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Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, PhD [email protected]

Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

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Page 1: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Research Methods in

Clinical Psychology

Arlene Vetere, PhD

[email protected]

Page 2: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Your Relationship to Research

What is your experience of research?

What are your beliefs about research?

What is the role of research in systemic

clinical psychology practice?

Think of some research that has had an

impact on you, and why?

Discuss what criteria you used to judge the

usefulness of the research

Page 3: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Qualitative Research

Focus on understanding – meanings underlying

behaviour

Emphasis on description versus general, causal

explanations

Focus on participants’ representations of reality

Emphasis on subjectivity – recognition of

uniqueness of individuals and experience

Focus on small number of participants; data as

text, transcript, diaries, observation

Page 4: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Qualitative Research (cont’d)

Experience and behaviour should be viewed in

context and in its full complexity

Scientific process as generating “working

hypotheses” (compare with clinical practice)

Theorising as based upon emergence of

concepts versus imposition of prior theory

Variability of meanings over time and context

Close relationship between researcher and

participant

Page 5: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Criteria for Qualitative Research

Accessible – language, diagrams, presentation

Interesting and inspiring

Report draws reader in, fosters a sense of involvement

Reflective – shows evidence of self-appraisal:

1. On methods employed, findings, consideration of alternative methods, alternative interpretations possible

2. Reflections on researcher’s own stance, assumptions and possible biases

3. Context – indications of reflections on a variety of factors influencing the study and interpretation – prestige, constraints, demands, and so on

Page 6: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Criteria for Qualitative Research

(cont’d)

Participant’s voice – not just researcher’s

account but able to hear what participants

have to say

Collaborative – evidence that participants

were actively involved in the research

process, including initial consultation to the

research question

Page 7: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Reflexivity

Expectation that the researcher will make

explicit their ‘speaking position’ – their

interpretative framework

Expectation that they will reflect on this – in

supervision, with peers, in a research diary, in

a self-reflexive interview

What aspects of the researcher’s

interpretative framework have influenced the

research process and outcomes?

Page 8: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Self-reflexive Activity

Please reflect on the thoughts and feelings

you have had over the last few minutes in

relation to the material presented so far, and

the way in which it was presented….

Turn to your neighbour and reflect together

on how these responses can ‘get into’

research activity ie shaping the questions we

ask, how we ask them, how we meet

people….

Page 9: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Reflexivity: relevance to dissertation assessment

Position statement and personal reflections – the

outcome of the research analysis represents a dynamic

interaction between the researcher, participants and the

data, including the researcher’s interpretative

framework. What did you bring to the analysis? What

personal investment do you have in the topic? How

might they have shaped the way you interpreted the

data? Reflection on your emotional responses to the

data and to accounts from individual participants.

Reflect on the group analytic process. How have you

been affected by doing the research?

Page 10: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Quantitative cf Qualitative Research

Structured data vs unstructured data

Random sampling vs purposive/theoretical

sampling

Statistical analyses vs conceptual syntheses

Objective conclusions vs subjective

conclusions

Surveys, experiments vs focus groups,

interviews, observations

Generalisation to population vs generalisation

to theory

Page 11: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Critical Appraisal of Qualitative

Methods

Difficult to generalise

Lack of prescribed methods

Premature closure of text to further analysis

Focus on text loses performative aspects of language

Representativeness of research: sampling

Create new ‘truths’ or no ‘truths’

Weaker positioning for subjective methodologies

Repeatability and reliability issues

Page 12: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Qualitative Research Methodologies

Grounded Theory

Discourse Analysis

Rhetorical Analysis

Narrative Analysis

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis

Conversational Analysis

Ethnography

Focus Groups & Delphi Study

Action Research & Participative Research

Mixed Methods

Page 13: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Genres of Psychotherapy Process

Research

Types of Question and Appropriate Methods:

1. Quantification

How frequent is a type of event? To what

degree or intensity is a property generally

present in therapy? What is typical?

Descriptive quantitative methods: surveys,

rating scales, category systems, descriptive

statistics

Quantification

Page 14: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Comparison:

Does a type of therapy, event, or phase of therapy have

more of something than another type, event or phase?

Which therapy is better for this disorder?

Quantitative experimental and quasi-experimental

designs: inferential statistics, RCTs, meta-analysis of

comparisons

Page 15: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Relationship

Which aspects of therapy vary together? What types of

event typically precede or follow another? What

predicts therapy process and outcome?

Bivariate and multivariate correlational methods;

sequential analysis; prediction research, path

analysis, meta-analyses of relational research

Page 16: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Method Quality

How well (reliably, validly) can an aspect or

event be measured by means of a particular

process or outcome measure?

Psychometric or measure development

research

Page 17: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Definition

What is the nature of a particular therapeutic

phenomenon? What defines or constitutes it?

Phenomenological research (IPA, theme

analysis), grounded theory, ethnographic

research

Page 18: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Description

What kinds of events or aspects exist in

therapy? What features, types or patterns do

these events or aspects have?

Naturalistic qualitative research (participant

observation), grounded theory, ethnography,

quantitative content, cluster, interaction

analysis

Page 19: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Interpretation

What is the meaning of a therapeutic event or

process? Why did it happen? How did it

develop?

Interpretative research (IPA), narrative case

study research, comprehensive process

analysis, task analysis, discourse analysis

Page 20: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Critique/Action

What is wrong with how things are now? How

could it be made better?

Feminist research, participant action research

Page 21: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Types of Question (cont’d)

Deconstruction

What implicit assumptions are made in this

research? Whose interests are served or

ignored?

Conceptual analysis, self-reflection, systematic

analysis and critique of typical practice,

discourse analysis, rhetorical analysis

Page 22: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Honing the Research Question

Think of a process moment in your practice

Develop a research question to explore it

further

What do you want to understand?

What would you learn?

How would it change your practice?

How would it benefit your client/s?

Page 23: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

IPA: Theoretical Underpinnings

Phenomenology: explores in detail individual

personal and lived experience

Hermeneutics: a two-way interpretative

process – the double hermeneutic –

similarities and patterns

Idiography: analysis begins with a detailed

reading of a single case

Page 24: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

IPA: Epistemological Position

Constructionist position

Focus on individual’s beliefs and experiences of topic

under study

The approach is phenomenological (ie how

individuals make sense of events or experiences

associated with topic under study)

(www.ipa.bbk.ac.uk)

Page 25: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

IPA: Epistemological Position

The meaning that individuals give to events or

personal experiences becomes the focus of the study

The generation of meaning is an interpretative

process for both the individual and the researcher –

what might it mean for participants to have these

concerns in this context?

Language and context shape an individual’s

response to his or her understanding of events, or

personal experiences

Page 26: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

IPA Analysis: Looking for Themes

Number the lines of the interview transcript, leave

wide margins and use double/triple spacing

Read the interview transcript many times, using right

side margin to note anything of interest (meaning and

context, and your responses to the text –

interpretative activity)

Use left side margin to annotate key words and

quotations for emergent themes (claims, concerns

and understandings – linguistic, descriptive and

conceptual: trying to represent your participants’

perspectives/experiences)

Page 27: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

IPA Analysis: Looking for Themes

List all these emergent themes on a separate sheet and look for

connections, using your right side margin notes to help -

numeration, abstraction, function, contextualisation, polarisation

Make clusters of the emergent themes and give these sub-

themes a new name, etc. Do this first for each interview,

subsequently across all interviews

Then cluster the sub-themes into super-ordinate themes – give

them a name

Produce a table of themes ordered coherently: indicate where

sub-themes lie under super-ordinate/master-themes; indicate

where examples (quotations) can be found in the transcript

Page 28: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Theme Analysis: Practical

considerations

Development of semi-structured interview

Relationship between research interview and

therapeutic interview

Transcription and editing – para-lingusitic information

An ‘embarrassment’ of data

Take it slowly – risks of abstracting too quickly – strip

the data of meaning

Self-reflexivity – use right side margin notes to aid the

clustering process and development of themes

Interviewing more than one person – focus groups

Page 29: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Uses of IPA Research

Understand the experiences of particular groups of

people

Develop and evaluate services, therapeutic

interventions, and so on

Interpret the associative findings from conventional

quantitative research

Situate and understand people in their socio-cultural

contexts

Evaluate and reflect upon the role played by

therapeutic, institutional and legislative cultures

Re-evaluate existing theory

Page 30: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

What is Thematic Analysis?

What counts as a theme?

A rich description of the data set, or a detailed

account of one particular aspect?

Inductive (bottom-up) versus theoretical

(deductive/top-down) thematic analysis?

Semantic or latent themes?

Epistemology: essentialist/realist versus

constructionist thematic analysis?

The many questions of qualitative research and their

inter-relationships?

Page 31: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Phases of Thematic Analysis

Familiarise yourself with your data: transcribing,

reading and re-reading, noting initial ideas

Generating initial codes: coding interesting features

of the data in a systemic way across all the data,

collating data relevant to each code

Searching for themes: Collating codes into potential

themes, gathering all data relevant for each potential

theme

Reviewing themes: checking if themes work in

relation to the coded extracts and the entire data set,

generating a thematic ‘map’ of the analysis

Page 32: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Phases of Thematic Analysis

Defining and naming themes: ongoing analysis to

refine the specifics of each theme, and the overall

story the analysis tells, generating clear definitions

and names for each theme

Producing the report: the final opportunity for

analysis. Selection of vivid, compelling extract

examples, final analysis of selected extracts, relating

back from the analysis to the research question/s and

the relevant theoretical and research literature,

producing a scholarly report of the analysis

Braun and Clarke, 2005

Page 33: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Grounded Theory

Simultaneous involvement in data collection

and analysis phase of the work

Creation of analytic codes and categories

developed from the data, not preconceived

hypotheses (creating categories early in the

research shapes subsequent data collection;

categories reflect interaction between

observer and observed)

The development of middle range theories to

explain behaviour and processes

Page 34: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Grounded Theory (cont’d)

Memo-making ie writing analytic notes to

explicate and fill out categories

Theoretical sampling ie sampling for theory

construction, to check and refine emerging

categories, disconfirmation

Delay of the literature review

Page 35: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Grounded Theory: line-by-line coding

What is going on?

What are people doing?

What is the person saying?

What do these actions and statements take

for granted?

How do structure and context serve to

support, maintain, impede or change these

actions and statements?

Page 36: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Activity: What is Discourse?

Think of a time in your childhood, and

Think of now……

What discourses about health and well being

were current then and now?

How have they changed?

What has changed?

Page 37: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

DISCOURSE: A Definition

DISCOURSE - constellation of shared ideas/beliefs (explicit or implicit) which map out how areas of experience are to be seen and what is to be done

DOMINANT DISCOURSES - any given culture and parts of it contain dominant shared assumptions or discourses e.g. discourse of ‘mental illness’

Page 38: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Discourse Analysis: basic tenets

Language is seen as constitutive

People struggle in language over the nature

of events

People use language to construct versions of

the social world

Discourses are the constructs, often derived

from wider social and cultural repertoires,

used to present accounts

Some discourses more dominant in society

than others

Page 39: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysts ask particular kinds of questions

about language:

What action does this piece of talk perform?

What accounts are individuals trying to construct in

interaction with each other?

How do these accounts change as contexts change?

What are the limitations and consequences of the

discourses that individuals use?

Page 40: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Activity: Text Extract

With a colleague, ‘free associate’ to the

text

Reflexivity: ask yourself – why am I

reading this text this way?

What do you think is the ‘function

orientation’ of the text?

How is the text organised rhetorically?

Page 41: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Steps in Discourse Analysis

Selection of text: selection of themes;

selection of dialogue – both content and form

Analysis: construction; variability; function

Maintaining self-reflexivity

Page 42: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Rhetorical Analysis

Focus on action rather than cognition

Conversation as argument – justification and

criticism

Issues of accountability and agency

Page 43: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Rhetorical Analysis (cont’d)

“unhappy incidents”

Recipient design

Use of “facts”

Extreme case formulation

Use of vagueness

Category entitlement

Use of common sense maxims

Page 44: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Rhetorical Analysis:

Questions to ask of the extract

How do the identified discourses position

Jim/May in the interaction, and how does

he/she position themselves in relation to

them?

How are ‘worry’ discourses (interpretive

repertoires) promoted/undermined?

How are blame and responsibility dealt with?

What alternative versions are being

constructed in the text?

Page 45: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

NARRATIVES: Some definitions

LANGUAGE AS ACTIVE - language is used actively, strategically to persuade, influence, justify - present oneself in preferred ways

DOMINANT DISCOURSES - any given culture and parts of it contain dominant shared assumptions or discourses e.g. discourse of ‘mental illness’

DISCOURSE - constellation of shared ideas/beliefs (explicit or implicit) which map out how areas of experience are to be seen and what is to be done

NARRATIVES/STORIES – they help organise, make sense of, give coherence to experiences over time; they connect the past, present and future

Page 46: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

NARRATIVES: Some Definitions (cont’d)

SELF - distributed, fragmented across different contexts - questions idea of a unitary self or personality

POWER - dominant groups in any given culture have the power to produce and maintain/reproduce dominant culturally shared ideas – discourses

PROBLEM-SATURATED TALK - ways of talking about difficulties can shape problematic systems

Page 47: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

Assumptions: Self narrations are both constructions and claims of identity

Types: Life story method; sequence of core narratives; emplotment and genres; poetic and metaphor approach

Identifying the narrative: look for markers eg “I’ll give you an example…”,

or, through its structure eg act (what), scene

(where/when), agent (who), agency (how),

purpose (why)

The story: agent uses instrument to take action to achieve goals

“There is no other way for us to describe lived time other than through narrative” (Ricoeur, 1984)

Page 48: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

NARRATIVE as PERFORMANCE

Relationship between the teller and the listener

Power – who asks the questions and for what purpose?

Intentions of the story teller – to convince, justify, explain, persuade, amuse and so on

Co- construction – prompting, editing, encouraging, validating, disagreeing and so on

Connecting with shared stories – cultural, literary, religious and so on

Page 49: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Narratives can be seen to vary on a number

of important dimensions….

ELABORATIVE vs. CONSTRICTIVE/pre-emptive

e.g. you are always selfish and everything you do is...

FRAGMENTED vs. COHERENT

e.g. well I suppose my mother was... sort of kind... but she did let me down a lot and... at the end of the day she was OK but I don’t really care anyway, I’ve kind of forgotten about it...

REFLEXIVE vs. CONCRETE

e.g. I have no idea why she used to hit me, she’s just a cruel personality I suppose

CONSTELLATORY vs. DIFFERENTIATED

e.g. he stole some money and he just couldn’t be trusted with anything, I think he would let his friends down, even his family, he had no respect for anything...

Page 50: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

NARRATIVE ANALYSIS: Interpretative decisions

Its co-construction

Its cultural context

What problems it solves for the narrator

Psychological processes – change processes

Narrative as performance: look at positioning of self and others (links with discourse analysis)

Its intended purpose: why is it being told in this way? Here? Now?

Turning points

Page 51: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

NARRATIVE ANALYSIS: Life Story Method

Accounts are constructed/translated by the analyst from the text

Plot-lines are contrasted across the interviews

Particular attention is paid to points where expected story-lines are disrupted

Stories of restitution or reparation; chaotic or frozen stories

Page 52: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

NARRATIVE ANALYSIS

Life Story Method and Sequence of Core Narratives:

Examination in relation to structure, style, content and form

Plot lines are contrasted across the interviews

Thematic connections between narratives within interviews

Emplotment and Genres:

Influenced by Ricoeur’s narrative theory ‘canonical narrative forms’

What cultural genres are drawn on by the person to present their self account eg The Quest, as a form of agency

Page 53: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

ATTACHMENT REPRESENTATIONS:

The layers of attachment

PROCEDURAL MEMORY: memory for how we do things: embodied,

rate of talk, expressed affect, relationship with interviewer – cf.

systemic patterns / process (R)

SENSORY MEMORY: visual images, smell, touch, auditory (R)

SEMANTIC MEMORY: cognition, beliefs, attitudes (L)

EPISODIC MEMORY: narratives, stories, inter-connected

experiences (L and R )

INTEGRATIVE MEMORY: reflection, meta-cognition, on-going

monitoring of our speech and thought.. (L and R)

Right Brain – Implicit Left Brain - Explicit

Page 54: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

ACTIVITY: Transcript process analysis

Structure – how well ordered is the interview, relationship with interviewer?

Imagery – what visual, sensory material is there?

Semantic – what are the concepts, generalisations about relationships made?

Episodes – what are the stories told, how coherent are these?

Integration – how is material from the above brought together, what evidence is there of insight, reflection on self and others

Engagement and therapy: How would you position yourself, approach, think about, feel about, fantasise about starting to work with this person?

Page 55: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Focus Group Analysis (IPA)

Concerns and experiential claims: summarise

and sort into emergent patterns

Positionality: perspectives and stance

Roles and relationships: references to other

people

Organisations and systems: how are they

described?

Stories: structure, genre, temporal reference,

imagery and tone

Page 56: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Focus Group Analysis (IPA)

Language use: metaphor, idiom, euphemism,

pattern, context and function

Return to emergent themes: what

experiences are being shared? How are they

making things meaningful? What are they

doing as a group? Consensus issues?

Conflict? How managed/resolved?

Integration of multiple focus groups:

commonalities and differences, connection to

theories and explanations

Page 57: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Evidence Based Practice:

Hierarchies of evidence Level 1: Single RCT or meta-analysis of RCTS

Level 2a: At least one well designed controlled study without

randomisation

Level 2b: At least one other well designed quasi-experimental

study

Level 3: Evidence obtained from well designed non-

experimental descriptive studies, eg case studies, correlation

studies

Level 4: Expert committee reports or opinions and/or clinical

experiences of respected authorities

Page 58: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Participant Observation Methodologies

Participant observation as a continuum of roles:

The complete participant

The participant as observer

The observer as participant

The complete observer

Ethics and involvement

Reactivity and demand characteristics

Social facilitation

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Approaches to Structured Observation

Elliott’s (1991) Five Stage Process of Decision-Making

Stage One: Perspective of the observation study

1. Is researcher a trained observer eg in use of reliable coding scheme?

2. Or an expert participant eg a psychotherapist or supervisor?

3. Or an index participant with expertise eg psychotherapy client or supervisee?

Page 60: Research Methods in Clinical Psychology - unibg.it. Research methods.pdf · Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Arlene Vetere, ... usefulness of the research . ... (creating categories

Approaches to Structured Observation

Stage Two: Focus of the observation

Which element of the behavioural process is studied:

Is it the client or client system?

The psychotherapist or their agency?

Or the rated quality of their relationship? (interaction of participants)

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Approaches to Structured Observation

Stage Three: What kind of behaviour or process variables are to be studied?

Content, or what is said, meant or expressed (as ideas or themes)

Action/intention (behaviours, tasks, response modes)

Style, or how it is done, said or expressed (duration, frequency, intensity, mood, para-linguistic, non-verbal behaviour)

Quality, or how well it is done, said or expressed (accuracy, skilfulness, appropriateness)

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Approaches to Structured Observation

Stage Four: Selected useful units of study

Idea unit (sentence, single expressed idea)

Interaction unit (a speaking turn, a response to the other)

Topic or task unit (episode, series of actions or speaking turns)

Scene unit or occasion (eg time limited interaction)

Interpersonal unit (relationship between two people)

Institution unit, or organisation, system of relationships

Person (self history, sets of beliefs, organisational involvement)

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Approaches to Structured Observation

Stage Five: Sequential phase, what happened before, during, after the unit of process

Context or antecedents, what led up to the process eg previous behaviours, speaking turns

Process or behaviours eg particular process observed at given level or unit

Effects or consequences, eg psychotherapy outcomes

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Comprehensive Process Analysis

CPA (Elliott, 1989) was developed to analyse both

individual events and themes across events, focusing

on four areas of understanding:

Expanding key or peak responses in an event eg

exploring implied meanings within a response

The context out of which the event arises, and that

gives it meaning, eg what had been happening before

or after the event, nature of the therapeutic alliance,

background features of client and therapist, client’s

preferred ways of coping, cultural attunement of the

therapy,......

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Comprehensive Process Analysis

Important features of the event, eg therapist action,

interpretation and style, and client expression of

thoughts and feelings

Impacts of the event eg understanding, changes in

mood and beliefs, anticipated changes, etc

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Helpful Aspects of Therapy/Supervision

Questionnaire

Immediately following a therapy or supervision

session, identify one helpful event, and rate it 1-5 on

a Likert scale (least to most helpful)

Write a brief description of the helpful event, and say

why it was helpful

Identify one unhelpful event and rate it 1-5

Write a brief description of the unhelpful event and

say why it was unhelpful

Rate the overall helpfulness of the session, 1-5, least

to most helpful

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Helpful Aspects of Therapy/Supervision

Questionnaire (cont’d)

Again, using 5 point scales, each event can

be rated on the following nine areas:

Personal insight

Problem clarification

Problem solution

Understanding about others

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Helpful Aspects of Therapy/Supervision

Questionnaire (cont’d)

Increase in understanding

Reassurance

Sense of relief

Involvement in the therapy/supervision

Personal contact with the therapist/supervisor

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Publishability Guidelines: Quantitative &

Qualitative Research

Explicit scientific context and purpose

Appropriate methods

Respect for participants

Specification of methods

Appropriate discussion

Clarity of presentation

Contribution to knowledge

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Publishability Guidelines: Qualitative

Research

Owning one’s perspective

Situating the sample

Grounding in examples

Providing credibility checks

Coherence

Accomplishing general vs specific research

tasks

Resonating with readers

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“Trustworthiness” Criteria for a

Qualitative Research Dissertation

Rationale for the research question

Methodology

Persuasiveness

Reflexivity

Coherence

Relevance/pragmatic use

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Respondent validation

Face/Ecological validity

Concurrent/contextual validity

Triangulation

Independent audit

Presentation of evidence/rhetorical power

Internal coherence

Transparency and reflexivity

Generativity

Validation/Credibility Checks

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Sensitivity to context:

Relevant theoretical and empirical

literature

Socio-cultural setting

Participants’ perspectives

Ethical issues

Empirical data

Yardley, 2000

Validation/Credibility Checks

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Commitment and rigour:

Thorough data collection

Depth/breadth of analysis

Methodological competence/skill

In-depth engagement with topic

Yardley, 2000

Validation/Credibility Checks

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Transparency and coherence:

Clarity and power of your argument

Fit between theory and method

Transparent methods and data

presentation

reflexivity

Yardley, 2000

Validation/Credibility Checks

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Impact and importance:

Practical/applied

Theoretical

Socio-cultural

Further research

Yardley, 2000

Validation/Credibility Checks

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A few references….

Braun V and Clarke V (2013) Successful Qualitative Research: A practical guide for beginners. London: Sage

Bryman A (2006) Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: how is it done? Qualitative Research, 6, 97-113

Bryman A (2007) Barriers to integrating qualitative and quantitative research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 8-22

Burck C (2005) Comparing qualitative research methodologies for systemic research: the use of grounded theory, discourse analysis, and narrative analysis. Journal of Family Therapy, 27, 237-62

Dallos R and Vetere A (2005) Researching Psychotherapy and Counselling. McGraw Hill/Open University Press

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A few more references….

Harper, D and Thompson A (2012) (Eds)Qualitative Research Methods in Mental Health and Psychotherapy. Chichester: Wiley Blackwell

Lyons E and Coyle A (2007) Analyzing Qualitative Data in Psychology. London: Sage

Robson C (2011) Real World Research. Third Edition. Oxford: Blackwell

Smith J (2008) Qualitative Psychology: A practical guide to research methods. Second Edition. London: Sage

Smith J, Flowers P and Larkin M (2009) Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: Theory, method and research. London: Sage