Akbari et al 1

The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total Cholesterol and High Density Lipoprotein of Middle Age Females

Giti, Z1; Hosseini, S.A1; Nourizadeh, R1; Edalat Manesh, M.A; Noura, M1; Robati, R2 1 Department of Physical Education, Fars Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran 2 Department of Physiology, Fars Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran 3 Department of Microbiology, Fars Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran

Abstract Aim: aim of present study was to review the effect of eight weeks aerobic training on visfatin total cholesterol and high density lipoprotein of middle age females. Materials and methods: For these purpose 30 females (mean age 48/739/44 y, height 156/035/6 cm and weight 68/3710/57 kg) who attend in odd days morning sport class of hejab gymnasium of shiraz city after fill health and informed consent questioners randomly selected as statistical sample. At first after measure the height and weight, subjects base on their body mass index, divided in two equal groups. Aerobic trainings were included eight weeks aerobic training with intensity of 55-65 percent of maximum heart rate and three sessions per week. Fasting blood samples were taken 24 hours before start training period and after finishing last training session. For statistical analysis of findings used dependent and independent t test ( 0/05). Results: results showed that eight weeks aerobic training has no significant effect on increase in visfatin (p=0/08), reduction in total cholesterol (p=0/38) and increase Hosseini, S.A ( ) Alihoseini_57@yahoo.com

in high density lipoprotein (p=0/38). Conclusion: base on results of present study eight weeks aerobic training has no significant effect on increase in visfatin, reduction in total cholesterol (p=0/38) and increase in high density lipoprotein reduction in total cholesterol and increase in high density lipoprotein. So it suggests to middle age and untrained people for control the effective factors on obesity use high duration aerobic exercises. Key words: aerobic training, visfatin, total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein Introduction Today obesity is one of important factors of mortality and chronic and fatal diseases. Obesity is defined as excessive accumulation of fat in the body. Fat tissue in addition to the storage and release of triglycerides can secrets many proteins which these proteins have role in cholesterol metabolism, immune system actions, regulation of energy cost, insulin action and nutrition (Dominik., 2006). Also fat tissue in addition to storage of fat has important role in homeostasis of whole body as an active tissue by secretion of various hormones that called Adipocytokin. Adipokines have role in the physiological and pathophysiological

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Researcher in Sport Science Quarterly 2011, 2 (3): 1- 7

2 The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total Cholesterol

routes by several mechanisms and in practice they could have protective or predisposing role in getting people to chronic diseases (Kowalska., 2007 & Mastorakos., 2007). Visfatin is one of the Adipokines that mostly secreted by visceral fat tissue and its gene expression and plasmatic levels reduces in obese humans. Metabolic effects of visfatin occur primarily by binding and activating the insulin receptor (Bermejo., 2006, Berndt., 2005 & Claudio., 2006). Studies represent that increase in visfatin induces increase in insulin sensitivity and correspondingly reducing insulin resistance. Results of past studies have shown that plasmatic concentrations of visfatin reduced in human who have abdominal obesity or diabetic people. In the other hand it has been reported that glucose concentration affects serum concentration of visfatin and this impressibility changes by some medications (Moschen., 2007). Indeed serum levels of visfation have reverse relationship with body fat percentage. There are many factors affecting reduction of body fat percentage and cardiovascular risk factors that these factors include the nutrition, environment, socio-economic status and exercise. Beneficial effects of exercise in preventing and reducing cardio- vascular diseases has shown in various researches, but its mechanisms are not well understood. When fat tissue accumulates around body is susceptible to many diseases. Epidemiological data show that the prevalence of obesity significantly increased over the past 20 years. Studies have shown that low density lipoprotein (LDL), very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) and total cholesterol increase in obese subjects also high density lipoprotein (HDL) reduces. Regards to the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of cardio- vascular disease, reduction of inflammatory markers through exercise maybe one of mechanisms of reduction in cardio- vascular disease. In the area of exercise science pparticularly in exercise

physiology and sports medicine researches has been done (Nikkil ., 1980, Ring- Dimitriou et al., 2007 & Vuorimaa et al., 2005). Although the effect of exercise on these parameters studied in the various populations in the past decade, the results of these studies based on their type and nature are along with inconsistencies in change of visfatin concentration in response to exercise. Thus, with respect to the noticed matters above in connection with the exercise necessary to improve the complications of inactivity and its induced obesity and also improve in blood and tissue factors that influence obesity and insulin resistance, present study seeks to answer this question that do aerobic training has a significant effect on visfatin, total cholesterol and high density lipoprotein? Methods Subjects Present study in a quasi-experimental study. Statistical population of present study included 90 women over 35 years who attend in odd days morning sport class of hejab gymnasium of shiraz city. 30 women who had no history of special diseases such as diabetes, blood pressure, cardio- vascular and respiratory disease after fill health and informed consent questioners randomly selected as statistical sample. Demographic characteristics of the subjects are presented in Table 1. Training protocols First, for homogeneity of the experimental and control groups, out of 30 volunteers measured parameters such as height, weight and body mass index. Then regards to the significant positive correlation between body mass index with concentration of visfatin, total cholesterol and high density lipoprotein, subjects were divided into two groups based on body mass index. The health, general information and informed consent questionnaires were completed by all subjects. Fasting blood samples collected

Giti et al 3

in lab 24 hours before start of training. Training protocol consisted eight weeks aerobic training and three sessions per week. Training program consisted 30 min warm up, include walk around the gym, stretching and kinetic movements and eight minutes running with intensity of 55-65 percent of maximum heart rate in first session that per two sessions one minute was added to running time. After eight weeks running time was 20 min and final 10 minutes was for cooling. At the end of each training session 10 minutes of cool- down include stretching and walking was done. 24 hours after the last training session, all subjects of experimental and control groups according to pretest were present in the laboratory and seven ml of blood was taken from them again. Also for control the short- term effects of diet on mentioned indicators, subjects were asked to have same diet for 24 hours before the pre-test and post-test. To determine the intensity of exercise (55- 65 percent of maximum heart rate) maximum heart rate formula was used. Exercise Heart Rate= 55- 65 % (220-Age) Blood sampling All subjects in the study period were not taking any medication. Blood samples were collected to determine the rest concentration of visfatin, total cholesterol and high density lipoprotein in pre- test (before start training program) and post- test (after the training program). Blood sampling at 8-9 AM was done by trained technicians and subjects were fast. 7 ml venous blood was taken from anterior vein

of the left elbow of subjects. For measure visfatin used ELISA kit of ALPCO Diagnostics, Salem, NH also cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein were measured using diagnostic kit of cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein by photometric method. Statistical analysis Due to the random distribution of subjects in the experimental and control groups and confidence of normality of data by (kolmogorov- smirnov test) for compare the visfatin, cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein between experimental and control groups and also within these groups used independent and dependent t test respectively. All information is reported based on the mean and standard deviation. The level of significance was considered 0/05 for all stages of calculation. Findings Concentrations of Visfatin, cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein in both groups are shown in Table 2. Independent t-test results showed that there is no significant difference in visfatin (p=0/11), cholesterol (p=0/78) and high density lipoprotein (p=0/20) changes following eight weeks aerobic exercise training in experimental and control groups. also dependent t-test results showed that eight weeks aerobic exercise training has no significant effect on increase visfatin (p=0/08), cholesterol (p=0/38) and high density lipoprotein (p=0/38) (table 3).

Table 1. demographic characteristics of subjects (M SD)

Control (N= 15) Experimental (N= 15) Subjects Variable

53 2.1 44.46 2.29 Age (year) 154.66 1.16 157.40 1.64 Height (cm) 70.24 2.02 66.50 3.29 Weight (kg) 29.33 0.69 27.01 1.49 Body Mass Index (kg/m2)

4 The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total Cholesterol

Table 2. statistical analysis of visfatin, cholesterol and high density lipoprotein in experimental and control groups

control group

experimental group time of test variable

8.17 1.72 6.637 1.83 Pre Test Visfatin (Ng/ml) 8.06 1.88 7.29 0.77 Post Test 206 35.19 232.13 44.62 Pre Test Cholesterol (mg/dL) 199.66 36.38 222.73 34.79 Post Test 59.06 11.2 56.73 14.66 Pre Test High Density

Lipoprotein (mg/dL) 57.6 12.21 58.8 12.62 Post Test

Table 3. results of independent and dependent t tests for compare the visfatin, cholesterol and high density lipoprotein in research groups

Variable p df dependent t test

Group Independent t test

df P

Visfatin 0.08 14 -1.87 Experimental 1.62 28 0.11 0.79 14 0.26 Control

Total cholesterol

0.38 14 0.89 experimental -0.28 28 0.78 0.03 14 2.39 control

High density lipoprotein

0.38 14 -.089 experimental 1.29 28 0.20 0.15 14 1.51 control

*05/0p Discussion Results of present study showed that two months aerobic training has no significant effect on increase of visfatin. About the effect of exercise on visfatin can point to Frydeland-larsen study (2006). The result of Frydeland-larsen study is contradicted with present study. These researchers showed that exercise induces increase in expression of visfatin mRNA in subcutaneous fat tissue of healthy males (Frydeland-Larson., 2006). Perhaps one of the reasons of inconsistent results in Frydeland-larsen et al study with present study maybe due to different types of subjects. Because in Frydeland- larsen et al study used young male subjects. These subjects because of their youth were able to perform higher intensity exercise than present study subjects. Indeed Visfatin has diabetogenic and immunomodulator effects that has role on physiology of insulin resistance in obese and type 2

diabetic humans and Changes in fetal development (Dahi., 2007 & Song., 2008). It appears that visfatin is involved in biosynthesis of mono-and di- nucleotide, but its role as Adipokine is insulin- like effect that Induces glucose uptake by muscle and fat cells and reduction in release of glucose from liver with a different mechanism from insulin and by binding to insulin receptors in different position from insulin position (Fernandez., 2007). Visfatin activates the insulin receptor and makes a major insulin-like effect in vitro and in vivo (Karalisch., 2005). Hence, given that physical activity has an insulin-like effect, In fact, exercise can increase translocase of glucose transporters (GLUTS) to the cell surface, Visfatin also has the same effect with this mechanism; more likely exercise should lead to increase in visfatin concentration. However, long duration exercises can induce increase in visfatin concentration

Giti et al 5

by reduce body weight and body fat percentage (Trayhurn & Wood., 2004). Results of Dominik (2006) study are consistent with results of present study. These researchers showed that exercise has no significant effect on visfatin of type 1 diabetic patients (Dominik., 2006). The reason of same results can be due to equal intensity prescribed for those patients and subjects of present study. Results of present study showed that two months aerobic training has no significant effect on reduction of total cholesterol. Findings of some researchers (for example Kraus et al 2002 and Altena et al 2006) are inconsistence with present study (Kraus et al., 2002 & Altena et al., 2006). Low-density lipoprotein is the main carrier of cholesterol in plasma. Cholesterol by full endocytosis of low-density lipoprotein delivered the cells. This kind of endocytosis is most abundant than endocytosis of other lipoproteins. Low-density lipoproteins normally carry 60 to 80 percent of plasmatic cholesterol and have a high tendency to stick to the walls of the arteries (Vuorimaa et al., 2005). Cholesterol sediment in the artery wall caused the growth of smooth muscle cells of the artery wall under sediment location and absorption of fibroblasts (they accelerate the blood clots in the that region) and If this action operated in coronary vessels supplier blood to heart tissue, it may prevents adequate oxygen reaching the heart tissue, which may lead to myocardial infarction or necrosis in the region of the heart (Song., 2008). Short-term response of plasma cholesterol to exercise seems to be different between males and females. High- density lipoprotein cholesterol in men typically increases, while the total cholesterol reduces in women. 1200 to 2200 kcal of energy expenditure per week creates favorable changes in high- density lipoprotein cholesterol (Vasankari et al., 1998). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol increases when intensity resistance training is moderate and number

of repetitions is high, in compared with the high intensity and low repetition. Plasmatic concentration of fat in people who train aerobic exercises is low so that they are less exposed to the risk of atherosclerosis than other. In sum, they have healthy lipid profile (Vasankari et al., 1998). Results of present study showed that high density lipoprotein had no significant change after two months aerobic training. Vasankari et al (1998) in review the effects of 10 months aerobic exercise training program on the oxidation of low- density lipoprotein cholesterol and other risk factors of blood fats (Vasankari et al., 1998). Results of some researches such as Kraus et al (2002) in review the effect of intensity and duration of training on plasmatic lipoprotein (Kraus et al., 2002), Varma (2007) in review the effect of acute Long- duration exercise on oxidation of low-density lipoprotein of healthy men (Varma., 2007) and Altena et al (2006) in review the changes of low-density lipoprotein, high density lipoprotein and other related risk factors after four weeks of exercise with intensity of 70 % maximum heart rate (Altena et al., 2006) are in contrast with results of present study. The difference in results of studies could be due to different factors such as exercise intensity, exercise duration, gender and total calories consumed per session exercise or total training period. One reason for the conflicting results of the present study with study of Kraus et al could be due to training duration so that in present study training duration was two months but in study of Kraus et al training duration was eight months, Thus likely higher exercise duration is more likely to increase the high density lipoprotein. Conclusion Given that the major contribution to the treatment and control of diseases is upon to people of society and many factors such as proper exercise can affect diseases, learn how to correctly perform the exercise

6 The Effect of Aerobic Training on Visfatin, Total Cholesterol

is a necessity. But value of an education is depends on its influence and change or creation of health behavior; and changing behavior is not a goal that is easily attainable. Recently, aerobic exercise and resistance training have been considered as effective and safe therapeutic tool in the treatment of many diseases. According to the reports, these experimental interventions are effective like drugs and dietary supplements in daily energy consumption, increased insulin sensitivity, self-sufficiency and quality of life (Trayhurn & Wood., 2004). Also exercises have potential to increase muscle strength, fat free mass, bone mineral density, and reduce joint symptoms that can have relatively rapid improvement in functional status. The person will get the reward for his/her effort and his confidence increased. Because usually in per training session several exercises can be done, some consider it more varied and less boring. Base on results of present study eight weeks aerobic training with intensity of 55- 65 percentage of maximum heart rate has no significant effect on increase of visfatin, reduction of cholesterol and increase of high density lipoprotein. So it is recommended for non-athletes and middle-aged people that use aerobic exercise with higher duration for control factors affecting cardiovascular health. References Altena T.S, Michaelson J.L, Ball S.D,

Guilford B.L, & Thomas T.R. (2006). Lipoprotein Subfraction Changes after Continuous or Intermittent Exercise Training. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 38 (2): 367- 372.

Bermejo M. (2006). Serum Visfatin Increases With Progressive B-Cell Deterioration. Diabets, 55: 2871- 2875.

Berndt J. (2005). Plasma Visfatin Concentrations and Fat Depot- Specific mRNA Expression in humans. Diabetes, 54: 2911- 2916.

Claudio P. (2006). Reduced Plasma Visfatin/pre-B Cell Colony

Enhancing Factor in Obesity is not Related Insulin Resistance in Humans. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 9 (8): 3165- 3170.

Dahi T. (2007). Increased Expression of Visfatin in Macrophages of Human Unstable Carotid and Coronery Atherosclerosis Possible Role in Inflammation and Destabilization. Circulation, 115: 972- 980.

Dominik G. (2006). Exercise Training Lowers Plasma Visfatin Concentrations in Patients with Type 1 Diabetes. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 91 (11): 4702- 4704.

Dominik G.H. (2006). Free Fatty Acids Normalize a Rosiglitazone- Induced Vsfatin Release. A M J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 291: 885- 890.

Fernandez Real J. (2007). Circulating Visfatin is Associated With Parameteers of Iron Metabolism In Subjects With Altered Glucose Tolerance. Diabetes Care, 30: 616- 621.

Frydeland-Larson L. (2006). Visfatin mRNA Expression in Human Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue is Regulated by Exercise. AM J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, 292: 24- 31.

Karalisch S. (2005). Hormonal Regulation of the Novel Adipocytokine Visfatin in 3t3- l1 Adipocytes. Journal of Endocrinology, 185: 1- 8.

Kowalska I. (2007). Serum Visfatin in Relation to Insulin Resistance and Markers of Hyperandrogenism in Lean and Obese Women With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome. Humman Reproduction, 22 (7): 1824- 1829.

Kraus W.E, Houmard J.A, Duscha B.D, Knetzger K.J, Wharton M.B, McCartney J.S, Bales C.W, Henes S, Samsa G.P, Otvos J.D, Kulkarni K.R, & Slentz C.A. (2002). Effects of the Amount and Intensity of Exercise on Plasma Lipoproteins. N Engl J Med, 347 (19): 1483- 1492.

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Mastorakos G. (2007). The Role of Dipocytokines in Insulin Resistance in Normal Pregnancy Visfatin Concentvatians in Early Pregnancy Predict Insulin Sensitivity. Endocrinology and Metabolism. Clinical Chemistry, 55: 1477- 1483.

Moschen A. (2007). Visfatin An Adipocytokine with Proinflammatory and Immunomodulating Propertis. The Journal of Immunology, 178: 1748- 1758.

Nikkil E.A, Kuusi T, & Myllynen P. (1980). High Density Lipoprotein and Apolipoprotein A During Physical Inactivity. Demonstration at Low Levels in Patients with Spine Fracture. Atherosclerosis, 37 (3): 457- 462.

Ring- Dimitriou S, Von Duvillard S.P, Paulweber B, Stadlmann M, Lemura L.M, Peak K, & Mueller E. (2007). Nine Months Aerobic Fitness Induced Changes on Blood Lipids and Lipoproteins in Untrained Subjects Versus Controls. Eur J Appl Physiol, 99 (3): 291- 299.

Song H. (2008). Visfatin: A New Player in Mesangial Cell Physiology and Diabetic Nephropaty. AM J Physiolo Renal Physiol, 295: 1485- 1494.

Trayhurn P, & Wood I.S. (2004). Adipokines: Inflammation and the Pleiotropic Role of White Adipose Tissue. British Journal of Nutrition, 92: 347- 355.

Varma V. (2007). Human Visfatin Expression: Relation to Insulin Sensitivity, Intramyocellular Lipids and Inflammation. Jclin Endocrinol Metab, 92: 666- 672.

Vasankari T.J, Kujala U.M, Vasankari T.M, & Ahotupa M. (1998). Reduced Oxidized LDL Levels after A 10- Month Exercise Program. Med Sci Sports Exerc, 30 (10): 1496- 1501.

Vuorimaa T, Ahotupa M, Irjala K, & Vasankari T. (2005). Acute Prolonged Exercise Reduces Moderately Oxidized LDL in Healthy Men. Int J Sports Med, 26 (6): 420- 425.

Nikbakht et al 16

Effects of Resistance Training on Some of Systemic Inflammatory Markers in Overweight Men

Nikbakht, H;1 Gaini, A;2 Mohamadzadeh Salamat, KH1 1Department of Exercise Physiology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran 2Department of Exercise Physiology, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract Physical fitness has an inverse correlation with systemic inflammation. This essence show that anti inflammatory effects of physical activity my explain some of its beneficial influences on body systems. Then, regarding to the effects of physical training on biochemical and physiological aspects in human, this present study attempted to investigate the effect of resistance training on some of systemic inflammatory markers in overweight men. Accordingly, twenty one healthy overweight (BMI=28.56 2.67) yang (22.312.42) students were volunteered to participate and randomly divided into two groups: Resistance training group (n=11) and non-exercising control group (n=10). The training group performed a progressive 8-week resistance training 3session/wk at about 50 to 80 % of one repeated maximum (1RM). Prior to and after the training program, a blood sample was collected from the subjects in order to measure Interlukine-1 beta (IL-1 ) and C reactive protein (CRP). Results of two-way ANOVA for repeated measures showed that following 8-week resistance training, a significant difference was found in CRP (P= 0/001), but not in case of IL-1 (p>0.05). In term of between group comparison significant difference was found only in CRP (P= 0/014). Generally, it can be conclude that exercise training decreases some of systemic inflammatory markers in overweight men. Mohamadzadeh Salamat, KH ( ) Kh.mohamadzadeh@ iausdj.ac.ir

Key words: inflammation, exercise training, overweight Introduction Over the past two decades, the response of the inflammatory markers to exercise and sport has evolved into a topic of significant interest to both health and sport professionals. Monocytes, endothelial cells, brain, muscle cells, adipocytes and many of the other body tissues can be the source of systemic inflammatory markers (Widlansky et al., 2003). Systemic inflammation can be the symptom of overflowing local preinflammatory factors such as preinflammatory cytokines, adhesion molecules and acute phase proteins. These factors can influence physiological and biochemical activities of body tissues and organs (Bruunsgaard., 2005). However, increased inflammation has also been associated with increased adipose tissue deposits and insulin resistance (Arner., 2005). Both systemic and local inflammation has been suggested to play an important role in the pathogenesis and progression of the disease (Feldman et al., 2000). In the other hand, physical activity has a protective and preventive role for various diseases. Its likely that reducing of systemic inflammatory markers to be partly of the effects of physical training in protecting

ORGINAL ARTICLE

Researcher in Sport Science Quarterly 2011, 2 (3): 16- 21

Nikhbakht et al 17

body against precious occurrence of many diseases such as, cardiovascular events, cancer, type 2 diabetes mellitus, pulmonary chronic disease and Alzheimer (Bruunsgaard., 2005). Studies had showed that systemic inflammatory responses to exercise dependence on intensity, duration and exercising muscle mass (Pedersen & Fischer., 2007). Its seems that chronically performing physical activity cause to decrease IL-1 and IL-6 and this is independent of gender, age, smoking, body mass index, total cholesterol, blood glucose and hypertension (Panagiotakoset al., 2005). Probable therapeutic role of physical activity has been evaluated in many control trails (Nicklas et al., 2008; Okita et al., 2004). Accordingly, its possible that CRP can be influenced by long term physical training. Furthermore, there is lack of clarity in term of effects of exercise training on preinflammatory cytokines, insofar as; some studies reported a decrease in IL-1 and CRP (Balducci et al., 2009; Donges et al., 2010; Kadoglou et al., 2007; Kasapis & Thompson., 2005), while other studies couldnt achieve to such results (Andersson et al., 2010; Gray et al., 2009; Huffman et al., 2008). However, in

overweight people specially the effect of exercise training on inflammatory markers to be determined. This study was designed to establish to the effect of moderate circuit resistance training on some of systemic inflammatory markers (IL-1 , CRP) in untrained overweight men.

Methods Participants Twenty one overweight (BMI= 28.56 2.67 kg/m2) student were volunteered to participate in present study. They became fully aware from the study objectives, procedures and possible risks. Participants had not any regular training one year before study commence. They were randomly divided to a resistance training group (n=11) and a non-exercising control group (n=10). Then, the Participants were homogeneous according to body mass index (BMI), maximum oxygen consumption and age (Table 1). Moreover, according to the nutrition and calorie intake influences on systemic inflammatory markers, subjects daily nutrition data were documented and analyzed via reminiscent questionnaire. Recommend have been gave to the subjects in case of remarkable differences in calorie intake.

Physiological measurements Firstly, Participants characteristics measured in a week prior to training program commence. In the following day, their maximum oxygen consumption was

measured using treadmill (TechnoGym, Italy) modified Bruce protocol. Body fat percent was indirectly measured using caliper (Laffayette, 01127 mod, USA) and Jackson-Pollock 3-point (abdomen, super

Table1. Characteristics of participants before training. variable Resistance

training Control t p

Age year 21.76 2.73 22.872.12 0.686 0.56 Height cm 179.333.74 176.224.34 1.321 0.21 Weight kg 2.8670.73 3.0674.95 2.47 0.29 Body fat % 27.353.35 28.854.82 0.34 0.85 BMI kg/m2 29.281.92 27.883.42 1.34 0.18 VO2max ml.kg-1.min-1

35.373.59 36.413.29 0.79 0.62

18 Effects of Resistance Training on Some of Systemic Inflammatory

iliac and triceps) method. Participants one repeated maximum was measured for nine movements including bench press, biceps and triceps barbell curl, seated cable row, squat, leg press, leg extension, lying leg curl and decline crunch via the Brzycky method (Heyward., 2002). It should be noted that all the measurement was performed at 9 to 12 am.

Training Program The experimental group accomplished an 8-week resistive weight training 3sessions/wk. Control group only participated in daily activities. Briefly, the resistance training group performed a 5-minute jogging as warm-up and finished daily training with range of motion (ROM) in order to cooling down. The training program was including mentioned nine circuit resistance exercises which started with 50% of each subjects 1RM at the first week. Resistance training group performed 3set/sission in which 8-12 rep/set in first three weeks, 10 rep/set in fourth and fifth weeks and 6-8 rep/set in last two weeks. 1-2min and 3-5min resting period was applied between exercises and sets, respectively. Weekly training intensity increased 5% of participants 1RM in order to applying overload. For considering the probable strength improvement, participants new 1RM record measured for all nine exercises in the fourth week and training protocol continued with these new percents of 1RM. Participants trained with 85% of their 1RM in the last training session. The resistance training sessions was performed on Sundays and Tuesdays, and Wednesdays at 5 pm.

Biochemical Measurements Two days prior to the training program, the subjects attended hematology lab in Kurdistan University of medical sciences for a blood sampling. Lap technicians sampled 10ml from left hand antecubital vein in fasting state. Blood samples were collected into pre-chilled tubes, containing

either EDTA and centrifuged at 2500-2700 rpm g at 4C for 10 min order to plasma, serum and cell severance. After blood sampling and severance, serum and plasma samples were kept at -80 until analysis. The same procedure was followed 72h after last training session. Besides, ELISA kits (Bender MedSystems, Norway) were used to measure interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 ) and ELISA kits (Monobined, USA) were used to measure high sensitive C-reactive protein (hs-CRP) according manufacturer instructions. ELISA reader (Awaneness, Technology co, USA) was used to read ELISA kits. For the measurement of IL-

, the within-assay CVs were 4.8% and 5.6 for CRP. Data Analysis The data are presented as mean SD. Descriptive statistics was used to calculate mean and standard deviation of descriptive variables. Normality of distribution was tested with Kolmogorov-smirnov test. Levens test was applied to survey the homogeneous variances of variables distribution. Data were analyzed for main effects using a two-way ANOVA for repeated measures. All data analysis was done via SPSS16 for windows and Microsoft excel 2003. Results Results of two-way ANOVA for repeated measures showed eight weeks of resistance training induced significant decreases in the concentrations of CRP, whereas no changes were found for IL-1 levels. Also between group analyses indicate that there is a significant deference in CRP but not in case of IL-1 (table2).

Nikbakht et al 19

Table2. Variables meanSD in baseline and after resistance training.

variable group Pretest(Mean SD) posttest(Mean SD)

IL-1 (pg/ml) resistance

training 2.340.51 2.320.41

control 2.340.54 2.440.45

CRP (microg/ml) resistance

training 1.890.54 1.110.32

control 1.960.49 1.950.39 IL-1 , Interlukine-1 beta; CRP, C reactive protein.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

Endurance training ControlGroup

Figure 1. Pre- and posttraining values in comparison of two groups in case of CRP. *Discernible differences at

p < 0.05.

CRP

(mic

rog/

ml)

pre-test post-test

*

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

Endurance training ControlGroup

Figure 2. Pre- and posttraining values in comparison of two groups in case of IL-1 .

IL-1

(pg/

ml)

pre-test post-test

Discussion Results of this study didnt showed remarkable deference in IL-1 in case of between and within subjects comparisons ( F(1,20)=0.173, P=0.682, 2= 0.009). Eta square ( 2) is expresser of training effect sizes on variables. Result was showed that resistance training describe only %0.9 of IL-1 variations. According to Cohen (1988) scale this effect size is inconsiderable (Cohen., 1988). Various studies exerted that there is a close relationship between exercise and cytokine concentration (Helge., 2003; Hiscock et al., 2004; Kimura et al., 2001; Moldoveanu et al., 2000). Similar to our study results, Ferriera et al (2009) comperhended that 10 week circuet resistance training couldnt significantly change IL-1 values (Ferreira et al., 2009).

Many of cytokines such as IL-1 TNF- and IFN- can induce inflammatory status and increase allergic components such as prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) (Ostrowski et al., 2000). C reactive protein (CRP) is the most form of acute phase protein that release in response of surgery, tissue damage, inflammation and exercise. The half life of CRP is about 19h and its release from hepatocytes primarily is under control of IL-6, IL-1, alpha tumor necrosis factor (TNF- ) and other cytokines. In present study there was a significant difference between the resistance training group and control (F(1,20)=18.445, P=0.001 & 2= 0.493). Herein, Eta esquire showed that resistance training describe about %49 of CRP variations. According to Cohen (1988) scale this effect size is a big one (Cohen.,

20 Effects of Resistance Training on Some of Systemic Inflammatory

1988). Also resistance training group showed significant decrease in CRP after training in compared to baseline (F(1,20)=7.266, P=0/014). Generally, physical activity and exercise has short time inflammatory responses, while long time exercise training has a long time anti-inflammatory effects on human body (Kasapis & Thompson., 2005). Ten week resistance or aerobic training induced a significant decrease in CRP but not in case of IL-6 (Donges et al., 2010). In the other study resistance training couldnt decrease CRP concentration (Levinger et al., 2009). Some studies belief that decrease of adipocyte is the mechanism of CRP decrement. Herein, decrease in body fat may causes to decrease of IL-6 in adipocytes as one of the main source of cytokines. Herein, regarding to the stimulatory effect of IL-6 on CRP release on hepatocytes, IL-6 decrement could be inducing decrease in liver CRP release. In conclusion, regarding to this study results we can exert that resistance training will be able to improve systemic inflammatory environment via declining CRP until cytokines. According to the role of CRP in expectancy future cardiovascular disease, this result can be important.

References Andersson J., Jansson JH., Hellsten G.,

Nilsson TK., Hallmans G., Boman K. (2010). Effects of heavy endurance physical exercise on inflammatory markers in non-athletes. Atherosclerosis. 209(2):601-605.

Arner P. (2005). Insulin resistance in type-2 diabetes role of the adipokines. Curr Mol Med. 5(3):333-339.

Balducci S., Zanuso S., Nicolucci A., Fernando F. (2009). Anti-inflammatory effect of exercise training in subjects with type 2 diabetes and the metabolic syndrome is dependent on exercise modalities and independent of weight

loss. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 20(8):608-617.

Bruunsgaard H. (2005). Physical activity and modulation of systemic low-level inflammation. J Leukoc Biol. 78(4):819-835.

Cohen J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.)Academic Press, New York.

Donges CW., Duffield R., Drinkwater EJ. (2010). Effects of Resistance or Aerobic Exercise Training on Interleukin- 6, C-Reactive Protein, and Body Composition. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 42(2):304-313.

Feldman AM., Combes A., Wagner D. (2000). The role of tumor necrosis factor in the pathophysiology of heart failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 35(3):537-544.

Ferreira FC., Medeiros AI., Nicioli C., Nunes JED., Shiguemoto GE., Prestes J., et al (2009). Circuit resistance training in sedentary women: body composition and serum cytokine levels. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab; 35: 163171.

Gray SR., Baker G., Wright A., Fitzsimons CF., Mutrie N., Nimmo MA. (2009). The effect of a 12 week walking intervention on markers of insulin resistance and systemic inflammation. Prev Med. 48(1):39-44.

Helge J., Stallknecht B., Pedersen B., Galbo H., Kiens B., Richter E. (2003).The effect of graded exercise on Il-6 release and glucose uptake in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 546(Pt 1):299-305.

Heyward VH. (2002). Advanced fitness assessment exercise prescription. Human kinetics.p 128.

Hiscock N., Chan MH., Bisucci T., Darby IA., Febbraio MA. (2004). Skeletal myocytes are a source of interleukin-6 mRNA expression and protein release during contraction: evidence of fiber type specificity. FASEB J. 18, 992-994.

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Nikbakht et al 22

Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill Performance

in Young Soccer Players Mohebbi, H;1 Rahnama, N;2 Moghadassi, M;3 Ranjbar, K1 1 Department of Exercise Physiology, Guilan University, Guilan. Ira 2 Department of Physical Education, Esfahan University, Esfahan, Iran 3 Department of Exercise Physiology Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran

Abstract The aim of this study was to determine the effect of creatine supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young soccer players. Seventeen young soccer players (mean age: 17.18 1.37 y, mean high: 169.6 6.17 cm and mean weight: 61.67 1.37 kg) participated in this study. Subjects were assigned to either a creatine (5 g of Cr, 4 times per day for 7 days) or a placebo group (same dosage of a glucose polymer) using a double-blind research design. Subjects performed a repeated sprint test, a dribble and an accuracy of shooting to a target zone tests, before and after supplementation. Results showed that the weight and lean body mass increased significantly in the creatine group (P

Mohebbi et al 23

effects of oral creatine-monohydrate supplementation on specific performance in sport such as soccer (Ostojic., 2004). Therefore, it is possible that creatine supplement use in improving performance of soccer players be effective. Performance improve of speed and skill in different fields of sports such as wrestling, sprinting and volleyball and after complementary use of creatine have been experimented (Volek et al., 2001; Delecluse et al., 2003; Koak & Karli., 2003; Mohamed Ebrahim 2010). For example Preen and his colleagues (Preen et al., 2001) reported that consumption of 20 g creatine per day for 5 days improves the performance of repetitive of short-duration and rapid cycling. Also Gaeeni and his colleagues (Gaeeni et al., 2009) reported that short term use of creatine supplement has a significant effect on short term running (20 and 40 meters), long term running (60 and 100 meters), interval speed endurance running (30 fast running in 5 seconds with 10 seconds of rest between each running) and muscle strength (1-RM in knee extension) of wrestlers. The effect of this supplementation on performance of speed and skill of soccer players is not clear. Some studies have reported the soccer speed improvement after taking a course of creatine (Mujika et al., 2000) while in other research taking creatine on performance speed and precision ball kicking of football players was ineffective (Cox et al., 2002). Lack of studies regarding the effect of creatine supplementation on performance in soccer skill and little attention to the effect of creatine supplementation in speed and performance skills of young soccer players and the importance of these variables in soccer led to the current study investigating the effect of creatine supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young soccer players.

Methods Subjects In this experiment 17 young soccer players from the squad of first batch were selected and they were organized (in terms of endurance and speed performance, body mass index and playing position) in two groups of creatine (n=8) and placebo (n=9). Research design A double-blind research design was followed to administer the creatine and placebo treatments. The creatine group ingested four capsules content (5 g doses of creatine) per day and placebo group ingested the same dosage of glucose polymer. They were recommended to use the content of each capsule solved in 250 ml of lukewarm water or juice and consume with breakfast, lunch, dinner and the last meal before sleeping. During the supplementation, the subjects were asked to avoid consuming lots of red meat and white and avoid materials containing caffeine and any intensive activities. During the supplementation, the participants practiced only soccer training (three sessions per week). Repeated sprinting test and the skill test of dribble and accuracy of shooting were performed before and after the supplementation. Measurements Subjects' height and weight were recorded by height measurement and standard digital scale respectively. Fat percentage was measured by method of seven-point skin fold thickness (Jackson & Pollock., 1985) and Lafayette caliper made in America and millimeter accuracy were used to assess the maximum oxygen consumption used in 12 minute (Cooper test) (Neiman., 1990). To measure the speed repetitive sprinting test was used. Thus subjects performed six distances of 15 meters sprint that were interspersed by 30 seconds of recovery. The recovery was active rest (walking slowly). Accuracy of shooting was measured, by kick a role ball

24 Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill

into a 0.8 2.3 meters target constructed in the center of goal. Strike zone was constructed with dimensions of 1 1 meter then this zone 7.0 meters away from the target. Subjects with a 5 / 5 meters away from this area were located. Four balls were rolled from the player right-hand side, and followed by four balls from the players left-hands side. Balls were rolled at 6 seconds intervals. Players were instructed to kick the ball with their dominant kicking foot when it reached to strike zone. Between each ball strike, player returned to a baseline position 5.5 meters behind the strike zone before approaching the next ball. Subject repeated this procedure until striking the ball eight. For every ball into the target, one score for subjects was recorded. In the dribble test five cones on a line with a distance 1 m between them were used. Starting point was a 1 meter distance from the first cone. Each subject was standing at the start point

while holding the ball under his dominant foot, by hearing the whistle he began the dribble test with maximum speed, and in the moment of passing the last cone, he return to the starting point with his maximum speed. Time of performance was recorded by the timer. Creatinine levels of subjects were measured before performing the pretest and post test. For comparison in each group the dependent t test was used and for comparison between groups independent t-test was used at significant level of 0.05. Results Profiles of subjects were presented in table 1. As can be seen there arent significant differences (Where P in table 1) in aerobic fitness and body mass index between creatine and placebo groups. Therefore, the subjects were divided into two homogeneous groups.

Table 1. Profiles of individual subjects (mean SD)

Creatine Placebo Age (yr) 17.381.18 171.5 Height (cm) 170.376.23 169.016.42 Weight (kg) 61.956.65 60.464.88 BMI (kg/m2) 21.302.01 21.181.76 Vo2max (ml/kg/min) 45.173.24 46.852.13

Result of in-group differences were presented in table 2. The results showed that urinary creatinine in the creatine group had significantly increased (P

Mohebbi et al 25

Table 2: Comparison of pre-test and post test one week after taking creatine (mean SD)

*Significant difference (P

26 Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill

-0.8

-0.6

-0.4

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

1placebocreatine

Chart 1: Comparing the difference of dribble between creatine and placebo groups (second)

Discussion The aim of this study was to determine the effect of creatine supplementation on sprint and skill performance in young soccer player. The results showed that the creatine group significantly gained weight (2.71 percent). Various investigations has observed that body weight after creatine supplementation is increased about 0.5 to 3 kg (Mujika et al., 2000; Cox et al., 2002) although this topic has not been confirmed by some studies (Kambis & Pizzedaz., 2003; Mckenna et al., 1999]. Lean body mass increased significantly in the creatine group. Researchers announced that cause of increasing weight and lean body mass with the use of creatine is increase of total body water (water retention) possibly resulting from simple osmotic effects, sell swelling, and consequent increase in protein synthesis. While some studies have also reported that muscle protein anabolism after creatine supplementation over the short term is due to decrease of catabolism (Branch., 2003; Kilduff et al., 2004). Either reduction loss or increase synthesis of protein muscle myofibril cause of increased lean body mass after creatine is supplementation (Preen et al., 2003). On the other hand, weight gain created in the placebo group may be related to their body fluids is increased (Preen et al., 2003; Falah Mohammadi et al., 2007), because the subjects had been

recommended taking a lot of fluids during their research since the creatine storage needs water. Other results of this study showed that percent of body fat did not change significantly between groups. Much of researches have shown that fat percent doesnt change much after creatine supplementation (Cox et al., 2002; Branch et al., 2003; Leenders et al., 1999; Sub Lim., 2003). As was observed despite fat gain in both groups, there was no significant difference between the two groups. Fat weight increase in this study might be due to reduced volume and intensity of exercise, started after the competitive season (in the rest period). The results showed that speed of dribble increased significantly in creatine group. In the creatine group, cause of improve in the speed of dribble probably was due to increased speed of the subjects that might be due to increased muscle phosphocreatine and increase production of ATP (Mckenna et al., 1999). In confirming this, Ostojic (Ostojic., 2004) also observed that speed of dribble has improved in the creatine group after a week (speed of 13 seconds to 10.2 seconds decreased). This study showed that the speed of performance improved following creatine intake, earlier researches are in line with this result (Gaeeni et al., 2009; Mckenna et al., 1999; Falah Mohammadi

Mohebbi et al 27

et al., 2007; Burke et al., 2001). Improve in the speed performance may be due to phosphocreatine re synthesis in the rest between activities (Mujika et al., 2000) as well as improve performance of phosphocreatine, as H+ buffer [20]. In contradiction with the results of this study, speed performance is not improved in other sports [Mckenna et al., 1999, Leenders et al., 1999). For example Leenders et al. (Leenders et al., 1999) observed that two weeks creatine supplementation does not affect swimming speed of 1025 yards women and men and as well as 650 meters with 30 seconds in the rest between activities. The gender differences and age differences in the samples as well as dose of creatine supplementation may be the cause of contradiction to the researchers. Mckenna et al. (Mckenna et al., 1999) also observed that the speed in five 10 s maximal cycle ergo meter sprint with rest intervals of 180, 50, 20, and 20 s after 4 weeks of creatine supplementation compared to control group remains without change. Finally, study results showed that the accuracy of shooting in creatine group (17.4 percent) and placebo (14.72 percent) has increased but this increase was not statistically significant and also significant differences between the two groups was not observed. The small increase in accuracy of shooting in the groups was probably due to learning in the post test. The present results confirm with Cox et al. (Cox et al., 2002) who observed that using creative supplement for a week does not affect accuracy of shoot in women's soccer. Thus the necessity of research on creatine supplementation on longer period is recommended. In this study, urinary creatinine as a marker of muscle creatine was used. Studies have shown that creatinine excretion takes place only in conditions when amount of creatine is stored in the body (Wilder et al., 2004). The results indicated significant increases in urinary creatinine in creatine group, thus its clear that creative supplementation (20

g a day for 6 days) increased creatine levels in the body, and despite the increased body weight, these supplements could cause performance improvement in speed and skill of young soccer players. Results from this study can concluded that short-term consumption of creatine supplementation is effective in improvement of performance, speed and skill of young soccer player. References Branch, D. (2003). Effect of creatine

supplementation on body composition and performance: A meta-analysis. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 13(2): 198-228.

Burke DG, Chilibeck PD, Davidson KS, Candow DG, Farthing J, Smith-Palmer T. (2001). The effect of whey protein supplementation with and without creatine monohydrate combined with resistance training on lean tissue mass and muscle strength. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 11(3): 349-64.

Burke LM, Pyne DB, & Telford RD. (1996). Effect of oral creatine supplementation on single effort sprint performance in elite swimmer. Int J Sport Nutr. 6(3): 222-33.

Cox G, Mujika I, Tumilty D, & Burke L. (2002). Acute creatine supplementation and performance during a field test simulating match play in elite female soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 12(1): 33-46.

Delecluse C, Diels R, & Goris M. (2003). Effect of creatine supplementation on intermittent sprint running performance in highly trained athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 17(3): 446-54.

Falah Mohammadi, Z., V.A. Dabidi Roushan & Soltani, H. (2007). The effect of creatine supplementation on blood lactate after an intermittent exercise protocol in trained taekwondo players. Olympic. 15: 45-53.

Gaeeni, A.A., E. Alidosteghahfarokhi, A. Ahmadi & Aabolhasani, M. (2009).

28 Effect of Creatine Supplementation on Sprint and Skill

The effects of short term creatine supplementation in sprint performance and muscular strength in wrestlers. Journal of Sport Biosciences. 1(3): 77-92.

Hultman E, Sderlund K, Timmons JA, Cederblad G, & Greenhaff PL. (1996). Muscle creatine loading in man. J Appl Physiol. 81(1): 232-7.

Jackson, A.S. & M.L. Pollock. (1985). Practical assessment of body composition. Physician Sports med, 13:76-90.

Kambis, K.W. & Pizzedaz, S.K. (2003). Short-term creatine supplementation improve maximum quadriceps contraction in women. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 13(1): 87-96.

Kilduff LP, Georgiades E, James N, Minnion RH, Mitchell M, Kingsmore D, & et al. (2004). The effect of creatine supplementation on cardiovascular metabolic, and thermoregulatory responses during exercise in the heat if endurance-trained humans. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 14(4): 44360.

Koak S, & Karli U. (2003). Effects of high dose oral creatine supplementation on anaerobic capacity of elite wrestlers. J Sports Med Phys Fitness. 43(4): 48893.

Leenders NM, Lamb DR, & Nelson TE. (1999). Creatine supplementation and swimming performance. Int J Sport Nutr. 9(3): 251-62.

Mckenna, M.J., J. Morton, S.E. Selig & Snow, R.J. (1999). Creatine supplementation increases muscle total creatine but not maximal intermittent exercise performance. J Appl Physiol. 87(6): 224452.

Mohamed Ebrahim, A.E. (2010). Impact of Load Muscle with Creatine Monohydrate on Some Biological and Physical Variables and the Level Digital for Racers 100 Meter Running. WJSS. 3: 640-54.

Mujika I, Padilla S, Ibaez J, Izquierdo M, & Gorostiaga E. (2000). Creatine

supplementation and sprint performance in soccer players. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 32(2): 518-25.

Neiman, D.C. (1990). Fitness and sports medicine. An introduction. Publishers: Bull Publishing Company, pp: 70-76.

Ostojic, S.M. (2004). Creatine supplementation in young soccer players. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 14(1): 95103.

Preen D, Dawson B, Goodman C, Beilby J, Ching S. (2003). Creatine supplementation: A comparison of loading and maintenance protocols on creatine uptake By Human Skeletal Muscle. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 13(1): 97-111.

Preen D, Dawson B, Goodman C, Lawrence S, Beilby J, & Ching S. (2001). Effects of creatine loading of long-term sprint exercise performance and metabolism. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 33(5): 814-21.

Skare OC, Skadberg, & Wisnes AR. (2001). Creatine supplementation improves sprint performance in male sprints. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 11(2): 96-102.

Sub Lim, J.Y., 2003. The effect of creatine supplementation on body composition, muscular strength and power. The Sport Journal, 6: 1-7.

Volek JS, Mazzetti SA, Farquhar WB, Barnes BR, Gmez AL, & Kraemer WJ. (2001). Physiological response to short term exercise in the heat after creatine loading. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 33(7): 1101-8.

Wilder N, Deivert RG, Hagerman F, Gilders R. (2004). The effect of low - dose creatine supplementation versus creatine loading in collegiate football players. J Athl Train. 36(2): 124-29.

Akbari et al 29

The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on Cardiovascular Health and Socio- Economic State of Male Students of

Islamic Azad University- Fars Science and Research Branch

Noura, M; Hosseini, S.A Department of Physical Education, Fars Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran

Abstract Field and aim: obesity is in parallel with raise in risk of a lot of disease such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and type two diabetes and has relation with lifestyle and socioe- economic state. Aim of present study was evaluation the relationship between obesity and effective factors on cardiovascular health and socio-economic state of male students of Islamic Azad university-Fars Branch Science and Technology. Research method: For this purpose 785 individuals with mean age 20.83 1.72 year, height 174.50 6.48 centimeter and weight 71.11 12.35 kg) randomly selected among male student of Islamic Azad university-Fars Branch Science and Technology. For measure Weight and fat percentage used scale, and tape. Also socio-economic state measured by using socio-economic state evaluation questionnaire with acceptable reliability (r=0.75). For analysis of data, we used Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficient. Findings: Results showed there is significant positive relationship (r=0.19, p=0.001) between body fat percentiles and resting blood pressure. Also, it is obtained a significant negative relationship between waist to hip percentile and cardiovascular fitness (r=0.23, p=0.001). But did not Noura M ( ) Noora.mehdi@yahoo.com

observe significant relationship between obesity and socioe-conomic state (r=0.01, p=0.001). Key words: Obesity; Socioe-conomic State; Cardiovascular Fitness; Physical Activity Introduction Obesity is defined as an excess of adipose tissue as a result of excessive energy intake (Bouchard., 2000). Obesity increases the risk of many diseases such as CAD, hypertension and non-insulin dependent diabetes followed by early death (Bouchard., 2000). In the second study in Western Samoa, it was determined that inactive and sedentary individuals have more mean body mass index (BMI) and more weight than people who are active (Hodge et al., 1994). Evidence shows that any reduction of the total daily physical activity may be an important factor in increasing body weight in the western countries (Roland et al., 1998). Rowland and Weinsier have reported a lack of physical activity as a major factor in increasing prevalence of obesity in the modern societies (Roland et al., 1998). Obesity and overweight are affected by other factors such as socioeconomic conditions (Sallis et al., 1996). In some states of America, inverse relationship between socioeconomic status and obesity

ORGINAL ARTICLE

Researcher in Sport Science Quarterly 2011, 2 (3): 29- 40

30 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on

in 59,566 women has been reported (Oken et al., 1977). Similar results in other studies of urban areas (Saelens et al., 2003, Wang et al., 2006, Wang et al., 2007), suburban (Kyle et al., 2001) and rural (Bove et al., 2006) areas have been reported by them. Studies show that in rich countries, the prevalence of obesity in lower social classes is higher than the higher classes of society, while in the poor countries, the prevalence of obesity is higher in higher social classes (Shimakawa et al., 1994). In other studies, the relationship between socioeconomic factors and obesity has been noted (Prentice et al., 1995, Singh et al., 2008). According to a wide study made about the prevalence of obesity in 1999 in many European countries, it was determined that the lowest prevalence of obesity in all groups belongs to the people who have high social rank and grade (Martinez et al., 1999). Goldblatt (1965) studied over 1,660 people ranging in age from 20 to 59 residents of Manhattan's six urban areas that mostly were white- skinned people and found out that in the people with lower socioeconomic status, overweight increases around 20%, while in women with a low socioeconomic status, it is 6 times that of women with high socioeconomic status (Goldblatt et al., 1965). Silverstone (1970) has reported an inverse relationship between the obesity and socioeconomic status (Silverstone et al 1970). However, results of some studies contrast with the results from studies mentioned. Vijayalakshmi et al (2002) and Wang et al (2006) in their study showed that people with a good socioeconomic status, obesity is higher. The findings of the study conducted by Merchant et al (2007) and Popkin et al (1998) also show that individuals with favorable economic conditions and/or with moderate to low economic status were overweight, but there was no difference in amounts of their obesity. These results obtained indicate that in both poor and rich, there is the prevalence of obesity, and there is no

significant relationship between obesity and economic status (Popkin et al., 1998, Merchant et al., 2007). While the prevalence of obesity has increased over the past years, various measures taken for preventing it have not been followed by considerable successes (Oken et al., 1977). In Iran, according to studies, overweight and obesity are higher than international standards defined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the overweight and obesity have been reported more in girls more than boys (Mosavi Jazayeri., 2005). Definitely, many researchers reported obesity to have close ties with variables such as lifestyle and patterns of physical activity and the spatial factors such as age, gender, ethnicity and race and socioeconomic status are involved (Kelly et al., 2006, Lohman et al., 2006, Kyle 2001). Since the recent years, obesity and overweight has increased dramatically in different communities and researchers believe that obesity is a multi-dimensional phenomenon and non-biological factors and cultural factors can also be effective in its development. Also, considering the contradictions which exist in different countries research results in view of the prevalence of obesity as influenced by factors such as lifestyle and economic situation, it is necessary to further study the issue raised and be more accurate about this so that we are able to find a clear and strategic view of the subject. Accordingly, the present study is looking for determining levels of obesity in male students of Fars Islamic Azad University, Fars Science and Research branch and it attempts to answer this question that to what extent is the relationship between obesity and cardiovascular factors affecting the health of the socioeconomic status of the students? Methodology This study is of the survey-correlation type and its statistical society consists of all male students of Fars University of

Noura et al 31

Science and Research (4616 people). The people in this community sample are 785 subjects who were selected by using random sampling with replacements. The total number of male students in the sample amount was determined in Cochran formula. Measurement Tools Socio-economic status was evaluated by a socio-economic status assessment questionnaire. The content validity of the questionnaire was reviewed by the professors of sociology and economics and then, it was approved. For compiling it, using the three variables of income, education and occupational status of parents were assessed. All three variables necessary which are necessary for calculating the index of socioeconomic status were scaled with the same weight and scale and then they combined with each other in format of an ascending equation. In order to address the probable shortcomings of this questionnaire, 30 copies of the questionnaire being studied, were distributed and collected in the study group. The reliability of it was evaluated and the Korenbakhs alpha coefficient was obtained as equal to 0.75, respectively. A digital scale is used to read subjects weighing 160 kg with an accuracy of 0.1 kg, The DLT-411 model, which was made in Germany. The height of the subjects was read by means of a wall length gauge device of Sakka with an accuracy of 0.1 centimeters. Measures of heights were read without wearing shoes and minimal clothing, while a person standing motionless, with an accuracy of 100 grams. Measurement of height without shoes were written down against the height metering system which was mounted on the wall, and while the back of the heel, hip and shoulder contacted the wall and with an accuracy of 1.0 cm. Waist of the subjects was measured by a muscle-bound tape measure. The area between the lowest rib and iliac waist up to the tip of the tail was measured three times and the average

was considered. Subjects and hip circumference were measured by muscle-bound tape measure which was the most prominent area of the buttocks. Subcutaneous fat subjects (for measuring percentage of body fat) were measured by the caliper device made in Britain. 3-point formula was used in order to determine the amount of body fat of the males (pectoral muscles, triceps and scapular). Systolic blood pressure measurements of subjects were conducted after 10 minutes of relaxing and sitting by the use of digital barometer of Hartmann Tensoval made in Germany. Measurements of cardio-respiratory improvements the Cooper field test was used which was running for 12 minutes. In this test, the subjects ran for 12 minutes and the distance traveled by the subjects was recorded. Then, the cardio-respiratory readiness or maximum oxygen consumption of subjects were recorded in the following formula for the distance traveled by each subject and the rate of their cardio-respiratory amount of readiness was determined (American College of Sports Medicine., 2005). Cardio-respiratory fitness (VO2max) =

Statistical methods All the information obtained from variables being measured was reported as the mean and standard deviation. Pearson and Spearman correlation coefficients were used to determine the relationship between the variables studied. The Korenbakh's Alpha test was used for internal consistency and reliability coefficients. Significant level of analysis was done for all p=0.05 all the calculations were performed using SPSS 15 software. Findings Presenting a definition of the general characteristics of the subjects (mean of age, height and weight) and also the results of statistical analysis of rest, the blood

32 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on

pressure, cardio-respiratory readiness, body fat percentage, waist to hip ratio and body mass index of subjects are presented in Tables 1 and 2. In Table 3, percentile of cardio-respiratory readiness is presented in Table 4, percentile of body fat and Table 5 presents the percentile of waist to hip ratio of subjects with the dangers that put them at risks. Percentiles of percent body fat with the standard of the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) in terms of subjects gender and age, whom amongst them, those above the 90th percentiles are underweight, those between 90 and 70 percentiles, are exposed to the risk of impotence, between 70 and 30 percentiles are at the normal state, between percentiles of 20 to 20 are overweight and less than 10th percentile were rated as obese. The findings of this study showed that 19.1 percent of students have high levels of the socio-economic conditions, 8.5 percent of them are overweight ones. While 16.7

percent of students with very low socio-economic conditions are low-fat and 11.8 percent of them are overweight (Figure no.1). Results of the Pearson correlation test showed a significant and direct relationship between body fat percentile and resting times blood pressure (p=0.001) and a significant inverse relationship with cardio-respiratory readiness (p=0.001). A direct significant relationship was observed between percentile ratio of waist to hip ratio with resting time blood pressure (p=0.001). Also, a significant inverse relationship (p=0.001) between cardiac-respiratory readiness and this ratio were observed (Table 6). On the other hand, Spearmans correlation test results indicated a lack of the significant relationship (p=0.63) between obesity and socioeconomic status of the subjects (Table 7).

Table 1. Describes the general characteristics of subjects Sex

Total Age (years) Height (cm) Weight (kg)

Male 785 1.72 20.83 6.48 174.50 71.11 12.35

Table 2. Description of Variables Item Variables Mean standard deviation

1 Average blood pressure during rest

11.70 115.43

2 Average cardio-respiratory readiness

6.98 36.02

3 Average body fat percentage 6.61 15.49 4 Average body mass index 3.66 23.32 5 Average waist to hip ratio 0.04 0.82

Table 3. Percentile of cardio-respiratory readiness (maximum oxygen consumption) of the

subject Percentile (ml/kg of body weight/min) Total Percentile 10 (34.5) 332 Percentile 20 (37.1) 129 Percentile 30 (39.5) 93 Percentile 40 (41.0) 51 Percentile 50 (42.5) 49 Percentile 60 (44.2) 46

Noura et al 33

Percentile 70 (46.8) 46 Percentile 80 (48.2) 8 Percentile 90 (51.4) 31

Table 4. Percentile of body fat of the subjects Percentile (the percentage of body fat) Total Percentile 10 (25.9) 138 Percentile 20 (22.4) 83 Percentile 30 (19.5) 67

Percentile 40 (17.4) 41

Percentile 50 (15.9) 79

Percentile 60 (14.1) 93

Percentile 70 (11.8) 136

Percentile 80 (9.4) 95 Percentile 90 (7.1) 53

Table 5. Percentile of waist to hip ratio

No. The risks limit 443 Low (0.94)

Table 6. Pearson correlation coefficient between body fat and waist to hip ratio, blood

pressure and at rest times cardio-respiratory readiness Cardio-respiratory readiness

Resting blood pressure Variables

p=0.001* and r=0.19 p=0.001* and r=0.19 Body fat percentage P= 0.001* and r= -0.23 p=0.001* and r =0.19 Waist to Hip Ratio

* A significant relationship between variables in p

34 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on

Figure 1. Frequency of obesity, overweight, normal weight and slimness regarding the

students with higher and lower socio-economic status Discussion Results showed that there is a significant relationship between body fat percentile and blood pressure during resting times. The Results of this study were all in line with the results obtained by Martinez et al (2006). In their study, they found a significant relationship between obesity and risk factors for cardiovascular diseases (Martinez et al., 2006). The blood pressure is produced through the force of blood against the walls of arteries and veins and then, the heart pumps blood to all parts of the body. Hypertension or high blood pressure refers to a situation during which the blood pressure (systolic blood pressure and either both or a diastolic blood pressure), the chronic level is desirable or optimal. This situation occurs when the heart or the ability to pump blood is low or high resistant against the blood vessels. Many factors are involved in this to happen. Body fat increases cholesterol levels and subsequent storage of triglyceride in our body. In the body, the cholesterol is carried by high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein (LDL-C) and very low density lipoprotein (VLDL-C). In fact, LDL-C and VLDL-C, during passage through the blood vessels, are attached to the walls of the arteries and cause narrowing of the

vessels walls and subsequent rise in blood pressure are produced (Moffat et al., 2005). However, sports activities in general, and endurance exercises, in particular, can reduce both the rate and the body fat and thereby, we can witness effects of the subsequent decrease in blood pressure (Moffat et al., 2005). The results also showed a significant inverse relationship between the body fat percentiles with cardio-respiratory readiness. This relationship confirms that while the percentile increases in the body fat, cardio-respiratory readiness is reduced. Cardiovascular readiness which is also called the cardio-respiratory endurance and cardiovascular readiness is defined as the heart's ability to drive a high volume of oxygen-rich blood to the muscles and the muscles subsequently consume more and more oxygen. For this reason, the best indicator in order to evaluate cardiovascular readiness includes the measurement of breathing and the maximal oxygen consumption. Sometimes, the indirect measures such as time and distance and heart rate during exercise in endurance tests or quickly return to heart rate during resting times is applied in order to assess cardio-respiratory fitness (Bouchard., 2000). High cardio-respiratory readiness or fitness will cause

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reduction of LDL-C and VLDL-C, blood pressure, anxiety, depression, mental stress, and also the increased HDL-C, muscular mass, endurance and strength, flexibility and the optimal use of the leisure time ( Martinez et al., 1999). Fats are the dominant metabolism in the long-term and moderate intensity aerobic activities. These types of physical activities can improve cardio-respiratory readiness (American College of Sports Medicine., 2005). The results of this study showed a significant inverse relationship between body fat percentile and cardio-respiratory readiness. These results were in line with the results of Marshall et al (2004). In their studies they stated all the activities planned for the prevention of obesity and body fat as necessary (Marshall et al., 2004). The results of Kyle et al (2001) showed that while age is increased, the weight also increases and this increase in weight in the middle-aged individuals has been due to increasing levels of body fat mass (Kyle et al., 2001). Another study found a significant relationship between the percentiles of waist to hip ratio with blood pressure during rest times. Waist-hip ratio is a comparison between waists circumference to hip circumference. This ratio clearly shows the relative distribution of body weight and probably the body fat in individuals (Lohman et al., 2006). The pattern of body weight as an important predictor of health risks of obesity has been identified. The individuals who have more weight or body circumference are more at the risk hypertension, type II diabetes, high blood fats and coronary artery disease than those whose body weights are moderately distributed (Sobal et al., 1989). Upper body obesity is associated with the increased risk of mortality. An individual with the upper body obesity carries more amount of weight in the upper body part in comparison with the torso and buttocks and he/she has a higher ratio of waist to

hip ratio compared to the lower body obesity (Sobal et al., 1989). One of the indirect effects of increased waist to hip ratio is increasing amount of blood pressure during resting times. As it was previously mentioned in the above paragraph, one of the effects of increased body fat is any increase of the LDL-C and VLDL-C levels in the blood circulation (Metcalf et al., 2007). Studies have shown that LDL can be deposited in artery walls and result in making the blood vessels smaller, and this is accompanied by increasing amounts of the blood pressure which enters into the vessel wall from the direction of blood. Thus, the increased fat around the waist has a direct relationship with the increased blood pressure. In a study conducted by Roland et al (1998) 40 percent of people with high fat around their waist had high blood pressure (Roland et al., 1998). The research results are in line with the results of Metcalf et al (2006). The researchers observed in their study that in individuals with high blood pressure, the waist to hip ratio is high (Metcalf et al., 2006). The results showed a significant inverse relationship between the percentile of waist to hip ratio with the cardio-respiratory readiness. Merchant et al (2007) during 8 years of research conducted about Australian men and women ranging from 15 to 24 years have approved that the individuals with more fat in the lower back area have had lower amount of cardio-respiratory readiness. These researchers concluded that this was one of the most common causes of obesity in women is the lack of regular participation in the physical exercises (Merchant et al., 2007). Arnab Gosh (2006) measured body mass index and waist to hip ratio in 500 men and women in Calcutta, India, the effects of their habits, behavioral patterns and in their socio-economic status with regards to inactivity and obesity and showed that inactivity, and the direct relationship between physical activity and exercise,

36 The Relationship between Obesity and Effective Factors on

and obesity are all inversely related (Arnab Gosh., 2006). Jill (2006) in his study of epidemic of obesity and impact of this on health suggests that reduced physical activity will result in cardio-respiratory readiness and the reduction is one of the main factors affecting the obesity (Jill., 2006). Alicia B. Orden et al (2006) in a study conducted in Argentina, concluded that their lifestyle, eating habits and cardio-respiratory readiness developed by physical exercises have an active role in preventing obesity and excess fat in the waist and creating more weight and putting on weight (Orden et al., 2006). America College of Sports Medicine (2005) in a study entitled as the recommendations for exercise testing has shown that physical activity results in the health of women and men in all age groups and some of the advantages of physical activity include: increased muscle strength, increased ability of the cardiovascular system, the decreased blood pressure, improvement of the bloods lipid levels, reduced body fat and reduction of the incidence of type II of diabetes (America College of Sports Medicine., 2005). The findings of this study indicate that there is no significant relationship between obesity and socio-economic status. In developed industrial societies, obesity is related to the low socio-economic status. Strong evidence for this has been demonstrated in the United States (Powell et al., 2007, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services., 2008, Zhang et al., 2007, LaFontaine., 2008), Australia (Sobal et al., 1989), China (Woo et al., 1999), Finland (Neuvonen et al., 2007), France (Lioret et al., 2007), Great Britain (Prentice et al., 1995), Italy (Cota et al., 2001), New Zealand (Metcalf et al., 2007), Northern Ireland (Sobal et al., 1989), Scotland (Lohman et al., 2006) and Spain (Simmons et al., 2008). Several cases including education, income, the socio-economic status and less physical activity, poor nutrition and socio-psychological factors are effective elements for obesity.

Obesity in people with low socio-economic status is more prevalent because of low levels of awareness regarding the ways to stay healthy, stronger belief in the effect of having chances on health and lower levels of life expectancy (Moffat et al., 2005, Irala-Estevez et al., 2000, Swallen et al., 2005). The rate of obesity in some parts of the community with a better socio-economic status is more in developing countries. Some evidences exist in Brazil, Jordan, and Madagascar (Stunkard et al., 2003). It has been suggested that the increase in obesity can be used in different parts of the community in order to explain the state of its development, because simultaneous with an increase in GDP of a country, the obesity will be transferred toward a part or the society with lower socio-economic status (Stunkard et al., 2003). The findings of this study showed that there are no significant relationships between obesity and socio-economic status. As mentioned in the above sentences, many factors can increase both the body fat and obesity; in fact, it can be stated that the subjects of this study may have different physical activities and sports activities, and this difference could affect the relationship between obesity and the socio-economic status. In addition, the amount of calories gained through a nutrition diet is one of the other variables involved that can affect the relationship between the anticipating variables (socio-economic status) and the criteria (obesity) in this study (American College of Sports Medicine., 2005). Brown et al (2009) in their study state that the prevalence of obesity is lower in Asian Americans populations because of consuming low-calorie foods and it has no significant relationship with social- economic status (Brown et al., 2009). Therefore, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2009) in its research, states that the risk of obesity and being overweight is affected by the environmental factors, dietary habits and physical activity of the individuals as well

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as being affected by the environmental factors. Conclusion The study results showed that there are no significant relationship between the obesity and the socio-economic status. The prevalence of obesity in Fars Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Department was high compared with developing countries and this should be considered a serious problem and public health strategies should be applied in order to mitigate the negative attitudes towards physical activity and to reduce television watching and to promote a vast range of physical activities in order to increase the levels of education, participation in physical activity and other healthy behaviors. Given that universities have less physical sports activities, our students are used to the bad habit of lack of physical exercise and also being inactive in universities and this habit still exists at home after graduating and they use most of their time for doing sedentary activities or to rest. Emphasis put on preventing from home-based programs is highly crucial to reduce obesity in groups of socio-economic conditions diversity. The findings of this study concluded that both elements of obesity and overweight have direct relationship with cardiovascular risk factors, while the maximum oxygen consumption or VO2max as the most important indicator of cardio-respiratory readiness affected by physical exercise both are inversely related. It is recommended that the sports activities in leisure time should be considered as important tasks and in line with the increase of spaces and sports facilities, appropriate facilities should be provided for all the students in order to engage in sports activities. Otherwise, we will observe the prevalence of obesity and reduced health at the cardiovascular level among the students. Acknowledgments

In view of the fact that this study was conducted in Islamic Azad University, Fars Science and Research Branch, as a research project entitled "comparison of obesity, physical activity and cardio-respiratory readiness with the approach of socio-economic statuses of both male and female students of Islamic Azad University, Fars Science and Research Branch", hereby we appreciate and express our acknowledgements regarding the financial supports and the efforts of the Deputy of University Research who helped the authors involved in this study. References: Alicia, B., Oyhenart , E., 2006, Prevalence

of Overweight and Obesity Among Guaran -Mbya From Misiones, Argentina American Journal of Human Biology; 18:590599.

American College of Sports Medicine, 2005, ACSMs Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription Baltimore, MD: Lippincott, Williams and Wilkins .

Arnab, Ghosh., 2006, Effects of Socio-Economic and Behavioral Characteristics in Explaining Central Obesity A Study on Adult Asian Indians in Calcutta, India. Coll. Antropol.; 30(2):265271.

Bouchard, C., 2000, Physical activi