that early childhood experiences shape the adult personality.

Methods: Freud used the clinical interview to compile case studies. He claimed that adult behaviour isdetermined by unresolved conflicts from childhood, which are based on the opposing needs of the id(pleasure seeking), ego (reality testing), and superego (moral conscience). Such conflicts are repressed intothe unconscious, which can lead to fixation or to regression to earlier psychosexual stages (oral, anal,

phallic). The anxiety caused by such conflicts may trigger defence mechanisms (e.g. repression, denial,sublimation, projection, displacement).

Evaluation: Freud conducted the clinical interviews himself; this means they are vulnerable to researcher bias and parti cipant reactivity, so validity must be questioned. Freuds research cannot be tested empiricallyas concepts such as the unconscious cannot be operationalised; this means the research lacks scientificvalidity and can be neither verified nor falsified. A restricted sample of neurotic Viennese women weresampled, which means population validity is low. Freuds theory may be era -dependent and context-boundas repression is likely to have occurred more in Victorian society than in todays more permissive socie ty.Freud was the founding father of the psychological approaches and was the inspiration for much furtherresearch. Thus, his contribution to psychology should not be underestimated many of his ideas dounderpin psychotherapy today. There are also ethical implications: to a certain extent parenting is calledinto question due to its contribution to childhood conflicts.

Humanistic Approach

Founded by Maslow and advanced by Rogers, the humanistic perspective takes a very positive approachbecause it believes that human nature is inherently good and that we have self-responsibility and control ofour life and future (free will). These concepts underpin Maslows hierarchy of needs and his theory of self -actualisation, which states that humans are innately motiv ated to strive to fulfil their potential. Rogersclient-centred therapy is an application of his theory that we need unconditional love for a healthy self-concept and personal growth.


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Methods: Humanism is a mainly theoretical perspective. It rejects the scientific and empirical method andfavours qualitative research methods as these are better able to access subjectivity, which is truth. Thisapproach holds that there is no such thing as objective reality. Observation, discourse analysis, and amethod developed by Rogers called the Q-sort technique provide some support for humanistic theories.

Evaluation: Its positive focus and emphasis on self-responsibility has redefined our understanding of behaviour. It provides hope that maladaptive behaviour can be changed since, according to this perspective,the individual has the power to self-heal, and this has contributed significantly to therapy. The weakness ofthis approach is that the individual needs to have a high level of self-insight to heal; this is not always thecase in mental disorders so usefulness can be limited. Also, its focus on conscious awarenessunderestimates the power of the unconscious. There is a lack of research evidence and empirical supportdue to the humanistic stance, and because the concepts are vague and difficult to operationalise they would

be difficult to test. This leads to the problem that they can be neither verified nor falsified. The humanistic perspective may be more idealistic than realistic, e.g. free will is not always a reality as our environment provides many restraints and biological predispositions are ignored. So, the individual may not have asmuch choice and control as envisaged by the humanists many of us may not even want such a burden!

Evolutionary Approach

The evolutionary perspective was founded by Darwin with his theory of natural selection, which proposes

that evolution is a gradual process where changes in genetic make-up are selected if they are adaptive, i.e.help the individual better fit its ecological niche. Adaptive characteristics or behaviours increase survivaland reproductive potential because species with these traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, and

so transfer these adaptive characteristics to the next generation. Hence, they have been passively (i.e.naturally) selected and so goes the process of evolution. Sociobiologists have expanded on Darwinsoriginal theory as his concept of individual fitness and survival did not account for all social behaviours,whereas inclusive fitness and kin selection do. Environmental change and competition drive the process ofevolution as they exert selective pressure. Key assumptions of this approach are that behaviours are

genetically predisposed and that these behaviours must be adaptive or neutral to have been selected and tohave remained in the gene pool.

Methods: The fossil record, natural experiments, and naturalistic observation have provided some evidenceto support evolutionary explanations. Naturalistic observation has provided a great deal of evidence on

variation between and within species that supports evolutionary principles. Selective breeding providesfurther support.

Evaluation: Research into genetics provides some support but the evolutionary concept of the gene isquestionable because complex behaviours are not coded in the way suggested by evolutionists.Evolutionary theories are post hoc (after the event) and this means they are speculative rather than based onhard evidence, as this is difficult to acquire. The research methods are subject to researcher bias and otherconfounding variables, and cause and effect cannot be inferred from such research. This has led to theexplanations being described as evolutionary stories; certainly they lack empirical support and thereforescientific validity. Extrapolation is also an issue since most of the evidence derives from animal research.The evolutionary perspective is reductionist as it focuses on only one factor, the gene, and it is biologicallydeterministic as predisposition is inconsistent with free will. In particular, social and cultural factors areignored as the perspective only accounts for nature, not nurture. Postmodernism, social constructionism,and feminism challenge evolutionary explanations. The missing links in the evolutionary time line are alsoa weakness, but do not disprove the perspective, as there is insufficient evidence to either verify or falsifyit. Consequently, evolutionary explanations are often contradictory: just about any pattern of findings can

be expl ained by the evolutionary approach since they cant be falsified!

All of these perspectives can be evaluated positively based on the insights they provide and the usefulapplications they have generated.

Hopefully the above gives you an idea of the range of content you have to draw upon to increasesynopticity in your answers.


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AO1, AO2, and AO3 SkillsAs you are no doubt well aware from AS, Assessment Objective 1 (AO1) requires knowledge andunderstanding , Assessment Objective 2 (AO2) requires analysis and evaluation , and Assessment Objective3 (AO3) requires competence in how science works .

The AO1 part of the question usually begins with the injunction Describe or Outline and the AO2/AO3

part of the question usually begins with one of the followin g injunctions Evaluate, Assess, Criticise,Critically analyse, or Critically assess.

Alternatively, the exam question could begin with one of these injunctions: Discuss, Criticallyconsider, Compare and contrast, or Distinguish between, all of which require AO1, AO2, and AO3.

The remainder of the question will then specify what you need to apply the injunctions to: psychologicaltheories, terminology, concepts, studies, methods, perspectives, and applications .

If the question asks for research , theories or studies could be used.

If the question includes a quote you must reference it, so comment on it in the introduction and conclusion.

Be ready for parted questionsYou need to be aware that the essay questions may be divided into two or three sub-parts. Part (a) is likelyto require AO1 content, but not always since the question may ask for explanation or evaluation (i.e. AO2).If you are asked to explain or evaluate methodology, then it is AO3. Dont worry too much about the exact

proportions of each skill as if you follow the exam injunction correctly (see above) your answer shouldconsist of the right proportions of AO1, AO2, and AO3.

AO1, AO2, and AO3 assessmentTo achieve highly it is important to develop prcis . This is the ability to write concisely and therebysummarise information succinctly. This will improve your marks as you need to be able to condensedescription and evaluation in order to cover sufficient content in the tight time limits of 30 to 40 minutes.The best way to practise this is to focus on always using your own words when noting content from therevision guide and to write only as much as you could realistically include in an essay in timed conditions.

Consider the mark schemes for Units 3 and 4 to get further insights into how to gain and not lose marks. Note that the mark schemes show AO1 has a maximum of 9 marks, AO2 12 marks, and AO3 4 marks. AO2and AO3 marks are often merged together (to give a total of 16 marks) as these two skills overlap becausecommentary of the research falls under both skills. So note what is needed to move up to the top mark

bands, as shown below with the guides to each of the skills (see A2 Level Psychology pages 16 19 for themark schemes in full).

AO1 Mark Scheme SummaryBand 1 Sound: accurate, well-detailed, breadth/depth and coherent organisation and structure.

Band 2 Reasonable: generally accurate, reasonably detailed, breadth and/or depth, and reasonably coherent

organisation and structure.Band 3 Basic: restricted use of material, organisation and structure are basic.

Band 4 Rudimentary: may be muddled and/or inaccurate, very brief content, lacks organisation andstructure.

Band 5 No credit-worthy material.

AO2/AO3 mark scheme summary


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Band 1 Effective: sound analysis and evaluation, well focused, coherent elaboration and argument.Effective consideration of issues/debates/approaches and use of psychological terminology. Substantialsynopticity. Well-structured, clear and fluent expression and structure. Appropriate use of grammar,

punctuation, and spelling.

Band 2 Reasonable: reasonable analysis and evaluation, generally focused, reasonable elaboration andargument. Reasonably effective consideration of issues/debates/approaches and use of psychologicalterminology. Evidence of synopticity. Mostly structured and clear expression and structure. Minor errors ofgrammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Band 3 Basic: basic analysis and evaluation, sometimes focused, and some elaboration. Superficialreference to issues/debates/approaches and limited use of psychological terminology. Some synopticity.Lack of clarity in expression and structure. Errors of grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Band 4 Rudimentary: rudimentary analysis and evaluation. Material is not used effectively, may bemuddled, incomplete, or irrelevant. Reference to issues/debates/approaches is muddled and inaccurate.Little or no evidence of synopticity. Confusion and ambiguity in expression and structure. Frequent errorsof grammar, punctuation, and spelling.


AO1 GuideHow to get marks How to lose marks

Know the information so your answer is accurateand detailed.

Bluff and write only in generalities.

Show a clear focus on the question by using linksentences (see Exam Technique).

Lack focus, waffle, give a meandering answer.

Be selective; only the most relevant content to thequestion should be included.

Write everything you know about the topic, whichmay or may not answer the question.

Plan, so should know whats going in each paragraphand the conclusion.

Write for the entire exam with no thought of planning, so answers lack structure, the content orderseems illogical, and writing is incoherent.

Write about some content in detail (depth) and somecontent superficially so your answer also achieves breadth.

Write about only one theory/study but in little detailso it looks like youve only learnt one th ing, not verywell.

Balance breadth and depth, write about two things indepth and identify alternatives but dont go intodetail.

Take a narrow approach so you achieve depth only,or take an expansive approach that achieves breadth

but no depth so the answer lacks balance.

AO2 guideBand 1

How to get marks How to lose marks

Use material effectively by selecting evidence that

relates well to the question and give balancedanalysis (different strands, e.g. for and against) andevaluation (strengths and weaknesses).

Lack selectivity and give a one-sided answer, e.g.

only evidence for or only weaknesses this is a verycommon mistake.

Use evidence effectively to support evaluation. Do not use evidence to support evaluation. Instead,make personal comments about the psychologistsuch as he took cocaine and was sex -mad.

Coherently elaborate the criticism, i.e. explain it andassess the consequences of the strength or weakness.

State but dont elaborate the criticism.


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Comment on the meaning of a theory or researchstudy, give different interpretations and conclusionsthroughout your answer.

Give limited or no commentary and conclusions.

Evaluate the theoretical perspective, including usingcounter-perspectives as evaluation.

Ignore the perspective and appropriate counter- perspectives.


Consider the ethical issues of the research. Fail to consider relevant ethical issues or give anentirely one-sided view.

Consider the reliability and validity of research. Confuse reliability and validity.

Be able to distinguish and evaluate researchappropriately in terms of internal validity (truth) andexternal validity (generalisability).

Muddle internal with external validity or confusethem with reliability.

Indicate and assess whether a quantitative orqualitative approach was taken in the research.

Ignore the type of data.

Assess the sample bias of research (e.g. size,ethnocentrism, method). Ignore the commentary the sample provides.

Exam techniqueANSWER THE QUESTION It sounds obvious, yet its not always done.1. Check the injunctions to see whether AO1, AO2, or AO3 is required.2. If the question says including you must write about whatever is specified. If it says e.g. you canchoose alternative content if you prefer.3. Cover two o r more explanations of theories if the question includes explanations, theories, or twoor more.4. If there is a quote use it.5. Leave spaces between paragraphs so that you can expand on your link sentences if you have time or feelyou need to change them as you go along.

The way to make it clear to the examiner that you are answering the question is to use link sentences, i.e.rephrase the words of the question and make a mini- conclusion, one per paragraph so that its clearwhatever youve writ ten about in that paragraph is relevant to the question. This is a good check for you aswell because if you cant make a link sentence then chances are the material isnt relevant!

BE SELECTIVE You can only write a limited amount in 30 (Unit 3) or 40 (Unit 4) minutes.1. The content you select must be the most relevant possible!2. Dont go into lengthy descriptions that are an unnecessary amount of detail this will reduce the timeyou have for more relevant material. For example, when describing a piece of research, give the findingsand conclusions only the aims and procedures are too much detail.3. Having selected the most relevant material, describe and evaluate two areas in detail to achieve depth,and write about alternative content superficially so that your answer shows a wide understanding and so

achieves breadth.

BE INFORMED Make sure your use of material does you justice the point is to show how much youhave learned in psychology. To do this, AO1 must be accurate and detailed and AO2/AO3 must makeeffective use of research evidence.

ESSAY PLANS These should be in your memory of course as a result of planning in revision!1. In the exam use the first minute allocated to an essay to plan your response. Write the number of

paragraphs and underneath briefly note what will go into each paragraph. This may be as litt le as one wordas you do need to move quickly on to writing your essay.


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2. Leave space so you can add in anything else that occurs as you write the essay. The stress of exams canaffect memory so if you think of something really good for paragraph 5 or the conclusion add it onto the

plan in case you forget it by the time you get to that paragraph.3. Dont cross the plan outthis can only be credited of its not crossed out, so instead tick items if youlike to check off what youve done.

BE BALANCED 1. Provide evidence for and against to achieve balance.2. Give positive and negative evaluation.

TIME MANAGEMENT Manage your time in the exam very carefully. On Unit 3 you have 30 minutes per question; on Unit 4 you have 40 minutes per question. Resist the urge to spend a disproportionateamount of time on your first essay because you think you could make it really good with 10 more minutes.One brilliant answer is no good, its better to have three very good answers than one brilliant and twoaverage ones!

DONT JUST STATE, ELABORATE To achieve at grade C or above your answer cannot besuperficial, which often occurs when criticisms are simply stated its easy to say a study lacks ecologicalvalidity, or is reductionist, deterministic, etc. You could simply learn a list of AO2/AO3 phrases and hardlyknow what they mean! So, unsurprisingly, stating criticisms achieves few marks. To go beyond merestatement you need to provide commentary:

1. Explain what the criticism means.2. Make a conclusion by assessing the consequences of the criticism, e.g. if the research lacks

validity then this reduces its value and so it does not provide strong support for theory,which may reduce its explanatory power.

3. Relate this conclusion back to the question. Write a link sentence (see above), e.g. if the questionasks you to assess the contribution of .. explanations, and you have reached the aboveconclusion then you can say, The theory lacks empirical support as the validity of the researchevidence can be questioned and so there is a need for further research to substantiate theexplanation. This means whilst it may appear to make sense we cannot fully accept the insights theexplanation provided and so it lacks explanatory power. Furthermore, this explanation takes onlyone perspective, whereas a multi- perspective best accounts for ...

Note in the example above the use of and so and this means. There are many useful phrases that you

can use to ensure your answer does contain commentary and does link back to the question (see A2 Level Psychology page 11). Make these into a revision aid.

MASTER AO2/AO3 What is commentary? It is interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and conclusions.Does your answer have MERIT? Use this mnemonic to check your answer is evaluative:

Methodological criticisms How does the research lack/have internal/external validity? Consider othercriticisms of the research methods, design of the research, and the sample, all of which have implicationsfor reliability and validity.

Ethics Do the ends justify the means? Much research has ethical implications so consider whether itshould have passed the cost benefit analysis.

Real-life validity, explanatory power, and applications Can the research be applied to everyday life?Consider the implications of the findings for theories. Do the findings support or contradict the theory?How well does the theory/explanation/research apply to real life? Can the information be used in a positiveway, i.e. applications? If not, the theory/explanation/research may lack value and explanatory power. Seethe conclusions in the Essay Plans as this is often a useful way to complete an essay.

Individual, social, and cultural variation How universal are the findings? Are explanations culturallyrelative or universal? If cultural relativism has not been acknowledged the research may be ethnocentric.Remember to some extent all research is a product of the time and context in which it was carried out. Socontextualise the research and assess whether it is era-dependent and content-bound, and consider the


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consequences in terms of ecological validity (can it generalise to the present context?), population validity(can it generalise to other populations?), and temporal validity (can it generalise to current time periods?).

Theoretical Reductionism and determinism can be used to evaluate most theories. Nature/nurture canalso be used to assess theoretical perspectives. Don't forget to show that you understand why reductionismor nature/nurture might be relevant to the question or your use of these will be superficial and only achievein the lower mark bands. Use counter-perspectives as evaluation of the theories you have described. Dothey support or challenge the theory? How strong is the evidence for counter-perspectives in comparison tothe theory you have described? Can any contradictions in the theories be explained by the methodology ofthe research? A multi-perspective is usually optimal.

Many sources of AO2 /AO3 are generalisable (can be used in different essays). So its a good idea to createyour own AO2/AO3 revision sheet of criticisms with elaboration and commentary.

How to Write an A-Grade EssayYou know one when you read one! Perhaps you have been supplied with model answers in class and so cantell when an essay is really good. But how do you make yours equally so?

Begin by knowing what you are going to write about in each paragraph, what conclusion you are headingtowards, and make sure that what you have planned is what you can feasibly write in timed conditions. Youshould have a plan for the range of potential exam questions committed to memory, so that you spend onlya minute noting it down in the exam, as there isnt time for any longer.

DO DON T

Know which question numbers you have preparedfor (see the beginning of this chapter).

Spend the first 5 minutes of the exam finding thequestions.

Answer the question set by noting the injunction andthe specified content.

Interpret the question to suit yourself and the essayyou prepared earlier.

Get straight to the point. Say what you intend to cover just do it!

Use commentary, where criticisms are elaboratedand conclusions linked to the question.

List criticisms with little elaboration.

Make sure content is relevant by using linksentences.

Avoid finding out content is irrelevant by refusing tolink to question.

Use prcis. Write in an over-wordy or long-winded style.

Write an informed answer by using researchevidence to support and challenge, and explain why.Base conclusions on this evidence.

Write the man on the street answer with only yourown opinion and anecdotes about yourself asevidence.

Well thats the end of my advice. Do understand that I am a teacher so Im bound to go on a bit, but that atthe same time I just might know what Im going on about. So please do follow the advice in this chapter!

Good luck!Work hard and you should be celebrating in August!


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More Revision TipThink about how you learn and revise most effectively, add any further strategies that work for you, andUSE THEM!

Know what you need to cover. Make a checklist of what you need to cover, and dont keeprevising what you already know move on to what you dont.

Time management. Create your own revision programme, which includes all of your subjects andtime off. If you lapse, dont bin it! Keep to the revision timetable and try to make up the missedrevision in your time off.


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Be active. Do something with the material. For example, an IT revision aid, a mind-map, post-itnotes, revision cards, a revision tape or CD. Do a presentation to a friend, parent, pet, whoever youcan get as a captive audience just dont be passive!

Make reading meaningful. Use a highlighter for key points and key terms. Think about themeaning before continuing on to the next section. At the end of a chapter assess how much youknow and what you dont know. Do this by seeing if you can identify the topic sections within

each chapter, the sub-sections within those, key terms, key studies, theories, and evaluation. Behonest! Then re-read to increase understanding and recall. Use the Essay Plans provided to create your own model answers. Revise the Essay Plans, then

cover them up and see if you can remember the key points. Compare your plan with the original plan and then try writing it in t imed conditions. This gives you the opportunity to interpret thequestion for yourself. It will show if you are forgetting key content, and the more you dosomething the faster and better you get! The model answers you produce will be much more usefulas revision aids than the Essay Plans supplied.

Use your own words. When making notes and revision aids, or writing essay plans or answers,always use your own words, as this will increase your recall and understanding.

Plan so content is enough but not too much. A plan is essential. So plan essays by summarising ina word or two what each paragraph will be about. Ideally you should have a plan for every

possible exam question!

Practice. To achieve A-grade essays you need practice. Knowledge alone is not enough, you needto be able to present this effectively in essay form. Practice in revision should guard against thegibberish effect in the exam!

Use your knowledge of stress management. So do not displace, you are in control! Use your knowledge of memory. Mnemonics, e.g. acrostics, acronyms, method of loci. According

to context-dependent memory we remember best if the cues at retrieval are the same as atencoding, so try to match your revision to the exam conditions. Both the environment, i.e. quietand distraction free, and your internal state, which will hopefully be energised but not too stressed,

both in revision and the exam! Create your own exam. Put possible questions into two envelopes, one for the Unit 3 exam paper

and one for the Unit 4 exam paper, so that you dont know which question will come up just likein the exam. This is the only way to get used to the No, not that question phenomenon.

Use a va riety of revision methods. Theres no denying it revision can be tedious and stressful so

try to make it more bearable with a variety of techniques. Prioritise. There is no such thing as a photographic memory. I think this is a good thing because Icertain ly dont have one! This means the only way to cope with the extensive amount ofinformation you need to know for the exam is to prioritise key points and learn a manageableamount of these.

Reinforcement. If you have worked hard be nice to yourself. Think of the reward you will get in the end. Its worth a few weeks of hard work to get this

qualification that is a passport to your future. If I had a pound for every adult who said I wishedId worked at school, I would not need to earn my living by teachin g!

Dont give up. It is not all or nothing.

APPROACHESYour understanding of approaches, research methods, and issues and debates underpins all areas of

psychology but is particularly assessed on Section B, Psychology in Action, on Unit 4, so the followi ng is asummary of the key approaches, the methodologies favoured by the approach, and an evaluation of these.Ethical issues and how the approach relates to the key debates in psychology (reductionism, determinism,nature nurture, scientific method) are also considered. This content is called synopticity because it isgeneric knowledge and evaluation of psychology, i.e. an overarching knowledge and critical understandingof fundamental psychological content, in particular METHODOLOGIES and the differentAPPROACHES/PERSPECTIVES.

Biological Approach


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The biological approach considers physical causes of behaviour, so takes an approach based on nature(known as nativism). There are three key influences:

Genetics Methods: Twin, adoption, and family concordance studies; gene mapping.Evaluation: Not 100% concordance; small samples and so limited population validity; cant separate outnature and nurture. The method is natural experiment as genetic relatedness is a naturally occurring IV,which means cause and effect cannot be inferred as the IV is not manipulated.

Neurological Methods: Brain-scanning techniques (e.g. PET, CAT, and MRI) and brain-wave recordings.Evaluation: The reliability, i.e. consistency of the measures is an issue. Also the interpretations of such datamay be subject to bias and error, which reduces confidence in the validity of the methods.

Biochemical Methods: levels of neurotransmitters and hormones are measured.Evaluation: Physiological measures have objectivity, but it is not clear if the levels are a cause, effect, orcorrelate of the phenomenon they are being linked to.

Overall evaluation: The method tends to be experimental, which means research has objectivity andtherefore scientific validity. However, experimental trials may be artificial and so effects lack validity, asdemonstrated by the placebo effect. The physiological measures are objective and precise, which increasesconfidence in validity of the data. But the biological approach is reductionist as it reduces complex

behaviour to oversimplified factors and ignores psychological factors, and so may overestimate the role ofnature and underestimate the role of nurture. Thus, psychological approaches must also be considered. Theapproach is also weakened by determinism, as it tends to ignore the free will of the individuals to controltheir own behaviour.

Behavioural Approach (Learning Theories)

The behavioural approach considers learning from the environment as the key determinant of behaviourand so takes an approach based on nurture. According to this approach we are born a tabula rasa , or blankslate, and therefore are solely a product of our experience (known as empiricism).

Classical conditioning Methods: Laboratory experiments, e.g. Pavlov showed that a stimulus response bond could be formed by pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that produces an automatic response, whereby an association islearned between the two stimuli. Thus, classical conditioning is learning through association.

Evaluation: Limited generalisability as it can only explain behaviours that are in some way linked to anautomatic response, and so works best for explaining emotional responses.

Operant conditioning Methods: Laboratory experiments. For example, Skinner demonstrated by using the Skinner box that

behaviours followed by positive consequences (positive reinforcement), or where negative consequencesare avoided (negative reinforcement), are more likely to be repeated; those followed by an unpleasantconsequence (punishment) are likely to be stamped out. Thus, operant conditioning is learning throughconsequences.

Evaluation: Explains a wider variety of stimulus response bonds, as spontaneous operants are shaped intomore fixed behaviours through reinforcement. It is not always possible to distinguish between classical andoperant conditioning.

Overall evaluation: The theories are based on only that which is observable and measurable and so aresupported by objective, scientific data. Such theories are criticised as being mechanistic as they reduce

people to machines due to the assumption that behaviour is programmed by the environment. Not only isthis reductionist and environmentally deterministic but it ignores psychological factors such as cognition.


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This is because much of the research was conducted on animals and so extrapolation (generalisability tohumans) is an issue. Neo- behaviourists have expanded on traditional learning theories, e.g. BandurasSocial Learning Theory, and this does take into account cognition, social factors, and the existence of anelement of free will.

Cognitive Approach

The cognitive approach uses the analogy of the brain being like a computer in the sense that the brain is aninformation processor. Thus, cognition refers to mental processing this includes memory, attention,

perception, and thought.

Methods: Laboratory experiments where attempts are made to operationalise cognition, e.g. number ofwords remembered, measures of cognitive dysfunction. Also, the computer model, where a computerrepresents the brain, has led to research into artificial intelligence, which is related back to humancognition.

Evaluation: The cognitive approach is supported by experimental data and so has scientific objectivity butmay be biased by artificiality and researcher and participant effects. Such findings would lack experimentalvalidity, both internal and external, which reduces the value of the research. Researcher bias is a particular

problem with cognitive dysfunction as this involves value judgements to determine whether cognition isfaulty or not. Another weakness is that research on thought depends on self-disclosure and so may lack

validity, as people do not always say what they really think. The computer analogy has considerablyadvanced understanding but is limited, as even the most sophisticated computer does not compare to thehuman brain. It is mechanistic and reductionist as of course we are not machines and the focus on cognitionmeans emotional, motivational, and social factors are ignored.

Psychodynamic Approach

Freud founded this perspective with psychoanalysis. The term psychodynamic means active mind, i.e. the psyche, as this is the focus of Freuds and neo -Freudian theories (Jung, Adler, Erikson). Freud considersboth nature, as he suggests the sexual and aggressive drives motivate behaviour, and nurture, as he

suggests that early childhood experiences shape the adult personality.

Methods: Freud used the clinical interview to compile case studies. He claimed that adult behaviour isdetermined by unresolved conflicts from childhood, which are based on the opposing needs of the id(pleasure seeking), ego (reality testing), and superego (moral conscience). Such conflicts are repressed intothe unconscious, which can lead to fixation or to regression to earlier psychosexual stages (oral, anal,

phallic). The anxiety caused by such conflicts may trigger defence mechanisms (e.g. repression, denial,sublimation, projection, displacement).

Evaluation: Freud conducted the clinical interviews himself; this means they are vulnerable to researcher bias and participant reactivity, so validity must be questioned. Freuds research cannot be tested empiricallyas concepts such as the unconscious cannot be operationalised; this means the research lacks scientificvalidity and can be neither verified nor falsified. A restricted sample of neurotic Viennese women weresampled, which means population validity is low. Freuds theory may be era -dependent and context-boundas repression is likely to have occurred more in Victorian so ciety than in todays more permissive society.Freud was the founding father of the psychological approaches and was the inspiration for much furtherresearch. Thus, his contribution to psychology should not be underestimated many of his ideas dounderpin psychotherapy today. There are also ethical implications: to a certain extent parenting is calledinto question due to its contribution to childhood conflicts.

Humanistic Approach

Founded by Maslow and advanced by Rogers, the humanistic perspective takes a very positive approachbecause it believes that human nature is inherently good and that we have self-responsibility and control ofour life and future (free will). These concepts underpin Maslows hierarchy of needs and his theory of self -actualisation, which states that humans are innately motivated to strive to fulfil their potential. Rogersclient-centred therapy is an application of his theory that we need unconditional love for a healthy self-concept and personal growth.


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Methods: Humanism is a mainly theoretical perspective. It rejects the scientific and empirical method andfavours qualitative research methods as these are better able to access subjectivity, which is truth. Thisapproach holds that there is no such thing as objective reality. Observation, discourse analysis, and amethod developed by Rogers called the Q-sort technique provide some support for humanistic theories.

Evaluation: Its positive focus and emphasis on self-responsibility has redefined our understanding of behaviour. It provides hope that maladaptive behaviour can be changed since, according to this perspective,the individual has the power to self-heal, and this has contributed significantly to therapy. The weakness ofthis approach is that the individual needs to have a high level of self-insight to heal; this is not always thecase in mental disorders so usefulness can be limited. Also, its focus on conscious awarenessunderestimates the power of the unconscious. There is a lack of research evidence and empirical supportdue to the humanistic stance, and because the concepts are vague and difficult to operationalise they would

be difficult to test. This leads to the problem that they can be neither verified nor falsified. The humanistic perspective may be more idealistic than realistic, e.g. free will is not always a reality as our environment provides many restraints and biological predispositions are ignored. So, the individual may not have asmuch choice and control as envisaged by the humanists many of us may not even want such a burden!

Evolutionary Approach

The evolutionary perspective was founded by Darwin with his theory of natural selection, which proposes

that evolution is a gradual process where changes in genetic make-up are selected if they are adaptive, i.e.help the individual better fit its ecological niche. Adaptive characteristics or behaviours increase survivaland reproductive potential because species with these traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, and

so transfer these adaptive characteristics to the next generation. Hence, they have been passively (i.e.naturally) selected and so goes the process of evolution. Sociobiologists have expanded on Darwinsoriginal theory as his concept of individual fitness and survival did not account for all social behaviours,whereas inclusive fitness and kin selection do. Environmental change and competition drive the process ofevolution as they exert selective pressure. Key assumptions of this approach are that behaviours are

genetically predisposed and that these behaviours must be adaptive or neutral to have been selected and tohave remained in the gene pool.

Methods: The fossil record, natural experiments, and naturalistic observation have provided some evidenceto support evolutionary explanations. Naturalistic observation has provided a great deal of evidence on

variation between and within species that supports evolutionary principles. Selective breeding providesfurther support.

Evaluation: Research into genetics provides some support but the evolutionary concept of the gene isquestionable because complex behaviours are not coded in the way suggested by evolutionists.Evolutionary theories are post hoc (after the event) and this means they are speculative rather than based onhard evidence, as this is difficult to acquire. The research methods are subject to researcher bias and otherconfounding variables, and cause and effect cannot be inferred from such research. This has led to theexplanations being described as evolutionary stories; certainly t hey lack empirical support and thereforescientific validity. Extrapolation is also an issue since most of the evidence derives from animal research.The evolutionary perspective is reductionist as it focuses on only one factor, the gene, and it is biologicallydeterministic as predisposition is inconsistent with free will. In particular, social and cultural factors areignored as the perspective only accounts for nature, not nurture. Postmodernism, social constructionism,and feminism challenge evolutionary explanations. The missing links in the evolutionary time line are alsoa weakness, but do not disprove the perspective, as there is insufficient evidence to either verify or falsifyit. Consequently, evolutionary explanations are often contradictory: just about any pattern of findings can

be explained by the evolutionary approach since they cant be falsified!

All of these perspectives can be evaluated positively based on the insights they provide and the usefulapplications they have generated.

Hopefully the above gives you an idea of the range of content you have to draw upon to increasesynopticity in your answers.


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AO1, AO2, and AO3 SkillsAs you are no doubt well aware from AS, Assessment Objective 1 (AO1) requires knowledge andunderstanding , Assessment Objective 2 (AO2) requires analysis and evaluation , and Assessment Objective3 (AO3) requires competence in how science works .

The AO1 part of the question usually begins with the injunction Describe or Outline and the AO2/AO3

part of the quest ion usually begins with one of the following injunctions Evaluate, Assess, Criticise,Critically analyse, or Critically assess.

Alternatively, the exam question could begin with one of these injunctions: Discuss, Criticallyconsider, Compare and contrast, or Distinguish between, all of which require AO1, AO2, and AO3.

The remainder of the question will then specify what you need to apply the injunctions to: psychologicaltheories, terminology, concepts, studies, methods, perspectives, and applications .

If the question asks for research , theories or studies could be used.

If the question includes a quote you must reference it, so comment on it in the introduction and conclusion.

Be ready for parted questionsYou need to be aware that the essay questions may be divided into two or three sub-parts. Part (a) is likelyto require AO1 content, but not always since the question may ask for explanation or evaluation (i.e. AO2).If you are asked to explain or evaluate methodology, then it is AO3 . Dont worry too much about the exact

proportions of each skill as if you follow the exam injunction correctly (see above) your answer shouldconsist of the right proportions of AO1, AO2, and AO3.

AO1, AO2, and AO3 assessmentTo achieve highly it is important to develop prcis . This is the ability to write concisely and therebysummarise information succinctly. This will improve your marks as you need to be able to condensedescription and evaluation in order to cover sufficient content in the tight time limits of 30 to 40 minutes.The best way to practise this is to focus on always using your own words when noting content from therevision guide and to write only as much as you could realistically include in an essay in timed conditions.

Consider the mark schemes for Units 3 and 4 to get further insights into how to gain and not lose marks. Note that the mark schemes show AO1 has a maximum of 9 marks, AO2 12 marks, and AO3 4 marks. AO2and AO3 marks are often merged together (to give a total of 16 marks) as these two skills overlap becausecommentary of the research falls under both skills. So note what is needed to move up to the top mark

bands, as shown below with the guides to each of the skills (see A2 Level Psychology pages 16 19 for themark schemes in full).

AO1 Mark Scheme SummaryBand 1 Sound: accurate, well-detailed, breadth/depth and coherent organisation and structure.

Band 2 Reasonable: generally accurate, reasonably detailed, breadth and/or depth, and reasonably coherent

organisation and structure.Band 3 Basic: restricted use of material, organisation and structure are basic.

Band 4 Rudimentary: may be muddled and/or inaccurate, very brief content, lacks organisation andstructure.


AO2/AO3 mark scheme summary


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Band 1 Effective: sound analysis and evaluation, well focused, coherent elaboration and argument.Effective consideration of issues/debates/approaches and use of psychological terminology. Substantialsynopticity. Well-structured, clear and fluent expression and structure. Appropriate use of grammar,

punctuation, and spelling.

Band 2 Reasonable: reasonable analysis and evaluation, generally focused, reasonable elaboration andargument. Reasonably effective consideration of issues/debates/approaches and use of psychologicalterminology. Evidence of synopticity. Mostly structured and clear expression and structure. Minor errors ofgrammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Band 3 Basic: basic analysis and evaluation, sometimes focused, and some elaboration. Superficialreference to issues/debates/approaches and limited use of psychological terminology. Some synopticity.Lack of clarity in expression and structure. Errors of grammar, punctuation, and spelling.

Band 4 Rudimentary: rudimentary analysis and evaluation. Material is not used effectively, may bemuddled, incomplete, or irrelevant. Reference to issues/debates/approaches is muddled and inaccurate.Little or no evidence of synopticity. Confusion and ambiguity in expression and structure. Frequent errorsof grammar, punctuation, and spelling.



Know the information so your answer is accurateand detailed.

Bluff and write only in generalities.

Show a clear focus on the question by using linksentences (see Exam Technique).

Lack focus, waffle, give a meandering answer.

Be selective; only the most relevant content to thequestion should be included.

Write everything you know about the topic, whichmay or may not answer the question.

Plan, so should know whats going in each paragraphand the conclusion.

Write for the entire exam with no thought of planning, so answers lack structure, the content orderseems illogical, and writing is incoherent.

Write about some content in detail (depth) and somecontent superficially so your answer also achieves breadth.

Write about only one theory/study but in little detailso it looks like youve only learnt one th ing, not verywell.

Balance breadth and depth, write about two things indepth and identify alternatives but dont go intodetail.

Take a narrow approach so you achieve depth only,or take an expansive approach that achieves breadth

but no depth so the answer lacks balance.

AO2 guideBand 1

How to get marks How to lose marks

Use material effectively by selecting evidence that

relates well to the question and give balancedanalysis (different strands, e.g. for and against) andevaluation (strengths and weaknesses).

Lack selectivity and give a one-sided answer, e.g.

only evidence for or only weaknesses this is a verycommon mistake.

Use evidence effectively to support evaluation. Do not use evidence to support evaluation. Instead,make personal comments about the psychologistsuch as he took cocaine and was sex -mad.

Coherently elaborate the criticism, i.e. explain it andassess the consequences of the strength or weakness.

State but dont elaborate the criticism.


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Comment on the meaning of a theory or researchstudy, give different interpretations and conclusionsthroughout your answer.

Give limited or no commentary and conclusions.

Evaluate the theoretical perspective, including usingcounter-perspectives as evaluation.

Ignore the perspective and appropriate counter- perspectives.


Consider the ethical issues of the research. Fail to consider relevant ethical issues or give anentirely one-sided view.

Consider the reliability and validity of research. Confuse reliability and validity.

Be able to distinguish and evaluate researchappropriately in terms of internal validity (truth) andexternal validity (generalisability).

Muddle internal with external validity or confusethem with reliability.

Indicate and assess whether a quantitative orqualitative approach was taken in the research.

Ignore the type of data.

Assess the sample bias of research (e.g. size,ethnocentrism, method). Ignore the commentary the sample provides.

Exam techniqueANSWER THE QUESTION It sounds obvious, yet its not always done.1. Check the injunctions to see whether AO1, AO2, or AO3 is required.2. If the question says including you must write about whatever is specified. If it says e.g. you canchoose alternative content if you prefer.3. Cover two o r more explanations of theories if the question includes explanations, theories, or twoor more.4. If there is a quote use it.5. Leave spaces between paragraphs so that you can expand on your link sentences if you have time or feelyou need to change them as you go along.

The way to make it clear to the examiner that you are answering the question is to use link sentences, i.e.rephrase the words of the question and make a mini- conclusion, one per paragraph so that its clearwhatever youve writ ten about in that paragraph is relevant to the question. This is a good check for you aswell because if you cant make a link sentence then chances are the material isnt relevant!

BE SELECTIVE You can only write a limited amount in 30 (Unit 3) or 40 (Unit 4) minutes.1. The content you select must be the most relevant possible!2. Dont go into lengthy descriptions that are an unnecessary amount of detail this will reduce the timeyou have for more relevant material. For example, when describing a piece of research, give the findingsand conclusions only the aims and procedures are too much detail.3. Having selected the most relevant material, describe and evaluate two areas in detail to achieve depth,and write about alternative content superficially so that your answer shows a wide understanding and so

achieves breadth.

BE INFORMED Make sure your use of material does you justice the point is to show how much youhave learned in psychology. To do this, AO1 must be accurate and detailed and AO2/AO3 must makeeffective use of research evidence.

ESSAY PLANS These should be in your memory of course as a result of planning in revision!1. In the exam use the first minute allocated to an essay to plan your response. Write the number of

paragraphs and underneath briefly note what will go into each paragraph. This may be as litt le as one wordas you do need to move quickly on to writing your essay.


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2. Leave space so you can add in anything else that occurs as you write the essay. The stress of exams canaffect memory so if you think of something really good for paragraph 5 or the conclusion add it onto the

plan in case you forget it by the time you get to that paragraph.3. Dont cross the plan outthis can only be credited of its not crossed out, so instead tick items if youlike to check off what youve done.

BE BALANCED 1. Provide evidence for and against to achieve balance.2. Give positive and negative evaluation.

TIME MANAGEMENT Manage your time in the exam very carefully. On Unit 3 you have 30 minutes per question; on Unit 4 you have 40 minutes per question. Resist the urge to spend a disproportionateamount of time on your first essay because you think you could make it really good with 10 more minutes.One brilliant answer is no good, its better to have three very good answers than one brilliant and twoaverage ones!

DONT JUST STATE, ELABORATE To achieve at grade C or above your answer cannot besuperficial, which often occurs when criticisms are simply stated its easy to say a study lacks ecologicalvalidity, or is reductionist, deterministic, etc. You could simply learn a list of AO2/AO3 phrases and hardlyknow what they mean! So, unsurprisingly, stating criticisms achieves few marks. To go beyond merestatement you need to provide commentary:

1. Explain what the criticism means.2. Make a conclusion by assessing the consequences of the criticism, e.g. if the research lacks

validity then this reduces its value and so it does not provide strong support for theory,which may reduce its explanatory power.

3. Relate this conclusion back to the question. Write a link sentence (see above), e.g. if the questionasks you to assess the contribution of .. explanations, and you have reached the aboveconclusion then you can say, The theory lacks empirical support as the validity of the researchevidence can be questioned and so there is a need for further research to substantiate theexplanation. This means whilst it may appear to make sense we cannot fully accept the insights theexplanation provided and so it lacks explanatory power. Furthermore, this explanation takes onlyone perspective, whereas a multi- perspective best accounts for ...

Note in the example above the use of and so and this means. There are many useful phrases that you

can use to ensure your answer does contain commentary and does link back to the question (see A2 Level Psychology page 11). Make these into a revision aid.

MASTER AO2/AO3 What is commentary? It is interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and conclusions.Does your answer have MERIT? Use this mnemonic to check your answer is evaluative:

Methodological criticisms How does the research lack/have internal/external validity? Consider othercriticisms of the research methods, design of the research, and the sample, all of which have implicationsfor reliability and validity.

Ethics Do the ends justify the means? Much research has ethical implications so consider whether itshould have passed the cost benefit analysis.

Real-life validity, explanatory power, and applications Can the research be applied to everyday life?Consider the implications of the findings for theories. Do the findings support or contradict the theory?How well does the theory/explanation/research apply to real life? Can the information be used in a positiveway, i.e. applications? If not, the theory/explanation/research may lack value and explanatory power. Seethe conclusions in the Essay Plans as this is often a useful way to complete an essay.

Individual, social, and cultural variation How universal are the findings? Are explanations culturallyrelative or universal? If cultural relativism has not been acknowledged the research may be ethnocentric.Remember to some extent all research is a product of the time and context in which it was carried out. Socontextualise the research and assess whether it is era-dependent and content-bound, and consider the


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consequences in terms of ecological validity (can it generalise to the present context?), population validity(can it generalise to other populations?), and temporal validity (can it generalise to current time periods?).

Theoretical Reductionism and determinism can be used to evaluate most theories. Nature/nurture canalso be used to assess theoretical perspectives. Don't forget to show that you understand why reductionismor nature/nurture might be relevant to the question or your use of these will be superficial and only achievein the lower mark bands. Use counter-perspectives as evaluation of the theories you have described. Dothey support or challenge the theory? How strong is the evidence for counter-perspectives in comparison tothe theory you have described? Can any contradictions in the theories be explained by the methodology ofthe research? A multi-perspective is usually optimal.

Many sources of AO2/ AO3 are generalisable (can be used in different essays). So its a good idea to createyour own AO2/AO3 revision sheet of criticisms with elaboration and commentary.

How to Write an A-Grade EssayYou know one when you read one! Perhaps you have been supplied with model answers in class and so cantell when an essay is really good. But how do you make yours equally so?

Begin by knowing what you are going to write about in each paragraph, what conclusion you are headingtowards, and make sure that what you have planned is what you can feasibly write in timed conditions. Youshould have a plan for the range of potential exam questions committed to memory, so that you spend onlya minute noting it down in the exam, as there isnt time for any longer.

DO DONT

Know which question numbers you have preparedfor (see the beginning of this chapter).

Spend the first 5 minutes of the exam finding thequestions.

Answer the question set by noting the injunction andthe specified content.

Interpret the question to suit yourself and the essayyou prepared earlier.

Get straight to the point. Say what you intend to cover just do it!

Use commentary, where criticisms are elaboratedand conclusions linked to the question.

List criticisms with little elaboration.

Make sure content is relevant by using linksentences.

Avoid finding out content is irrelevant by refusing tolink to question.

Use prcis. Write in an over-wordy or long-winded style.

Write an informed answer by using researchevidence to support and challenge, and explain why.Base conclusions on this evidence.

Write the man on the street answer with only yourown opinion and anecdotes about yourself asevidence.

Well thats the end of my advice. Do understand that I am a teacher so Im bound to go on a bit, but that atthe same time I just might know what Im going on about. So please do follow the advice in this chapter!

Good luck!Work hard and you should be celebrating in August!


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Documents

Revision Guide Preparing for the Exam