RESEARCH Open Access

Qualitative and quantitative ethnobotanicalstudy of the Pangkhua community inBilaichari Upazilla, Rangamati District,BangladeshMohammad Omar Faruque1,2,3,4†, Gang Feng5†, Md Nurul Amin Khan6, James W. Barlow7, Umme Ruman Ankhi1,Sheng Hu8, M. Kamaruzzaman9, Shaikh Bokhtear Uddin1* and Xuebo Hu2,3,4*

Abstract

Background: The present study documents the ethnomedicinal knowledge among the traditional healers of thePangkhua indigenous community of Bangladesh. The documented data from this area was quantitatively analyzedfor the first time. We aimed to record ethnomedicinal information from both the traditional healers and also theelderly men and women of the community, in order to compile and document all available information concerningplant use and preserve it for the coming generations. We aimed to compare how already known species are usedcompared to elsewhere and particularly to highlight new ethnomedicinal plant species alongside their therapeuticuse(s).

Methods: All ethnomedicinal information was collected following established techniques. Open-ended and semi-structured techniques were primarily utilized. Data was analyzed using different quantitative indices. The level ofhomogeneity between information provided by different informants was calculated using the Informant ConsensusFactor. All recorded plant species are presented in tabular format, alongside corresponding ethnomedicinal usageinformation.

(Continued on next page)

* Correspondence: bokhtear@cu.ac.bd; roben68@gmail.com;xuebohu@mail.hzau.edu†Mohammad Omar Faruque and Gang Feng contributed equally to thiswork.1Ethnobotany and Pharmacognosy Lab, Department of Botany, University ofChittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh2Laboratory of Drug Discovery and Molecular Engineering, Department ofMedicinal Plants, College of Plant Science and Technology, HuazhongAgricultural University, Wuhan 430070, ChinaFull list of author information is available at the end of the article

© The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andreproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link tothe Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-019-0287-2

(Continued from previous page)

Results: This investigation revealed the traditional use of 117 plant species, distributed among 104 genera andbelonging to 54 families. There was strong agreement among the informants regarding ethnomedicinal uses ofplants, with Factor of Informant Consensus (FIC) values ranging from 0.50 to 0.66, with the highest number ofspecies (49) being used for the treatment of digestive system disorders (FIC 0.66). In contrast, the least agreement(FIC = 0.50) between informants regarding therapeutic uses was observed for plants used to treat urinary disorders.The present study was compared with 43 prior ethnomedicinal studies, conducted both nationally and inneighboring countries, and the results revealed that the Jaccard index (JI) ranged from 1.65 to 33.00. The highestdegree of similarity (33.00) was found with another study conducted in Bangladesh, while the lowest degree ofsimilarity (1.65) was found with a study conducted in Pakistan. This study recorded 12 new ethnomedicinal plantspecies, of which 6 have never been studied pharmacologically to date.

Conclusions: This study showed that the Pangkhua community still depends substantially on ethnomedicinalplants for the treatment of various ailments and diseases and that several of these plants are used in novel ways orrepresented their first instances of use for medicinal applications.

Keywords: Indigenous community, Traditional healer, Ethnomedicine, Ethnobotany, Bangladesh

BackgroundTraditional herbal medicine in Bangladesh has strongcultural and religious foundations. It manifests in differ-ent ways among indigenous groups in their ritual orceremonial practices, spiritual practices, and self-healingpractices. Indigenous communities have utilized thislocal knowledge for centuries to cure different diseases.Reportedly, more than 80% of the Bangladeshi usenon-allopathic medicines (Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, andhomeopathy) for their healthcare, with herbs constitut-ing a major ingredient of these alternative systems ofmedicine [1]. Bangladesh is a country that is consideredrich in medicinal plant genetic resources, by virtue of itsfavorable agroclimatic conditions and seasonal diversity.With productive soils and a tropical climate, more than5000 angiospermic plant species have been recorded inthe country [2], of which about 250 have documenteduse in traditional medicine systems [3]. About 75% ofthe country’s total population lives in rural areas, and al-most 80% is dependent on natural resources (e.g., medi-cinal plants) for their primary healthcare needs [4].Rural/indigenous peoples are capable of identifyingmany species of plants yielding various products, includ-ing food, firewood, medicine, forage, and tools for dailyneeds. With such a high demand for herbal medicines,the medicinal plant sector has been cited as the mostpromising business sector in Bangladesh [5], with morethan 500 companies producing herbal medicines, yetdespite the biodiversity described above, more than 90%of the plants and products needed to meet domestic de-mands are imported from other countries, such as India,Nepal, and Pakistan.Many indigenous Bangladeshi live in deep forest zones.

They include those people living within the three

Chittagong Hill Tract districts (CHTs) of south-easternBangladesh, within which there are 12 indigenous com-munities [6]. The smallest of these communities is thePangkhua, who dwell in the remote Pangkhua paras, anisolated part of the Bilaichari Upazilla of the RangamatiCHT. In the wet season, the only way to reach Pangkhuaparas is by motorboat, taking 6 h, while in the dry sea-son it takes more than 8 h on foot. Like other remotecommunities, the Pangkhua have their own distinct trad-itional healthcare system and practices. In fact, the near-est conventional medicine facility is in BelaichariUpazilla sadar, the only Government health facilitynearby (about 15 km), with basic health facilities. Ser-vices there are provided by two medical practitionersalongside three paramedics. The Pangkhua people thushave inadequate access to modern treatments, and inany case, allopathic medicine is largely unaffordable tothem. Traditional medicinal knowledge, on the otherhand, is orally transmitted from one generation to thenext. Typically, every elderly man and woman of thecommunity can prepare herbal formulations for thetreatment of common ailments, such as fever, cough,cold, dysentery, diarrhea, and gastritis. Typically, theyvisit professional healers only when they suffer frommore serious symptoms or conditions, such as jaundice,cholera, malaria, or cancers. The headmen (karbari) ofeach village also act as professional healers. In fact, manyPangkhua believe that they lose their community spirit ifthey receive allopathic care. Local government has hadto enforce modern treatment in instances of contagiousdisease.Several studies on ethnomedicinal plants of Bangladesh

have been conducted in the past, and comprehensiveworks have already been published [7–13]. However, few

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 2 of 29

studies focus on the Rangamati district [10, 14, 15]with almost nothing on the Pangkhua indigenous com-munity. With this in mind, the Pangkhua indigenouscommunity was selected for the present study, as theirethnomedicinal practices have not been thoroughlyinvestigated to date. It was important to ascertain whoamong them represent the custodians of such know-ledge and to document their uses of medicinal plants.To the best of our knowledge, this is the pioneerquantitative documentation of medicinal plants in thestudied area.

MethodsStudy areaThe present study was carried out in the Pangkhua areas ofthe Belaichhari Upazila within the Rangamati District (Fig. 1).This district is part of the Chittagong division and

Chittagong Hill Tracts. Belaichhari thana (now anupazila) was established in 1976. It consists of 3 Unionparishads, 9 mouzas and 30 villages. The BelaichhariUpazila is situated approximately between 20° 50′ and22° 35′ N latitude and between 90° 38′ and 92° 17′ Elongitude. The Rainkhiang is the main river of the upa-zilla. The district lies in the south-east of Bangladeshand has a tropical monsoon climate. There are threemain seasons: the dry season (November to March),which is sunny and dry; the pre-monsoon (April toMay), which is very hot and sunny with occasionalshowers; and the rainy season (June to October), which iswarm, cloudy, and wet. Temperatures of the BelaichhariUpazila are moderate, with a mean monthly averagetemperature in Rangamati of 25.8 °C and annual monthlyaverage temperatures ranging from 13.4 to 34.6 °C. Themean annual rainfall is 2865.4mm, with mean monthly

Fig. 1 A map of the studied area [16]

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 3 of 29

maxima and minima of 679mm (July) and 7.4mm(January), respectively [16].

Methods of studyThe success of ethnobotanical documentation depends onthe cooperative relationship between the researcher andlocal informant. Knowledgeable informants are very im-portant for the study of ethnobotany [17, 18]. Various tech-niques are recommended for ethnobotanical studies,including (i) direct or participant observation, (ii) checklistinterview, (iii) group interview, (iv) field interview, (v) plantinterview, and (vi) market survey [19, 20]. All of these tech-niques were followed in this study except the use of check-list interviews. The interview is a dynamic processinvolving spoken interactions between two or more people.In general, open-ended and semi-structured techniqueswere followed. Initial contacts are very important to under-stand an area and its people. Initial contacts were madewith headmen, teachers, and students within the area to se-lect informants. Upon identification of informants, if neces-sary, interpreters were also appointed. Ethnobotanicalinformation regarding the usage of medicinal plants avail-able in the local area for treating various ailments and dis-eases was collected through direct interviewing oftraditional healers and other informants possessing trad-itional knowledge about medicinal plants. During the inter-views, information was noted using data documentationsheets; in addition, audio recording was performed with adigital voice recorder. Contact in the field was conductedover a total of 43 days, in different seasons, with interviewsconducted in the Chittagonian language, accompanied by alocal student (Bathue Pankhua) and with consultancy witha local doctor (Dr. Mizanur Rahman).

Quantitative analysisTo analyze the data, we adopted the following quantita-tive ethnobotanical techniques:

Factor of informant consensus (FIC)The level of homogeneity between information providedby different informants was calculated using the factorof informant consensus (FIC) [21, 22]. It is calculated asFIC = Nur – Nt/(Nur – 1), where Nur is the number ofuse reports from informants for a particular plant-usecategory and Nt is the number of taxa or species associ-ated with that plant-use category across all informants.FIC values range between 0 and 1, with FIC = 1 indicat-ing the highest level of informant consensus. A highvalue (close to 1) indicates that relatively few taxa (or,more usually, species) are used by a large proportion ofinformants, while a low value indicates that informantsdiffer on the taxa to be used in treatment within a cat-egory of illness. Therefore, if informants use few taxa,

then a high degree of consensus is reached and medi-cinal tradition is thus viewed as well-defined [23].

Jaccard index (JI)We also wished to calculate similarities between our stud-ies with prior ethnobotanical studies carried out in otherparts of Bangladesh, as well as those from neighboringcountries. This may be expressed using the Jaccard index(JI), which uses the following formula [24, 25]:JI = C × 100/A + B −C, where, A is the recorded number

of species of the current study area a, B is the documentednumber of species of another study area b, and C is thenumber of species common to both areas a and b.

ResultsEnumeration of taxaThe ethnobotanical survey was carried out three timesduring summer and winter seasons from January 2016to September 2017. All plant materials were collectedand identified through expert consultation, by compari-son with herbarium specimens and through use of litera-ture references. Following preservation, plant materialswere numbered and deposited as voucher specimens inthe Chittagong University Herbarium. Descriptions andcurrent nomenclature were compared with the recent“Dictionary of Plant Names of Bangladesh-VascularPlants” [2] and with www.theplantlist.org. The ethnome-dicinal value of each plant was cataloged as follows: bo-tanical name (with voucher number in brackets), Banglaname, Pangkhua name, family, habit, plant part(s) used,disease(s)/illness treated, usage information, and priordocumentation in the allied literature (Table 1).

Demography of informantsA total of 218 people, including traditional healers andother community members, mostly the elderly men andwomen, with ages ranging from 27 to 86 years wereinterviewed, and of them, the majority (65.6%) belongedto the age group of 51–70. We considered as informantsthose reporting one or more ethnomedicinal uses of aspecies (see Additional file 1 as an example). Demo-graphics by gender, age, education, and occupation ofparticipants are summarized in Table 2. Detailed clarifi-cation of informants is presented in an additional file(see Additional file 2).

Ethnomedicinal plants and part(s)The present investigation details 117 species of ethnome-dicinal plants distributed across 104 genera and belongingto 54 families (Table 1). The highest numbers of ethnome-dicinal plants recorded were from the Fabaceae (12 spe-cies). The second largest used families represented werethe Asteraceae and Zingiberaceae (10 species each),followed by the Lamiaceae (5), Caesalpiniaceae (4), and

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 4 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Acorus

calamus

L.(bot-t1015),

Acoraceae,least

concern

Bach

Thit

HRz

Anthelmintic

(5),gastritis(7)

Ade

coctionof

therhizom

eis

takenat

ado

seof

onecupful

daily

for7days

totreatgastritis,

andas

ananthelmintic.

122

1▲2●

3▲4▲

5●6▲

7♣8▲

9▲10▲10●1

1●12♣

13●1

4●15●1

6▲17●1

8▲19●2

0●21●2

2▲23●2

4●25●2

6▲27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●135▲

36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Aeglemarmelos

(L.)

Correa(bot-t1044),

Rutaceae

Bel

Highshu

TFr

Digestive(3),asthma(1)

Juiceof

thefru

itistaken(as

muchas

possible)for7days

asa

dige

stive.Ade

coctionof

green

fruits

alon

gwith

thebark

ofTerm

inalia

arjuna

istakenat

ado

seof

oneteaspo

onfultwice

daily

totreatasthma.

42

1▲2●

3●4●

5♣6▲

7▲8▲

9●10♣11▲12●1

3●14▲

15♣16●1

7●18●1

9▲20▲21●2

2♣23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29♣30●3

1●132●

33♣34●3

5●36●3

7♣38●

39●4

0▲41▲42♣43●

Albiziamyrioph

ylla

Benth(bot-t10108),

Fabaceae

Titulyakoroi

Unkno

wn

TL

Asthm

a(8),leucorrhoe

a(4)

Leaf

juice,alon

gwith

hone

yand

othe

r(unkno

wn)

ingred

ientsis

ktaken

atado

seof

onecupful

daily

totreatasthma.Apasteof

theleaves

issm

earedarou

ndthe

vaginalareato

treatleucorrhoe

a.

122

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Aloe

vera

(L.)Bu

rm.f.

(bot-t1032),

Xantho

rrho

eaceae

Ghritkum

ari

Clado

raH

LBu

rns(12)

Juiceof

theleaves

isappliedto

burns.

121

1●2●

3♣4♣

5●6●

7▲8●

9●1011●1

2●13●1

4●15▲

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●2829●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Alpiniaconchigera

Griff.(bot-t1085),

Zing

iberaceae

Aidul

HRz

Diarrhe

a(5),dysentery(6)

Ade

coctionof

therhizom

eis

takenorallyfor5to

7days

ata

dose

ofon

ecupful

threetim

esdaily

forthetreatm

entof

diarrhea.The

samedo

seisgiven

for3to

4days

indysentery.

112

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22▲23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Alpinianigra(Gaertn.)

Burtt(bot-t1084),

Zing

iberaceae

Jang

liada

Bawnkaw

rH

RzCou

ghandcolds(10)

Ade

coctionof

therhizom

ewith

hone

yistakenat

ado

seof

one

teaspo

onfulthree

times

daily

for

3days.

101

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Alternan

therapung

ens

Kunth(bot-t10109),

Amaranthaceae

Kakishak

Unkno

wn

HWP

Kidn

eyprob

lems(8)

Ade

coctionof

theplantistaken

forkidn

eyprob

lems.

81

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Alysicarpusmon

ilifer

(L.)DC.(bo

t-t10101),

Fabaceae

Alisim

onUnkno

wn

HWP

Fever(4),jaun

dice

(3),

diabetes

(4)

Boiledplantsaretakendirectly:

asmuchas

possibleisconsum

edto

treatfever;thejuiceof

the

plantalon

gwith

other

(unkno

wn)

ingred

ientsisgiven

forthetreatm

entof

jaun

dice.A

decoctionof

theplantistakento

treatdiabetes.

113

1●2♣

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 5 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Amaran

thus

spinosus

L.(bot-t1049),

Amaranthaceae

Kantanotey

Unkno

wn

HL

Eczema(26),d

ysuria(6)

Leaf

juicealon

gwith

sugaror

molassesisappliedto

eczema.A

decoctionof

leaves

istakenin

dysuria.

322

1●2●

3●4▲

5♣6♣

7▲8▲

9●1011●1

2▲13●1

4▲15▲16▲17●1

8●19●2

0●21●2

2▲23●2

4●25●

26▲27▲28●▲

29●3

0●31●3

2▲33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Amberboa

moschata(L.)DC

(bot-t10104),

Asteraceae

Jam

Unkno

wn

HR

Cancer(1),men

strual

prob

lems(3),ulcers(2)

Theroot

isdirectlyeatenfor

men

strualprob

lems.Ade

coction

oftheroot

isgivenat

ado

seof

onecupful

twicedaily

forthe

treatm

entof

cancer

andulcers.

63

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Amman

niamultiflora

Roxb

(bot-t10110),

Lythraceae,least

concern

Niamul

Unkno

wn

HWP

Burns(3),backache

(1)

Apasteof

theplantisappliedto

burns,andthesameform

ulation,

alon

gwith

mustard

oil,isapplied

totreatbackache

.

42

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Amorph

opha

llus

paeoniifolius(Den

nst.)

Nicolson.(bot-t1086),

Araceae,leastconcern

Olkachu

Ranilawng

bal

HTb

Diarrhe

a(20)

Thejuiceextractedfro

mthe

tube

risgivenforthetreatm

ent

ofdiarrhea.

201

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Anacardium

occidentaleL.

(bot-t1087),

Anacardiaceae

Kajubakam

Guestun

utT

BDysen

tery

(13),d

iarrhe

a(9)

Abark

decoctionistakenin

casesof

dysenteryanddiarrhea.

222

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Anan

ascomosus

(L.)

Merr.(bot-t1016),

Brom

eliaceae

Anaras

Lathy

HL,Fr

Anthe

lmintic

(14)

One

teaspo

onfulo

fjuice

from

theleaves

andfru

itistakenon

cedaily

for3days

asan

anthelmintic.

141

1●2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7▲8●

9▲10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15♣16●1

7●18●1

9▲20●2

1●22♣23●2

4●25●2

6♣27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8▲39●4

0▲41●4

2●43●

Antidesma

velutinosum

Blum

e(bot-t10111),

Phyllanthaceae

Pashmi

salishiabuka

Nandu

lT

FrMen

strualdisorders(4),

fever(2)

Ade

coctionof

thefru

it(abo

ut3

teaspo

onfulsthreetim

esdaily

for

7days)isprescribed

tocure

men

strualprob

lemsandhigh

fever.

62

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

ArecacatechuL.

(bot-t1035),Arecaceae

Supari

Pantho

ngT

FrCarminative(12)

Fruitsaretakenas

acarm

inative.

121

1▲2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7▲8▲

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●

15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0●21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Argyreiasplend

ens

(Horne

m.)Sw

eet

(bot-t10112),

Con

volvulaceae

Cho

ttorup

atola

Ramsing

kholon

gC

LUlcers(6)

One

cupful

oftheleaf

decoction

istakentw

icedaily

before

meals

for15

days

totreatulcers.

61

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Artocarpus

heteroph

yllusLam.

(bot-t1083),

Kathal

Luwe

TL

Skin

disease(16)

Apasteof

theyoun

gleaves

isappliedto

theaffected

areasof

skin.

161

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7▲8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 6 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Moraceae

Azadirachta

indica

A.

Juss.(bo

t-t1079),

Meliaceae

Neem

Neem

TL,B

Scabies(11),m

alaria(8)

Boiledleaves

andbark

areused

inabath

forthetreatm

entof

scabies.Ade

coctionof

the

leaves

istakenin

malaria.

192

1●2▲

3♣4♣

5♣6▲

7♣8●

9♣10♣11♣12♣13♣14♣

15♣16▲17▲18●1

9●20♣21♣22●2

3●24●2

5●26♣

27●2

8●29▲30●3

1●32●3

3▲34●3

5●36●3

7●38♣

39●4

0●41●4

2♣43●

Azolla

pinn

ataR.Br.

(bot-t1097),

Salviniaceae,least

concern

Jalpai

Anu

ran

Herb

WP

Skin

disease(3),diarrhea

(6),pn

eumon

ia(3)

Apasteof

theplantisrubb

edon

theaffected

area

inskin

diseases.

Ade

coctionof

theplantistaken

with

hone

yto

treatdiarrhea

and

pneumon

ia.

123

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Baliospermum

solanifolium

(Burm.)

Suresh

(bot-t1080),

Euph

orbiaceae

Danti

Ankhu

US

LScabies(20)

Boiledleaves

areused

inabath

forthetreatm

entof

scabies.

201

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Bauh

iniaacum

inataL.

(bot-t1033),

Caesalpiniaceae

Kanchan

Senp

uiT

RBu

rns(22)

Ade

coctionof

theroot

isbo

iled

with

coconu

toiland

appliedto

burns.

221

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Bauh

iniascan

dens

L.(bot-t10113),

Fabaceae

Gun

dagilla

Dim

onon

gT

R,L

Respiratory

prob

lems(4),

rheumaticpain

(5)

Ade

coctionof

theprep

ared

root

isgivento

treatrespiratory

prob

lems.Thejuiceof

theleaves

istakenat

ado

seof

one

teaspo

onfuld

ailyfor7days

for

reliefof

rheumaticpain.

92

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Bidens

pilosa

L.

(bot-t10114),

Asteraceae

Bide

nlosa

Sakbal

HWP

Cou

ghandcolds(11)

Ade

coctionprep

ared

from

the

plantistakento

treatcoug

hsandcolds.

111

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7▲38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Biophytum

sensitivum

(L.)DC.(bo

t-t1096),

Oxalidaceae

Bann

aringa

Arikbe

lH

LWou

ndsandcuts(24)

Apasteof

theleaves

isapplied

towou

ndsandcutsto

stop

bleeding

.

242

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Blum

eabalsa

mifera

(L.)DC.(bo

t-t1052),

Asteraceae

Nagor

chandal

Pang

khaper

HL

Con

junctivitis(29)

twoto

threedrop

sof

fresh

leaf

juiceisdrop

pedinto

theeyes

inchroniceyedisease.

291

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38▲39●

40●4

1●42●4

3●

Blum

ealacera

(Burm.f.)

DC.(bo

t-t1017),

Asteraceae

Kukursun

gaVaiankasa

HL

Anthe

lmintic

(9),coug

h(3)

Twoteaspo

onfulsof

leaf

juice

aretakenthreetim

esadayfor

10days

asan

anthelmintic

and

totreatcoug

h.

122

1●2●

3▲4●

5●6▲

7●8●

9●10▲11▲12●1

3●14●

15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

BombaxceibaL.(bot-

t1058),Bom

bacaceae

Shim

ulOmpang

TR

Gon

orrhea

(12)

Twoto

threeteaspo

onfulsof

root

juicearetakentw

iceaday

121

1●2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1▲12♣13●1

4●15▲16●1

7●18●1

9●20▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 7 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

totreatgo

norrhe

a.27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6▲37●3

8▲39●4

0▲41●4

2▲43●

Breoniachinensis

(Lam

.)Capuron

(bot-t1088),

Rubiaceae,least

concern

Kadam

Zacibg

oar

TB

Diarrhe

a(7)

Ade

coctionof

bark

with

hone

yandsaltistakenorallyat

ado

seof

onecupful

twicedaily

for

7days.

71

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

BuddlejaasiaticaLour.

(bot-t1084),

Budd

lejaceae

Budb

hota

Lang

tel

US

RSkin

disease(6),

pneumon

ia(5)

Aninfusion

oftheroot

isapplied

inskin

disease.Ade

coctionof

theroot

istakento

treat

pneumon

ia.

112

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11▲12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22▲23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Buteamon

osperm

a(Lam

.)Taub

.(bot-t1025),Fabaceae

Palas

Tuangtoapar

TB,Sd

Anthe

lmintic

(4),dysentery

(10),urin

aryinfections

(4),

coug

h(3)

Juices

prep

ared

from

bark

and

seed

areused

asan

anthelmintic

andto

treatdysentery.In

additio

n,ade

coctionof

thebark

istakento

treaturinaryinfections

andcoug

h.

214

1▲2●

3●4●

5●6▲

7▲8●

9▲10●1

1●12●1

3●14●

15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0♣21●2

2▲23●2

4●25●2

6●27♣28●2

9▲30●3

1●32●3

3♣34●3

5●36●3

7●38●

39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Cajanu

scajan(L.)

Millsp.(bo

t-t1055),

Fabaceae

Arhar

Koklang

SL,Sd

Gastritis(23),jaund

ice(11)

One

cupful

ofleaf

extractis

takentw

iceadayfor5days

before

mealsin

gastritis.C

ooked

seed

saretakendirectlyto

treat

jaun

dice.

342

1●2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7♣8●

9▲10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7♣18●1

9●20♣21●2

2♣23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42▲43●

Callicarpatomentosa

(L.)L.(bot-t1094),

Lamiaceae

Makanchi

Lankia

TSt

Diarrhe

a(14)

Ade

coctionof

thestem

istaken

atado

seof

onecupful

twice

daily

for7days.

141

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Calotropisgigantea

(L.)

Dryand.

Ait.f.(bot-t1069),

Asclepiadaceae

Akand

aNapal

SL

Rheumaticpain

(24)

Leaves

areappliedto

the

affected

area

twiceadayfor

3days

forthetreatm

entof

rheumaticpain.

241

1♣2●

3●4♣

5●6♣

7▲8▲

9▲10♣11●1

2●13♣14▲

15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0♣21●2

2♣23●2

4♣25●2

6♣27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2▲43●

Calotropisprocera

(Aito

n)Dryand.

(bot-t1026),

Asclepiadaceae

Akand

aNapal

SF,L

Asthm

a(9),snakebite

(5)

Flow

erextractsareused

inasthma.Ade

coctionof

leaves

isused

totreatsnakebite.

142

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15▲

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22▲23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5♣36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Cann

aindica

L.(bot-t1018),

Cannaceae

Katabo

tiBawnkaw

rH

RzAn

thelmintic

(10),asthm

a(12)

Twoteaspo

onfulsof

therhizom

eextractaretakenon

cedaily

for

5days

early

inthemorning

before

meals,asan

anthelmintic

andto

treatasthma.

222

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Caricapapaya

L.(bot-t1045),

Caricaceae

Pepe

Colra

HFr

Digestiveanddysentery(11)

Ripe

fruits

areeatendirectlyas

adige

stive.Bo

iledgreenfru

itsare

takenwith

leaves

ofCentella

112

1▲2●

3●4♣

5♣6●

7▲8●

9♣10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

219●

20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26▲27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 8 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

asiaticato

treatdysentery.

40●4

1●42●4

3●

CassiafistulaL.

(bot-t1065),

Caesalpiniaceae

Sonalu

Enkhang

TFr

Jaun

dice

(8),dysentery(12)

Anextractof

thefru

itistakenat

ado

seof

onecupful

threetim

esdaily

totreatjaun

dicedpatients.

Thebark

juiceisused

forthe

treatm

entof

dysenteryin

cattle.

202

1●2●

3●4▲

5▲6●

7♣8▲

9●10♣11●1

2▲13●1

4●15●1

6♣17●1

8♣19▲20♣21●2

2●23●2

4▲25●2

6●27●2

8♣29▲30●3

1●32●3

3▲34●3

5♣36●3

7●38▲

39●4

0●41▲42♣43●

Centellaasiatica(L.)

Urb.(bo

t-t1053),

Apiaceae,least

concern

Thun

kuni

Chang

chikhiat

HWP

Con

junctivitis(4),dysentery

(10),im

potence(4),asthma(4)

2–3drop

sof

plantjuiceare

drop

pedtw

icedaily

into

the

eyes

totreatconjun

ctivitis.The

who

leplantiseaten

(asmuchas

possible)as

avege

tableto

treatdysenteryand

impo

tence.Ade

coctionof

the

who

leplant,alon

gwith

hone

y,is

takento

treatasthma.

224

1♣2▲

3●4♣

5♣6♣

7♣8♣

9▲10♣11▲12♣13●1

4♣15▲16●1

7♣18●1

9●20♣21●2

2♣23●2

4●25●2

6♣27▲28♣29●3

0●31♣32▲33▲34●3

5●36♣37▲

38●3

9●40♣41●4

2▲43♣

Cheilocostus

speciosus

(J.Koe

nig)

C.D.Spe

cht

(bot-t1048),Costaceae

Keu

Terpim

ungkho

rolH

L,St

Earache(8)

Thejuiceof

leaves

andstem

sis

takenat

ado

seof

one

teaspo

onfulthree

times

daily

for

3days

totreatearpain.

81

1●2●

3▲4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Cinn

amom

umtamala

(Buch.-Ham

.)T.Nees&

Eberm.(bo

t-t1095),

Lauraceae

Tejpata

Matuinana

TL

Cou

ghandcold

(12)

Aleaf

decoctionistakenorallyto

treatcoug

hsandcolds.

122

1●2●

3●4●

5▲6▲

7●8●

9▲10●1

1●12●1

3●14●

15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0●21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Cissus

repens

Lam.

(bot-t1046),Vitaceae

Marmariapata

Puipal

CR

Dog

bites(12)

Apasteof

theroot

isappliedto

dogbites.

121

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Citrus

aurantifolia

(Christm

).Sw

ingle

(bot-t1059),Ru

taceae

Lebu

Charm

umS

Fr,L

Headache(9),Malaria(3)

Thefru

itjuiceistakento

treat

malaria.The

leaf

pasteisrubb

edto

theforehe

adin

patientswith

headache

.

142

1●2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6▲27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Citrus

maxima(Burm.)

Merr.(bot-t1090),

Rutaceae

Jambu

raSherthur

TFr

Fever(17),cou

gh(5)

Fortreatm

entof

feverand

coug

h,fru

itsaredirectlyeaten

with

atraceam

ount

ofsaltand

redchili.

222

1●2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●11●1

2●13●1

4●15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0●21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Clerodendrum

viscosum

Vent.

(bot-t1024),

Verben

aceae

Bhat

Kuidim

SL

Anthe

lmintic

(8),coug

h(7),

dysentery(7)

Aleaf

extractistakenas

ananthelmintic;the

leaf

juiceis

takenat

ado

seof

twoteaspo

ons

threetim

esdaily

for7days

totreatcoug

handdysentery.

223

1●2●

3●4♣

5♣6▲

7▲8●

9●10●1

1●12♣13●1

4▲15▲16●1

7▲18●1

9▲20●2

1▲22♣23●2

4●25●

26▲27●2

8♣29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6▲37●

38●3

9●40●4

1♣42♣43▲

Clerodendrum

indicum

(L.)Ku

ntze

Bamun

hatti

Senkuide

mS

LCou

ghandasthma(13)

Ade

coctionprep

ared

from

the

leaves

isgivento

treatcoug

h13

21●

2●3♣

4♣5●

6▲7●

8●9●

10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 9 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

(bot-t1096),

Lamiaceae

andasthma.

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Coccinia

gran

dis(L.)

Voigt(bot-t1070),

Cucurbitaceae

Telakucha

Thiback

CL

Jointpain

(33)

Bakedleaves

areappliedin

joint

pain.

331

1●2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7▲8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14♣

15▲16●1

7●18●1

9▲20▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25▲

26▲27●2

8▲29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●

38●3

9●40●4

1●42▲43●

Cocosnu

cifera

L.(bot-t1037),

Arecaceae

Narkel

Lukluk

HFr

Carminative(8),dige

stive

(6),fever(2)

Green

coconu

twater

istakenas

acarm

inativeanddige

stive,and

isalso

takendu

ringfever.

163

1●2●

3●4♣

5▲6●

7▲8●

9●10●1

1▲12▲13●1

4▲15▲16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●

27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Commelinadiffusa

Burm

.f.(bot-t1029),

Com

melinaceae,least

concern

Mon

ayna

Kanshira

Don

gjal

HSt

Boilin

theearcanal(4)

Anextractprep

ared

from

tend

erstem

sisappliedto

theearfor

thetreatm

entof

boils.

41

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Coriand

rum

sativum

L.(bot-t1071),Apiaceae

Dhaniya

Chang

roi

HFr

Stom

achache(32)

Dry

fruits

areeatenwith

betel

leaf

toob

tain

relieffro

mstom

achache.

321

1▲2●

3●4●

5●6●

7♣8●

9●10▲11▲12●1

3●14▲

15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0●21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Crassoceph

alum

crepidioides

(Ben

th.)S.

Moo

re(bot-t1090),

Asteraceae

Duu

bbecrepi

Baiunkasa

HWP

Stom

achpain

(33)

Theplantextractistakenas

aremed

yforstom

achpain.

331

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Crateva

unilocularisBu

ch.-H

am(bot-t10115),

Capparaceae

Ekkoshabarun

Ushsak

TL

Urin

arydisorders(4),high

bloo

dpressure

(2)

Anextractof

theleaves

istaken

threetim

esadayforaweekfor

thetreatm

entof

urinary

prob

lemsandhigh

bloo

dpressure.

62

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1♣32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●.

Crotalariapallida

Aito

n(bot-t1060),

Fabaceae

Jhanjuni

Rockac

pabe

lH

RIndige

stion(13)

Aroot

extractistakenat

ado

seof

onecupful

daily

for15

days

totreatindige

stion.

131

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1▲12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1▲42●4

3●

Cucurbita

maxima

Duche

sne(bot-t1034),

Cucurbitaceae

Mistikum

raMypore

Herb

L,F,Fr,

SdBu

rnsandbo

ils(22)

Thefru

itpu

lpisuseful

inbu

rns

andbo

ils.The

youn

gleaves,

flowersandfru

itsarecooked

asvege

tables.Friedseed

sareeaten.

Fruitsarebo

iledto

make

smashe

d(bharta).The

fruitskin

isalso

cooked

asavege

table.

221

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5♣26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Curcum

acaesiaRo

xb.

(bot-t1092),

Zing

iberaceae

Kalahalood

Aailiedu

mH

RzFever(5),Tumor

(1),snake

bite

(1)

Arhizom

ede

coctionisused

orally,atado

seof

one

teaspo

onfultwicedaily

with

cow’smilk

totreatfever.Apaste

71

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 10 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

oftherhizom

eisused

totreat

tumor

andsnakebite.

Curcum

along

aL.

(bot-t1050),

Zing

iberaceae

Halud

Chang

HRz,F

Eczema(11),d

ysen

tery

(12),cou

ghs,cold

and

fever(19),laxative(3)

Therhizom

eiscooked

andtaken

totreatdysentery.Flow

ersare

used

asadditives

incurries.A

pasteof

therhizom

eisused

for

thetreatm

entof

eczema;juiceof

therhizom

eistaken(one

teaspo

onthreetim

esadayfor7

days)tocure

coug

h,coldsand

feverandisalso

takenas

alaxative.

456

1●2●

3●4♣

5▲6●

7♣8♣

9▲10▲11▲12▲13▲14●

15♣16●1

7●18●1

9●20▲21●2

2▲23●2

4●25●2

6▲27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33▲34●3

5●36●3

7●38▲

39●4

0▲41●4

2♣43▲

Curcum

azedoaria

(Christm

.)Ro

scoe

(bot-t1091),

Zing

iberaceae

Sothi

Aaiangp

orH

Rz,F

Diarrhe

a(8),coug

hs(2)

Ade

coctionof

therhizom

eis

givenin

diarrhea.Flowersare

directlyeatenwith

riceto

treat

coug

hs.

102

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22▲23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Cyperusrotund

usL.

(bot-t1089),

Cyperaceae,least

concern

Mutha

Belring

HWP

Diarrh

eaanddysentery(20)

Ade

coctionprep

ared

from

the

who

leplantmixed

with

rice-

washe

dwater

istakenat

ado

seof

onecupful

threetim

esdaily

until

cure,incasesof

diarrhea

anddysentery.

202

1▲2●

3●4♣

5●6●

7▲8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0●21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0▲31●3

2●33●3

4▲35●3

6▲37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2▲43●

Derris

indica

(Lam

k.)

Benn

et.(bo

t-t1031),

Fabaceae

Pitago

laThaino

ngpai

TSd

Bron

chitis(4),who

oping

cough(8),anthelmintic

(11)

Thepo

wde

redseed

isappliedin

bron

chitisandwho

opingcoug

h.Theseed

oilistakenas

ananthelmintic.

233

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Dioscorea

bulbifera

L.(bot-t1019),

Dioscoreaceae

Metealu

Ram

bara

CTb

Anthe

lmintic

(21)

Boiledtube

rsaretakenas

ananthelmintic.

211

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1♣32●3

3●34●3

5●36▲37●3

8●39●

40●4

1▲42●4

3●

Dioscorea

hispida

Den

nst.(bot-t1047),

Dioscoreaceae

Lomaalu

Chaiaibu

CL

Dog

bites(9),fever(14)

Apasteprep

ared

from

theleaves

isused

totreatdo

gbitesand

fever.

231

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9▲30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Drim

iaindica

(Roxb.)

Jessop

(bot-t10107),

Asparagaceae

Banpiaj

Sommulun

gH

BbCou

gh(5),asthma(9)

Ade

coctionof

thebu

lbistaken

atado

seof

abou

t100mlp

erdayfor10

days

inasthma.A

pasteof

thebu

lbistakenwith

hone

yto

treatcoug

h.

142

1●2●

3●4♣

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Elaeocarpus

floribun

dusBlum

e(bot-t1088),

Elaeocarpaceae

Jalpai

Anu

ran

TFr,Sd

Skindisease(4),rheumatism

(3),cough(6)dysenteryand

diarrhea

(10)

Thefru

itistakento

treat

dysenteryanddiarrhea.The

seed

oilisused

tolessen

inflammation

dueto

rheumatism.The

seed

oil

235

1●2●

3●4♣

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 11 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

isalso

used

totreatvario

usskin

diseases.Inadditio

n,thewarm

seed

oilisused

tomassage

the

chestof

childrento

treatcoug

h.

Entada

rheediiSpren

g.(bot-t1072),

Mim

osaceae

Gilla

Pai

HR,Sd

Jointpain

(9),diarrhea

(13)

Aseed

pasteisused

totreat

jointpain.A

root

extractistaken

atado

seof

twospoo

nfulsthree

times

daily

for10

days

tocure

diarrhea.

222

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Erigeron

sublyratus

Roxb.exDC

(bot-t1098),

Asteraceae

Binajeron

unknow

nH

LAbd

ominalpain

(1),

diarrhea,(2),cancer(2)

Ade

coctionof

leaves

istaken,at

ado

seof

abou

t30

mltwicedaily

for3days,for

abdo

minalpain

andcancer.Juice

oftheleaves

istakento

treatdiarrhea.

53

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

FicushispidaL.f.

(bot-t1066),

Moraceae

Dum

urThem

aset

TFr

Jaun

dice

(8),fever(8),

tumor

(7)

Fruitsarecooked

with

othe

r(unkno

wn)

ingred

ientsand

consum

edas

vege

tables,taking

asmuchas

possiblefor1mon

thto

treatjaun

dice

andfever.A

pasteof

thefru

itsissm

earedto

treattumors.

231

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27▲

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36▲37●3

8▲39●

40●4

1▲42●4

3●

Ficusreligiosa

L.(bot-t1085),

Moraceae

Panbat

Robang

TL

Skin

disease(14)

Leaves

areused

totreatskin

diseases.

141

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3♣24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3♣34●3

5●36▲37♣38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Foeniculum

vulgare

Mill.(bo

t-t1036),

Apiaceae

Mou

riDeinak

HSd

Carminative(19)

Apasteprep

ared

from

theseed

sistakenas

acarm

inative.

191

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Gardeniacorona

riaBu

ch.-H

am.

(bot-t1076),

Rubiaceae

Bankam

alMolaihang

TL

Rheumaticpain

(7)

Anextractof

theleaves

isused

forthetreatm

entof

rheumatic

pain.

071

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Glinus

oppositifolius

(L.)Aug

.DC.

(bot-t1086),

Molluginaceae

Gim

aBacchain

HL

Skin

disease(17)

Leaf

juiceistakenat

ado

seof

twoteaspo

onfulstw

icedaily

for

7days

totreatskin

diseases.

171

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Gom

phrena

globosaL.

(bot-t1099),

Amaranthaceae

Botamph

ulMeilingp

erH

RzDiarrhe

a(19)

Ade

coctionof

therhizom

eis

used

totreatdiarrhea.

191

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Grewianervosa(Lou

r.)Assorgu

lar

Hasalcong

SL

Jaun

dice

(23)

Ade

coctionof

theleaves

is23

11●

2●3●

4●5●

6●7●

8●9●

10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 12 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Panigrahi(bo

t-t1062),

Malvaceae

mixed

with

othe

r(unkno

wn)

substances

andho

ney,andis

takenat

ado

seof

onecupful

daily

totreatjaun

dice.

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Helianthu

san

nuus

L.(bot-t1068),

Asteraceae

Surjamuki

Nam

heiper

HL,Sd

Malaria(9),coug

hsand

colds(24)

Anextractof

leaves

istakenat

ado

seof

oneteaspo

onfulthree

times

daily

aftermealsfor

2mon

thsto

treatmalaria.A

pasteof

theseed

sisused

totreatcoug

hsandcolds.

333

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Hibiscus

rosa-sinensis

L.(bot-t1073),

Malvaceae

Jaba

Send

opui

TF

Piles(15),leucorrho

ea(7)

Apasteof

theflowersisused

inpiles.Ade

coctionof

theflowers

istakenat

ado

seof

onecupful

twicedaily

until

cure

ofleucorrhoe

aisob

served

.

222

1●2●

3▲4●

5▲6●

7▲8♣

9●10▲11●1

2▲13●1

4●15●1

6●17●1

8●19▲20▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

62▲

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3♣34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40▲41●4

2▲43●

Hygroph

iladifform

is(l.f.)Blum

e(bot-t10117),

Acanthaceae,

leastconcern

Filamish

Unkno

wn

HWP

Toincrease

sexualdesire(4)

Ade

coctionof

theplantistaken

toincrease

sexualde

sire.

41

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Hyptis

suaveolens

(L.)

Poit.(bot-t1093),

Lamiaceae

Tokm

aBiparthu

HSd,L

Tumor

(6),constip

ation(9)

Asoftdrinkprep

ared

from

the

seed

sistaken,consum

ingas

muchas

possibleto

treat

constip

ation.Theleaf

juiceis

takenat

ado

seof

two

teaspo

onfulsdaily

for10

days

for

thetreatm

entof

tumors.

152

1●2●

3●4●

5▲6▲

7●8●

9▲10▲11▲12▲13▲

14●1

5●16▲17●1

8●19●2

0▲21●2

2▲23●2

4▲25●2

6▲27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Imperata

cylindrica(L.)

Raeusch.(bot-t10100),

Poaceae

Ulu

Lieloang

HR

Feverandcoug

h(6)

Ade

coctionof

theroot

with

hone

yistakenat

ado

seof

one

teaspo

onfultwicedaily

for

3days,tocure

feversandcoug

h.

62

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7▲38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Ipom

oeamauritiana

Jacq.(bo

t-t1082),

Con

volvulaceae

Bhuikumra

Ratrui

HTb

Sexualdisabilities(18)

Tube

rsareused

forthe

treatm

entof

sexualdisabilities.

181

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Jasm

inum

sambac(L.)

Aito

n(bot-t1087),

Oleaceae

Beli

Then

erpe

rS

FSkindisease(20),asthm

a(14)

Apasteprep

ared

from

the

flowersisappliedin

skin

disease.

Ade

coctionof

flowerswith

mustard

oilistakenin

asthma.

342

1●2●

3●4●

5●6♣

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42▲43●

Jasm

inum

scan

dens

(Retz.)V

ahl

(bot-t1038)

Banjui

Chilokong

SL

Con

junctivitis(12)

Twoto

threedrop

sof

theleaf

extractaredrop

pedinto

theeyes

forthetreatm

entof

conjun

ctivitis.

121

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1▲12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 13 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Justiciaadha

toda

L.(bot-t1028),

Acanthaceae

Basak

Tumpang

SL

Bron

chitis(6),high

bloo

dpressure

(10)

Theleaf

extractistakenat

ado

seof

threeteaspo

onfulson

cedaily

for5days,totreatbron

chitisand

high

bloo

dpressure.

162

1●2●

3▲4♣

5▲6▲

7▲8●

9●10▲11♣12▲13▲

14▲15●1

6▲17▲18●1

9▲20▲21●2

2●23●2

4▲25●2

6▲27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33♣34▲35●3

6●37●3

8●39●4

0●41▲42▲43▲

Lablab

purpureus(L.)

Sweet(bot-t1051),

Fabaceae

Shim

Barui

CL

Eczema(19),ringw

orm

(14)

Apasteof

theleaves

isapplied

totheaffected

areasof

eczematou

sskin.The

same

form

ulationalon

gwith

hone

yis

also

appliedto

ringw

orm.

332

1●2●

3●4♣

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Lasia

spinosa(L.)

Thwaites(bot-t1074),

Araceae,leastconcern

Kantakachu

Manitri

HL

Piles(19),bonefractures

(4)

Anextractof

theleaves

istaken

atado

seof

onecupful

daily

for

15days

totreatpiles.Apasteof

theleaves

isused

totreat

fractures

ofbo

ne.

232

1●2●

3♣4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

536●

37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

●

Mikan

iamicrantha

Kunth(bot-t1041),

Asteraceae

Toop

ainn

alata

Belnum

HL

Cutsandwou

nds(5),

dysentery(5),gastric

ulcers

(4),dyspep

sia(3),

hemorrhage(1)

Theleaves

areused

indysentery

andgastric

ulcers.A

decoctionof

theleaves

isconsidered

useful

indyspep

sia.Crushed

fresh

leaves

areappliedto

cutsandwou

nds

tostop

hemorrhages.

186

1●2●

3●4●

5●6▲

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●●3

6●37●3

8♣39●

40♣41●4

2●43●

Mimosapudica

L.(bot-t1075),

Mim

osaceae,least

concern

Lajjabati

Beljak

US

RPiles(8),dysentery(4)

Anextractprep

ared

from

the

root

istakentw

iceadayfor

1mon

thto

treatpilesand

dysentery.

122

1♣2▲

3●4▲

5▲6▲

7▲8●

9♣10▲11●1

2▲13●

14●1

5▲16●1

7▲18●1

9▲20♣21▲

22♣23●2

4●25●2

6▲27●2

8●29●3

0▲31●3

2●33♣34●3

5●36●

37●3

8▲39♣40♣41●4

2●43♣

Miscan

thus

fuscus

(Roxb.)B

enth

(bot-t10118),Poaceae

Fusca

Champu

ither

HR

Cancer(4),coug

h(7)

Ade

coctionof

theroot,along

with

unknow

ningred

ients,is

takenat

ado

seof

onecupful

twicedaily

totreatcancer.A

nextractof

theroot

isdirectly

takento

treatcoug

h.

112

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42▲43●

Mom

ordica

charan

tiaL.(bot-t1022),

Cucurbitaceae

Kakrol

Vurlu

kH

FrAnthe

lmintic

(7),dysentery

(10),fever

(6),jaun

dice

(6),

pneumon

ia(3)

Thefru

itistakenas

acurry,

which

isuseful

indysentery,

feverandjaun

dice.The

leaves

areused

asan

anthelmintic.The

youn

gleaves

areeatenas

leafy

vege

tables

totreatjaun

dice

and

pneumon

ia.

325

1●2♣

3▲4●

5●6●

7▲8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5▲16●1

7●18●1

9●20▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25♣26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38♣39●4

0●41●4

2♣43▲

Nicotiana

tabacum

L.(bot-t1091),

Solanaceae

Tamak

Bilao

HL

Toothache(14),stim

ulant(20)

Apo

wde

rprep

ared

from

thedry

leaves

isappliedto

theaffected

area

asaremed

yfortoothache

andalso

used

asstim

ulant.

341

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3▲34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Ocimum

basilicum

L.(bot-t1043),

Babu

iTulsi

Voiperfu

HL

Bron

chitis(5),diarrhea

and

dysentery(18)

Theleaves

areused

incurriesas

anadditiveforarom

a.This

223

1♣2●

3▲4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16▲17●1

8▲19●2

0▲21▲22●2

3●24●2

5●26●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 14 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Lamiaceae

speciesisplantedin

home

garden

sforits

pleasant

smell

andalso

asan

ornamen

tal.The

leaves

areused

forthetreatm

ent

ofdiarrhea,d

ysen

tery

and

bron

chitis.

27●2

8▲29●3

0●31●3

2●33●tpins34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1▲42●4

3●

Ocimum

sanctum

L.(bot-t1039),

Lamiaceae

Tulsi

Voiperfu

HL

Cou

ghandcolds(15)

Apasteprep

ared

from

theleaves

isused

totreatcoug

hsand

colds.

152

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8♣

9♣10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5♣16●1

7♣18●1

9●20♣21●2

2♣23●2

4●25●2

6●27♣

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42▲43▲

Operculinaturpethu

m(L.)SilvaManso

(bot-t1020),

Con

volvulaceae

Dud

hkalm

iKainem

CR

Anthe

lmintic

(10)

Theroot

extractistakenas

ananthelmintic.

101

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Oryza

sativaL.

(bot-t1067),Po

aceae

Dhan

Chang

HSd

Malaria(11),abd

ominal

pain

(12)

Abe

erprep

ared

from

riceis

takento

preven

tmalaria.In

additio

n,theaqueou

sliquo

rfro

msteeping

ricein

water

overnigh

tistakento

treat

abdo

minalpain.

232

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Otteliaalism

oides(L.)

Pers(bot-t1093),

Hydrocharitaceae,

leastconcern

Panicola

Unkno

wn

HWP

Eyedisease(7),

tube

rculosis(5),tumor

(6)

Who

leplantsarewrapp

edin

banana

leaves

andhe

ated

for10

min.A

nextractof

theprep

ared

plantispo

ured

(2–3

drop

s)into

theeyes,totreateyedisease.A

decoctionof

thewho

leplantis

taken(asmuchas

possible)to

treattube

rculosis.A

pasteof

the

plant,alon

gwith

leaves

ofPaederiafoetida,issm

earedon

tumors.

183

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Phyllanthu

sem

blicaL.

(bot-t1054),

Euph

orbiaceae

Amloki

Cho

alu

TFr

Gastritis(5),high

bloo

dpressure

(4)

Fruitsareeatento

treatgastritis

andhigh

bloo

dpressure.

92

1●2▲

3●4♣

5●6♣

7♣8▲

9●10●1

1▲12♣13●1

4●15♣16▲17♣18●1

9▲20♣21●2

2▲23●2

4▲25●

26▲27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6▲37♣

38●3

9●40●4

1●42▲43●

PiperbetelL.

(bot-t1061),

Pipe

raceae

Pan

Pantho

ngna

CL

Indige

stion(2),colic

(1),

diarrhea

(2),he

adache

(2),

masticatorysubstance(1),

stim

ulant(1)

Leaves

areused

forthe

treatm

entof

indige

stion,colic,

diarrhea

andhe

adache

.Leaves

arealso

used

asamasticatory

substanceandstim

ulant.

96

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7▲8●

9▲10●1

1▲12▲13●1

4●15▲16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●

27▲28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●

39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Portulacaoleracea

L.(bot-t1092),

Portulacaceae

Nun

eBakche

nH

SdToothache(8),asthma(12)

Thefried

seed

pasteisused

for

toothacheandasthma.

202

1▲2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34♣35●3

6●37●3

8●39●

40●4

1●42●4

3●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 15 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Psidium

guajavaL.

(bot-t1042),Myrtaceae

Peyara

Kainem

TB,Fr

Diarrh

eaanddysentery(22)

Green

andrip

efru

itsareeatento

cure

diarrhea.A

decoctionof

the

bark

isused

indysentery.

222

1♣2●

3●4●

5♣6●

7♣8♣

9●10♣11▲12♣13●1

4●15♣

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22♣23●2

4●25●2

6▲27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3▲34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42♣43●

Saraca

asoca(Roxb.)

Willd.

(bot-t10102),

Fabaceae,vulne

rable

Asok

Licung

TB

Diarrh

ea(6),leucorrhoea(4)

Adecoctionprepared

from

the

bark,along

with

leaves

ofCentella

asiatica,istakenorallyatado

seof

onecupfultwicedaily

for7

days

totreatleucorrhoea.Juiceof

the

barkistakenindiarrhea.

102

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7▲8●

9▲10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20▲21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3♣34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Senn

aalata(L.)Ro

xb.

(bot-t1078),

Caesalpiniaceae

Dadmordan

Pailang

SL

Ringworm

andeczema(16)

Theleaf

juiceistakento

treat

ringw

orm,w

hileyoun

gleaves

areused

totreateczema.

162

1●2●

3●4●

5●6♣

7♣8♣

9●10♣11♣12♣13●1

4●15♣

16♣17●1

8♣19♣20♣21●2

2♣23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7♣38●3

9●40♣41♣42♣43●

Senn

aoccidentalis(L.)

Link

(bot-t1063),

Caesalpiniaceae

Baro

Kalkasun

daKalbeia

US

LJaun

dice

(10),m

alaria(16)

Thejuiceof

theleaves

istaken

once

daily

for3days,along

with

beet

salt,to

treatjaun

dice

and

malaria.

262

1●2●

3●4▲

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30▲31●3

2●33▲34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Sesban

iasesban

(L.)M

err.(bot-t1021),

Fabaceae

Dhaincha

Send

opui

TL

Anthe

lmintic

(6),colds(5)

Thejuiceof

thefre

shleaves

isused

asan

anthelmintic

andto

treatcolds.

112

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Smilaxovalifolia

Roxb.exD.Don

(bot-t1094),

Smilacaceae

Kumarilata

Voishisong

CSt,L

Ulcer

(11)

Anextractof

leaves

andstem

sis

mixed

with

blackpe

pper

and

takenthreetim

esdaily

totreat

ulcers.

111

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Solanu

mtorvum

Sw.

(bot-t1056),

Solanaceae

Titbagun

Anchang

tiS

FrGastritis(16),fever

(5)

Unripefru

itsarecooked

asvege

tables

andaretakenforthe

treatm

entof

gastritisandfever.

212

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7♣8♣

9●10♣11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22♣23●2

4●25●2

6▲27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36▲37▲38●3

9●40♣41●4

2●43●

Spilanthesacmella

(L.)

L.(bot-t1081),

Asteraceae

Marhatitiga

Ankasa

HWP

Scabies(10),colic(7)

Apasteprep

ared

from

thewho

leplantisused

totreatscabiesand

colic.

171

1●2●

3●4●

5●6▲

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Spon

dias

pinn

ata(L.f.)

Kurz(bot-t1077),

Anacardiaceae

Amra

Thaipial

TFr

Rheumatism

(10),sore

throat

(5)

Fruitsareeaten.Theun

ripefru

itisuseful

forrheumatism

andsore

throat.

152

1●2●

3●4●

5●6▲

7●8●

9▲10●1

1●12▲13●1

4●15●1

6●17●1

8●19●2

0●21●2

2●23●2

4▲25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6▲37●3

8●39●4

0●41●4

2▲43●

Sterculia

villosa

Roxb.

(bot-t1095),

Malvaceae

Udal

Guiza

TL

Urin

aryprob

lems(22)

Leaf

juiceistakenearly

inthe

morning

forreliefof

urinary

prob

lems.

221

1●2●

3▲4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1▲12●1

3●14●1

5●16▲17▲18●1

9●20●2

1●22▲23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38▲39●

40●4

1▲42●4

3●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 16 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

Syzygium

cumini(L.)

Skeels(bot-t1023),

Myrtaceae

Jam

Inmui

TB,Fr

Anthe

lmintic

(10),b

lood

dysentery(12)

Bark

isused

asan

anthelmintic

andforbloo

ddysentery.Ripe

fruits

areeatenas

ananthelmintic.

222

1●2♣

3●4●

5♣6●

7●8●

9▲10●1

1●12♣13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9▲20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Syzygium

fruticosum

DC.(bo

t-t10103),

Myrtaceae

Inmui

TL

Bloo

ddysentery(13)

Apasteof

theleaves

isgivenat

ado

seof

oneteaspo

onfulthree

times

daily

totreatbloo

ddysentery.

131

1●2●

3●4♣

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20♣21●2

2●23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Tageteserecta

L.(bot-t1040),

Asteraceae

Gen

daDarken

HL

Haemostatic

(9)

Theleaf

pasteisappliedto

fresh

cutsto

stop

bleeding

.9

11●

2●3▲

4♣5●

6●7●

8●9●

10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38♣39●

40●4

1●42●4

3●

Tamarindusindica

L.(bot-t10105),

Fabaceae

Tatul

Then

thelakung

TFr

Cou

gh(7),dysenteryand

diarrhea

(27)

Afru

itde

coctionisused

orallyto

treatdiarrhea,d

ysen

tery

and

coug

h.

343

1●2▲

3●4▲

5▲6●

7▲8●

9▲10●1

1●12♣13●1

4▲15▲16●1

7●18●1

9●20▲21●2

2♣23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0▲31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37●3

8♣39●4

0●41●4

2●43●

Tecton

agran

disL.f.

(bot-t1030),

Lamiaceae

Segu

nSagu

nkun

gT

St,B

Eczema(10),ringw

orm

(14),d

iarrhe

a(10)

Anoilyprod

uctfro

mstem

chips

isused

ineczemaandrin

gworm.

Thebark

isconsidered

useful

inrin

gworm

anddiarrhea.

343

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7▲8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Teph

rosia

purpurea

(L.)

Pers.(bo

t-t1064),

Fabaceae

Bann

ilBairi

HL,Sd

Jaun

dice

(11),scabies

(3),

eczema(10),skindiseases

(8),tube

rculosis(2),

Theleaves

areused

inthetreatment

ofjaundice

andtuberculosis.The

seed

oilisused

totreatscabies,

eczemaandotherskin

diseases.

345

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22♣23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Term

inaliachebula

Retz.(bo

t-t1057),

Com

bretaceae

Haritaki

Sikabu

TFr

Gastritis(5),pain

durin

gmen

struation(2),asthma

(3),bron

chitis(2)

Ripe

nedgreenfru

itsaretakenfor

thetreatm

entof

gastritis.A

decoctionof

fruits

with

hone

yis

takenat

ado

seof

one

teaspo

onfulthree

times

daily

inasthmaandbron

chitis.Apaste

ofthefru

itissm

earedarou

ndthevaginalareato

give

relief

from

pain

durin

gmen

struation.

124

1●2▲

3●4♣

5▲6▲

7▲8▲

9●10●1

1●12▲13♣

14▲15▲16●1

718●

19●2

0▲21●2

2▲23▲24▲

25●2

6▲27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33▲34●3

5●36●

37♣38▲39●4

0▲41●4

2♣43●

Trevesiapalmata

(Roxb.ex

Lind

l.)Vis.

(bot-t1089),Araliaceae

Argoja

Mun

iavang

hem

TR,Fr

Snakeb

ite(15)

Apasteprep

ared

from

theroot

andfru

itsisappliedto

snakeb

ite.

151

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7▲38●3

9▲40▲41●4

2●43●

Urena

lobata

L.(bot-t10106),

Malvaceae

Jang

ligh

agra

Cop

trit

SF

Cou

gh(20),fever

(12)

Juiceof

theflowers,with

mustard

oil,istakento

treatcoug

hand

fever.

322

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10▲11●1

2●13●1

4●15●

16●1

7●18●1

9▲20●2

1●22▲23●2

4●25●2

6●27●

28●2

9●30●3

1▲32▲33●3

4●35●3

6●37▲38▲

39●4

0●41♣42●4

3▲

Urginea

indica

Kunth

Banpiaj

Sommulun

gH

BbAsthm

a(6),dysentery(15)

Thebu

lbextractisused

forthe

212

1●2●

3●4●

5●6●

7●8●

9●10●1

1●12●1

3●14●1

5●

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 17 of 29

Table

1Listof

theethn

omed

icinalplantspeciesused

bythePang

khua

commun

ityof

theRang

amatid

istrict,Bang

lade

sh(Con

tinued)

Scientificname,

vouche

rnu

mbe

r,family

and

conservatio

nstatus

Bang

laname

Pang

khua

name

Habit

Parts

used

Num

berof

citatio

nspe

railm

entcatego

ryUsage

inform

ation

FCUR

Allied

literature

(bot-t1027),Liliaceae

treatm

entof

asthmaand

dysentery.

16●1

7●18●1

9●20●2

1●22●2

3●24●2

5●26●2

7●28●2

9●30●3

1●32●3

3●34●3

5●36●3

7●38●3

9●40●4

1●42●4

3●

Zing

iberofficinale

Roscoe

(bot-t1014),

Zing

iberaceae

Ada

Aaithing

HRz,L

Food

additive(1),stim

ulant

(1),abdo

minalprob

lems

(1),laxative(1),dyspep

sia

(1),dysenteryandvomiting

(3),coug

hs,b

ronchitis,

asthmaandtuberculosis(5)

Therhizom

eisused

asaspice,

whileleaves

areused

asan

additive,stim

ulant,forabdo

minal

prob

lemsandas

alaxative.An

infusion

oftherhizom

eisused

indyspep

sia,coug

h,bron

chitis,

asthma,dysentery,vomiting

and

tube

rculosis.

1311

1●2●

3●4♣

5♣6♣

7●8●

9♣10♣11▲12♣13●1

4▲15♣16●1

7●18●1

9●20♣21●2

2♣23●2

4●25●2

6●27●2

8●29●3

0●31●3

2●33●3

4●35●3

6●37♣38●

39●4

0●41●4

2♣43●

Lege

nd:C

clim

ber,Hhe

rb,S

shrub,

Ttree,U

Sun

dershrub,

Bba

rk,Frfruit,Bb

bulb,F

flower,L

leaves,Sdseed

,Ststem

,Rzrhizom

e,Rroot,Tbtube

r,WPwho

leplan

t,FIfreq

uencyof

inform

ants,FCfreq

uencyof

citatio

n,URuserepo

rt♣similaruse,

▲dissim

ilaruse,

●useno

trepo

rted

1=[27];2

=[44];3

=[10];4

=[36];5

=[8];6=[35];7

=[34];8

=[3];9

=[42];1

0=[7];11

=[9];12

=[8];13

[49];1

4=[50];1

5=[51];1

6=[39];1

7=[40];1

8=[52];1

9=[11];2

0=[12];2

1=[53];2

2=[13];2

3=[15];2

4=[54];2

5=[47];2

6=[55];2

7=[56];2

8=[57];2

9=[58];3

0=[59];3

1=[41];3

2=[43];3

3=[45];3

4=[60];3

5=[61];3

6=[62];3

7=[63];3

8=[64];3

9=[65];4

0=[66];4

1=[67];4

2=[68];4

3=[69]

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 18 of 29

Amaranthaceae, Apiaceae, Cucurbitaceae, and Poaceaehaving 3 species each. The remainder of families was rep-resented by two or one species. However, most of thesefamilies are documented to contain active constituentsand feature in different traditional systems of medicine.

Of all recorded species, herbs (55 species) were found toaccount for the greatest number, followed by trees (35species), shrubs (13 species), climbers (10 species), andunder-shrubs (4 species). Different parts of ethnomedic-inal plants are used in herbal formulations by local trad-itional healers for the treatment of different ailments.Among such plant parts, leaves (34.07%) were found to bethe most frequently used for the preparation of herbaldrugs, followed by other parts (Fig. 2).Considering the mode of preparation of traditional

medicines by the Pangkhua community, the range ofmethods reported for various species included decoc-tions, juices, extracts, pastes, powders, infusions, oils,and the use of fresh plant parts. Among these, the mostcommon formulations were decoctions (25.93%) andfresh plant parts (23.46%), followed by juices (16.05%),pastes (14.81%), extracts (13.58%), oils (3.70%), and infu-sions and powders (1.23% each). Decoctions are oftenthe most commonly encountered preparation methodreported [26–30]. In some cases, processing involveddrying of the plant material followed by grinding into afine powder. Water was most commonly used if a solv-ent was required, with cow’s milk or honey sometimesused as a matrix or as an adjuvant to increase viscosity.Within the study community, plant medicines were

Table 2 Demographics of the Informants

Variable Categories Percentage

Gender Male 66.97

Female 33.03

Age group < 30 9.63

30–50 16.51

51–70 65.60

70> 8.26

Education Illiterate 45.87

Primary 30.73

High school 22.02

University 1.38

Profession Daily laborer 28.44

Farmer 47.71

Professional healer 6.88

Other 16.97

Fig. 2 Plant parts used for the preparation of herbal medicines

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 19 of 29

usually administrated orally. Bathing in a decoction orrubbing and massaging using the plant parts were alsoencountered.

Conservation statusThe conservation status of all recorded plant species waschecked using the International Union for Conservationof Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species [31]. Atotal of 12 species, namely Acorus calamus, Amorphophal-lus paeoniifolius, Ammania multiflora, Azolla pinnata,Breonia chinensis, Centella asiatica, Cyperus rotundus,Commelina diffusa, Hygrophila difformis, Lasia spinosa,Mimosa pudica, and Ottelia alismoides were recorded as“of Least Concern,” while only one species (Saraca asoca)was recorded as “vulnerable,” with all other species not in-cluded on the list.

Quantitative analysisThe present study records the use of ethnomedicines totreat 11 categories of ailments. Of these, the most com-mon uses were for digestive system disorders (49 spe-cies), followed by respiratory complaints (39 species)(Table 3). To ascertain the level of agreement among theinformants of the Pangkhua community regarding theuse of plants to treat certain disease categories, FIC

values were determined. The FIC values are presented inTable 3. It is clear that the FIC values showed variation,varying from 0.50 to 0.66. In the treatment of digestivesystem disorders, the highest FIC value (0.66) wasencountered, with 141 use-reports for 49 plant species.This was followed by plants used to treat respiratorysystem disorders (FIC = 0.64) and so on (Table 3). Incontrast, the least agreement (FIC = 0.50) between infor-mants regarding therapeutic uses was observed forplants used to treat urinary disorders. The calculated JIindices (Table 4) ranged from 1.65 to 33.00. The highestdegree of similarity was found with a study conducted inBangladesh, while the lowest degree of similarity wasfound with a study conducted in Pakistan.

New ethnomedicinal plant species and usesOur comparative analysis revealed that out of 117ethnomedicinal plant species documented, 37 specieshad either no similar or any use (Table 1). Therefore,these species were compared with the research data-bases of SCOPUS, PubMed, Biomed Central, andGoogle Scholar, and the results showed that use of 12of these species has heretofore been unreported inBangladesh (Table 5), while 6 species have never beenscreened pharmacologically.

Table 3 Categories of ailments and Informant Consensus Factors (FIC)

Use category. In brackets, local name of illness used by the informants and local people Number oftaxa (Nt)

Number of usereports (Nur)

Informantconsensus factor

Digestive system disorders: diarrhea (patla paikhana), gastritis(gastic, petod gas), dysentery (bikar, amasha), carminative (hozmi, petodgas komibo), digestive (hozomi), ulcer (petod gha), vomiting (bomi),indigestion (hozom n hoile), piles (arsha), constipation (paikhana kosha),anthelmintic (krimir osod), dyspepsia (hozom n hoile), laxative (paikhananorom goribellai).

49 141 0.66

Respiratory disorders: cough (kof), colds (thanda), pneumonia(newmonia), bronchitis (jolkhashi), tuberculosis (jokkha), asthma (shashkosto), whooping cough (khungri khas).

39 109 0.65

Cancer (kancer) and tumors (tumar) 7 18 0.64

Malaria (maleria) 5 11 0.60

Snake and dog bites (hap and kutta kamor) 4 8 0.57

Skin diseases: eczema (kaur), ringworm (dad), boils (fura), scabies(chulkani), burns (pora), cuts (kata) and wounds (khoto/gha).

24 55 0.57

Sexual and menstrual disorders: leucorrhoea (shet shrab), dampenedsexual desire (sex barabelllai), impotence (bondha), pain duringmenstruation (masik kale betha), sexual disabilities (bikolango)

10 22 0.57

Pain: Abdominal pain (tolpetod betha), backache (pit betha), earache(kanot betha), headache (matha betha), joint pain (girad betha), rheumaticpain (bater betha), sore throat (golat betha), stomachache (pedot betha),toothache (dat betha).

18 39 0.55

Urinary disorders: dysuria (proshaber somot betha), kidney problems(kidnir somossa), urinary tract infections (proshaber rastat gha)

6 11 0.50

Jaundice (jondis) 7 18 0.64

General disorders: fever (jor), high blood pressure (pressure bari gele),colic (shul betha), stimulant (uttejok), conjunctivitis (chokh utha).

22 58 0.63

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 20 of 29

DiscussionOverall, this study revealed the traditional use of 117plant species, distributed among 104 genera and belong-ing to 54 families to treat 11 categories of ailments, re-corded from 218 traditional healers and elderly men andwomen. The highest number of species belonged to theFabaceae; this dominancy may be due to the worldwidedistribution of species from this family [32, 33] and, fur-thermore, that the Fabaceae constitute the second lar-gest family in the flora of Bangladesh [2]. Similar resultshave been reported by other ethnobotanists [10, 27, 34]while [7] reported the Asteraceae as the largest familyand the Fabaceae the third largest family in their studyconducted in Bangladesh.Herbs are naturally abundant in the study areas, which

were mostly hilly and covered by a forest canopy, creat-ing favorable conditions for their growth. Similar resultswere observed with other studies conducted in differentregions of Bangladesh [3, 27, 34–36].The preference for the use of leaves in the preparation

of herbal medicines by the healers is likely due to theyear-round availability of leaves, and the fact that theyare easier to collect, store, process, and handle. Similarobservations have been reported in allied studies inBangladesh and other countries [28, 35, 37, 38]. Healersusually however prefer to use fresh plant materials in-stead of dry and stored ones for herbal preparations.In the study area, digestive system disorders are com-

mon, largely due to a deficiency of pure water, especiallyin the dry season, coupled with a lack of awareness of its

Table 4 Jaccard similarity index (JI) for local and neighboringcountries

Area of study Indices JI Reference

S.N.

A B C

Bangladesh Eleven districts ofBangladesh

1 104 237 13 3.96 [27]

Dhaka 2 109 29 8 6.15 [44]

Rangamati district 3 104 37 13 10.16 [10]

Panchagarh district 4 88 68 29 22.83 [36]

Garo hills ofDurgapur

5 98 52 19 14.50 [8]

Bandarban district 6 95 44 22 18.80 [35]

Cox’s Bazar district 7 84 49 33 33.00 [34]

Hazarikhil,Chittagong

8 102 28 15 13.04 [3]

Madhupur ForestArea

9 96 57 17 12.5 [42]

Bandarban district 10 85 127 32 17.78 [7]

Chittagong HillTracts

11 97 126 20 9.22 [9]

Durgapur 12 95 49 22 18.03 [8]

Moulivibazardistrict

13 111 09 6 5.26 [49]

Pabna district 14 103 15 14 13.46 [50]

Joypurhat district 15 95 73 22 15.07 [51]

Rangamati district 16 107 31 10 7.81 [39]

Kalenga forest 17 107 25 10 8.20 [40]

Rangamati district 18 113 20 04 3.10 [52]

Bandarban district 19 106 47 11 7.74 [11]

Sandwip Island,Chittagong

20 89 83 28 19.44 [12]

Bandarban district 21 113 29 04 2.90 [53]

Chittagong HillTracts

22 89 119 28 15.56 [13]

Rangamati district 23 114 12 03 2.44 [15]

Bandarban district 24 110 47 07 4.67 [54]

Six districts ofNorthern region

25 114 21 03 2.27 [47]

Sylhet district 26 98 55 19 14.18 [55]

Natore district 27 111 14 06 5.04 [56]

Kurigram district 28 112 26 05 3.75 [57]

Neighboringcountries

Satpuda hills ofIndia

29 111 46 6 3.97 [58]

Uttar Pradesh, India 30 113 36 4 2.76 [59]

Parbat district ofwestern Nepal

31 114 129 4 1.67 [41]

Jajarkot district,Nepal

32 114 57 3 1.79 [43]

Shimoga district,India

33 102 70 15 9.55 [45]

Table 4 Jaccard similarity index (JI) for local and neighboringcountries (Continued)

Area of study Indices JI Reference

S.N.

A B C

Sarban hills,Abbottabad,Pakistan

34 114 71 3 1.65 [60]

Tribal areas,Pakistan

35 113 75 4 2.17 [61]

Manipur, India 36 107 110 10 4.83 [62]

Mizoram, India 37 105 147 12 5.00 [63]

Mizoram, India 38 101 119 16 7.84 [64]

Mizoram, India 39 114 54 03 1.82 [65]

Western Mizoram,India

40 105 77 12 6.74 [66]

Tripura state, India 41 106 114 11 5.26 [67]

South district ofTripura, India

42 97 93 20 11.74 [68]

Assam, India 43 109 31 08 6.06 [69]

Legend: A is the recorded number of species of the current study area a, Bis the documented number of species of another study area b, and C is thenumber of species common to both areas a and b, and S.N is theserial number

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 21 of 29

importance among those living in hilly and remote areas.Similarly, respiratory system disorders were second inoccurrence, due to prevalence of smoking and chewingof leaves of Nicotiana tabacum with those of Piper betel.Analogously to our results, digestive system disorderswere found to be the major ailment category in manyother ethnomedicinal studies conducted in Bangladesh[7, 8, 14, 39, 40]. High FIC values also indicate that suchspecies are worth investigating for bioactive compounds.As discussed earlier, some medicinal plant species used

by the healers of the studied community are also usedby the healers of different communities in different partsof Bangladesh as well as in neighboring countries andbeyond.A total of 19 ethnomedicinal plant species which are

commonly used by the indigenous communities ofBangladesh were selected and their known uses com-pared with our results (Table 6), to ascertain whetherthe Pangkhua community has any novel uses of thesespecies. Alongside, we evaluated the phytochemical lit-erature on these species. From our review, 11 species,namely Acorus calamus, Aegle marmelos, Arecha cat-echu, Calotropis procera, Centella asiatica, Curcumalonga, Justicia adhatoda, Phyllanthes emblica, Saracaasoca, Terminalia chebula, and Zingiber officinale havedistinct uses within the Pangkhua community. For ex-ample, Centella asiatica is used analogously by theMarma community in Bandarban [35], the Rakhaingcommunity in Cox’s Bazar [34], the Tripura communityin Chittagong [3]; the local people in the Panchagarh[36], Garo, Hazong, and Bangalee communities in Dur-gapur [8]; the local people of 11 districts in Bangladesh[27]; and the ethnic people of western Nepal [41]. Thisspecies was also used differently in traditional medicineby traditional healers of Bangladesh and other countries

[37, 42–45]. Interestingly, its use in one ailment, asthma,has been documented for the first time in this study.Similarly, the use of Acorus calamus as an anthelmintichas not been reported before, and the use of fruit ofAegle marmelos to treat asthma is recorded herein forthe first time, while its leaves were used in combinationwith other plants [46]. Other unreported uses of estab-lished ethnomedicinal species include Arecha catechu asa carminative, Calotropis procera to treat asthma andsnake bite, Curcuma longa as a laxative and to treatfever, Justicia adhatoda and Phyllanthes emblica to re-duce high blood pressure, Saraca asoca to treat diarrheaand leucorrhea, Terminalia chebula to reduce pain dur-ing menstruation and to treat bronchitis, and Zingiberofficinale as a laxative and to treat dyspepsia andtuberculosis.To illustrate homogeneity of use or otherwise, the JI

was used to compare our study with 43 previous investi-gations. In total, the JI was calculated for 28 regions ofBangladesh with the Cox’s Bazar district emerging as themost similar to our study area with JI = 33.00, followedby the Panchagarh, Chittagong, and Bandarban districts(JI = 22.83, 19.44, and 18.80 respectively), while the low-est JI (2.77) was found with the study conducted by Rah-man [47]. The high JI may reflect that the study area islocated in the same geological zone, with similar socio-economic and cultural characteristics. On the otherhand, among three neighboring countries (India,Pakistan, and Nepal), the highest similarity was foundwith the adjacent state of Tipura, India (JI = 11.74) whilethe lowest (JI = 1.65) was from Pakistan.

Limitations of the current studyEthnobotanical documentation constitutes field-basedresearch. Nevertheless, the field is not always a safe

Table 5 List of new ethnomedicinal plant species and species as yet unscreened for pharmacological activity

Species used for the treatmentof different ailments in other regions

Species reported for the firsttime with an ethnobotanicaluse in Bangladesh

Species not studiedpharmacologically to date

• Ananas comosus• Artocarpus heterophyllus• Blumea balsamifera• Blumea lacera• Bombax ceiba• Cheilocostus speciosus• Cinnamomum tamala• Coccinia grandis• Dioscorea hispida• Hyptis suaveolens• Mikania micrantha• Nicotiana tabacum• Piper betel• Spilanthes acmella• Spondias pinnata• Sterculia villosa• Tectona grandis• Argyreia splendens

• Albizia myriophylla• Alternanthera pungens• Ammannia multiflora• Amberboa moschata• Antidesma velutinosum• Argyreia splendens• Azolla pinnata• Bauhinia scandens• Erigeron sublyratus• Hygrophila difformis• Miscanthus fuscus• Ottelia alismoides

• Amberboa moschata• Antidesma velutinosum• Argyreia splendens• Bauhinia scandens• Erigeron sublyratus• Miscanthus fuscus

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 22 of 29

Table 6 Comparative ethnobotanical uses of selected species among the Pangkhua and wider Bangladesh

Scientificname

Documented secondary metabolitesin phytochemical studies

Ethnomedicinal application(s)among the Pangkhuaa

Previous ethnomedicinalreport in Bangladesh

Acoruscalamus

β-asarone [70] Anthelmintic, gastritis Asthma [39, 52]; menstrual problem andbowel pain [13]; asthma and wounds [55];eczema [35]; gastritis, vomiting andsplenomegaly [34]; hair problem [10]; cough[71]; constipation, edema, and indigestion [72];indigestion [7]

Aeglemarmelos

Taxol [73]; 2-isopropenyl-4-methyl-1-oxa-cyclopenta[b]anthracene-5,10-dione and(+)-4-(2′-hydroxy-3′-methylbut-3′-enyloxy)-8H-[1,3]dioxolo[4,5-h]chromen-8-one,imperatorin, β-sitosterol, plumbagin,1-methyl-2-(3′-methyl-but-2′-enyloxy)-anthraquinone, β-sitosterol glucoside,stigmasterol, vanillin and salicin [74];anhydromarmeline (1), aegelinosides Aand B [75]

Digestive, asthma Constipation, peptic ulcer and respiratorydisorder [8]; dysentery and indigestion [13];dysentery and diarrhea [9]; sedative [11];abscess, fever, dysentery and indigestion[51]; dysentery [12]; itches [50]; insomnia [35];vomiting [34]; stomachache and blooddysentery [71]; diarrhea, dysentery, constipation,peptic ulcer and respiratory disorder [72];digestive, dysentery and diarrhea [7]

Aloe vera Dihydrocoumarin derivatives, compounds1 and 2 [76]; p –coumaric acid, ascorbicacid, pyrocatechol and cinnamic acid [77];Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate [78]

Burns Piles, menstrual disease and sex problems [51];skin disease [34]; burn and skin disease [10, 78]

Arecacatechu

Fernenol (fern-9(11)-en-3α-ol), arundoin(fern-9(11)-en-3α-ol ME), stigmasterol andβ-sitosterol [79]; NPF-86IA, NPF-86IB, NPF-86IIA, and NPF-86IIB [80]

Carminative Diarrhea [34]; [71]

Azadirachtaindica

Limonoids 3-deacetyl-3-cinnamoylazadirachtin,1-tigloyl-3-acetyl-11-methoxyazadirachtinin,azadirachtin, 22,23-dihydro-23β-methoxyazadirachtin and 3-tigloylazadirachtol [81]

Scabies, malaria Diabetes [44]; allergy, eczema, skin disease anddiabetes [8]; scabies and itches [53]; diabetes[39]; cold and cough [13]; eczema [9]; worm,chicken pox, eczema, itches and helminthiasis[51]; allergy [40]; blood poisoning, itches andeczema [49]; Itches and ringworm [82];toothache, skin disease and insecticide [12];itches [55]; itches [50]; chicken pox and measles[35]; chicken pox, high blood pressure, gastritis,flatulence, jaundice, vomiting and malaria [34];skin disease [10]; pain, wound healing, smallpox, eczema, skin disease, fever and cough [72];insecticide, diabetes, fever, skin diseases, pilesand malaria [7]

Calotropisgigantea

Lupeol [83]; isorhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside,isorhamnetin-3-O-glucopyranoside andtaraxasteryl acetate, isorhamnetin-3-O-[2-O-β-D-galactopyranosyl-6-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl]-β-D-glucopyranoside [84]

Rheumatic pain Rheumatism [13]; Elephantiasis, emollient, pain,boils and abscess [54]; rheumatism [12]; wounds,paralysis and erectile dysfunction [55]; pain [50];pain [35]; gout, toothache, rheumatic pain andcatarrh [34]; rheumatism [71]; constipation, feverand stomach disorder [72]; cough, asthma andrheumatism [7]

Calotropisprocera

5-Hydroxy-3,7-dimethoxyflavone-4′-O-β-glucopyranoside, 2β,19-epoxy-3β,14β-dihydroxy-19-methoxy-5α-card-20(22)-enolide and β-anhydroepidigitoxigenin-3β-O-glucopyranoside,along with two known compounds, uzarigenineand β-anhydroepidigitoxigenin [85]; calotroprocerolA, calotroproceryl acetate A, calotroprocerone Aand calotroproceryl acetate B [86]

Asthma, snake bite Rheumatism [13]; piles [51]; diabetes [7]

Cassiafistula

Catechin [87]; 1, 8- dihydroxyanthraquinone-3-carboxylic acid [88]

Jaundice, dysentery Helminthiasis, cough and nervous weakness [8];constipation [39]; skin disease and jaundice [13];fever [11]; coughs, helminthiasis, diabetes,irregular urination, edema, and constipation [54];tonsillitis, constipation and rheumatic pain [89];constipation [52]; constipation [12]; diarrhea,dysentery and piles [34]; diarrhea [71]; dysenteryand constipation [7]

Centellaasiatica

Asiaticoside G, five triterpenoids, asiaticoside,asiaticoside F, asiatic acid, quadranoside IV, and

Conjunctivitis, dysentery,impotence, asthma

Diabetes [44]; dysentery, wounds, burns, andskin lesion [8]; dysentery [13]; syphilis and ulcer

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 23 of 29

Table 6 Comparative ethnobotanical uses of selected species among the Pangkhua and wider Bangladesh (Continued)

Scientificname

Documented secondary metabolitesin phytochemical studies

Ethnomedicinal application(s)among the Pangkhuaa

Previous ethnomedicinalreport in Bangladesh

2α,3β,6β-trihydroxyolean-12-en-28-oic acid 28-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→4)-β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-β-D-glucopyranosyl] ester, and fourflavonoids, kaempferol, quercetin, astragalin, andisoquercetin [90]

[9]; dysentery, eczema and headache [51];dysentery [40]; dysentery and diarrhea [89];stomach pain and flatulency [82]; spermatorrhea[56]; dysentery and fever [12]; dysentery andintestinal dysfunction [55]; dysentery [50];vomiting, dysentery, diarrhea and dehydration[35]; fever, pyorrhea, impotence, gastritis andjaundice [34]; pain and dysentery [71];hypertension, wounds, burns and skin lesion [72];fever, loss of smell and taste, carbuncles anddysentery [7]; conjunctivitis [91]

Curcumalonga

Curcuminoids [92] (Revathy 2011), curcumin,demethoxycurcumin, bisdemethoxycurcumin,ar-turmerone and curlone [93]

Eczema, dysentery, coughs,cold, fever, laxative

Diarrhea and flatulence [8]; joint pain and bloodpurifier [13] blood disease [9]; abscess andeczema [51]; bone fracture and helminthiasis[57]; pain [49]; itches and ringworm [82]; skindisease [12]; bone fracture and sex stimulant[55]; cough and eczema [34, 71]; diarrhea andflatulence [72]; scabies, malaria, chicken pox andblood purifier [7]; dysentery [94]

Justiciaadhatoda

Vasicoline, vasicolinone, vasicinone, vasicine,adhatodine, and anisotine [95]

Bronchitis, high bloodpressure

Intestinal disorder, pneumonia, cough, scabiesand skin disease [8]; coughs [39]; cough, cold,asthma and chest pain [9]; helminthiasis,diarrhea and constipation [11]; malaria, coughand cold [54]; cold and cough [40]; cough [49];skin infections [82]; cough [12, 34, 50, 55, 71];skin cancer, cough and pain [35]; cough andfever [10]; cough, pneumonia and asthma [72];asthma and cough [7]; bronchitis [96]

Ocimumsanctum

[16-Hydroxy-4,4,10,13-tetramethyl17-(4-methyl-pentyl)-hexadecahydro-cyclopenta[a]phenanthren-3-one [97]

Cough and colds Diabetes [44]; fever, cold and cough [13]; coughand cold [54]; cough and fever [51]; cold andcough [40]; rheumatic pain [56]; cough andpneumonia [12]

Phyllanthusemblica

Gallic acid, methyl gallate, corilagin, furosin,and geraniin [98]

Gastritis, high bloodpressure

Diabetes [44]; allergy and gastritis [8]; anemia[39]; dysentery, anemia and pain [13]; insomnia[9]; aphrodisiac, energizer and fever [54]; burningsensation, vomiting, cough, indigestion andjaundice [51]; fever and malaria [40]; bleedingfrom gums, loss of appetite and headache [82];paralysis [56]; stimulant [15]; diuretic, tonic,laxative and gastritis [12]; intestinal dysfunctionand blood purifier [55]; abdominal gas and fever[35]; urinary tract infection and hysteria [71];edema, constipation and gonorrhea [72]

Saracaasoca

Lyoniside, nudiposide, 5-methoxy-9-β-xylopyranosyl-(−)-isolariciresinol, icariside E3, schizandriside, (−)-epicatechin, epiafzelechin-(4β→8)-epicatechinand procyanidin B2 [99]

Diarrhea, leucorrhoea Irregular menstruation [12]; ulcer, piles,dyspepsia, dysentery and stomachache [72]

Senna alata Kaempferol and kaempferol 3-O-gentiobioside[100]; 3,5,7,4-tetrahydroxy flavone [101]

Ringworm and eczema Skin disease and scabies [8]; skin disorder andeczema [39]; skin disease [13]; eczema [9];ringworm and eczema [11]; ringworm, eczema,itch, scabies and skin disease [54]; eczema[7, 35, 51, 71, 82]; skin infection [52]; skindisease [12]

Solanumtorvum

Chlorogenone and neochlorogenone [102];solanolide 6-O-[α-L-rhamnopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-β-D-quinovopyranoside], solanolide 6-O-[β-D-xylopyranosyl-(1→3)-O-β-D-quinovopyranoside],yamogenin 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside] and neochlorogenin 3-O-[β-D-glucopyranosyl-(1→6)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside] [103]

Gastritis, fever Urinary problems, sores and fever [13];gastritis and toothache [7]

Tamarindusindica

Proanthcyanidins, procyanidins [104]; furfural,palmitic acid, oleic acid and phenylacetaldehyde [105]

Cough, dysentery anddiarrhea

Diabetes [44]; sinusitis and chronic cold [8];urinary problem, cold and fever [13]; burningsensation and heart disease [51]; chicken pox,

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 24 of 29

environment. A majority of the indigenous communitieswe studied live in forest areas, and there have been se-curity risks due to rebel movement in these areas. It isrisky to carry valuable field equipment like cameras, re-corders, etc. Route access was limited to foot traffic.Language barriers were encountered, as most partici-pants did not speak the national Bangla language requir-ing the use of interpreters. Seasonal variation is animportant factor in the collection of voucher specimens,as in the rainy season it is difficult to both access anddry the specimens, while in the dry season the aerialparts of many plants have withered, coupled with theclearing of forest areas for cultivation during that period.Indigenous peoples are sometimes unwilling to share

their knowledge of medicinal plants with others, specif-ically the Bangali (Bangladeshi). They maintain the se-crecy of medicinal plant use because there is a beliefamong them that the medicines lose their efficacy if toomany people know of them, and additionally, they maybe conscious about economic losses [48]. There may alsobe resistance to allowing themselves to become the sub-ject of study by outsiders [48]. Therefore, potential infor-mants must be encouraged using several techniques.Firstly, emphasis must be given to help them understandthat shared information will be preserved for the benefitof their children and future generations. As their

children are less frequently adopting the role of healers,without documentation, much knowledge of medicinalplants may disappear forever.

Research highlights

1. The present study revealed that the Pangkhuacommunity depends on a variety of ethnomedicinalplants to treat various diseases.

2. Local herbalists are predominantly aging men andwomen, and the Pangkhua younger generation lacksinterest in following the traditional role of thehealer.

3. While in many cases, the plants utilized by thePangkhua are documented in allied literature, theirpreparation, mode of use, and clinical indicationoften differ from that of other indigenouscommunities.

4. The information compiled herein constitutes a richknowledge source for taxonomists, phytochemists,environmentalists, pharmacists, and alliedprofessionals.

ConclusionsIt can be concluded that the Pangkhua indigenous com-munity of the Rangamati district of Bangladesh possess

Table 6 Comparative ethnobotanical uses of selected species among the Pangkhua and wider Bangladesh (Continued)

Scientificname

Documented secondary metabolitesin phytochemical studies

Ethnomedicinal application(s)among the Pangkhuaa

Previous ethnomedicinalreport in Bangladesh

boils, rheumatism and laxative [12]; respiratorydifficulties and bone fracture [50]; conjunctivitis,pain and excessive menstruation [34];constipation and jaundice [72]; constipation,loss of appetite, diarrhea, chronic fever anddysentery [106]

Terminaliachebula

Chebulagic acid [107]; gallic acid, punicalagin,isoterchebulin, 1,3,6-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucopyranose, chebulagic acid and chebulinicacid [108]

Gastritis, pain duringmenstruation, asthma,bronchitis

Diabetes [44]; constipation and vomiting [8];purgative and cardiac disease [13]; aphrodisiac,energizer, fever and body ache [54];constipation, indigestion, rheumatism andurinary disease [51]; fever and malaria [40];toothache, body pain and skin diseases [49];bleeding from gums and loss of appetite,headache [82]; stimulant [15]; constipation [12];indigestion, vomiting, constipation and intestinaldysfunction [55]; loss of appetite [50]; sore throatand cough [35]; cough [34]; constipation, ulcer,and edema [72]; gastritis [109]; asthma, heartdisease, eye disease, itches and nightblindness [91]

Zingiberofficinale

cis- and trans-6-shogaol, 8-shogaol, 10-shogaol,12-shogaol and syn- and anti-methyl-6-shogaol,methyl-8-shogaol, methyl-10-shogaol [110]

Food additive, stimulant,abdominal problems, laxative,dyspepsia, dysentery andvomiting, coughs, bronchitis,asthma and tuberculosis

Cough, stomachache and gastritis [8];stomachache [13]; allergy [9]; fever andbronchitis [51]; abdominal pain [12]; depressionand itches [50]; sore throat and cough [35];indigestion and cough [34]; cough, stomachache,gastritis and vomiting [72]; flatulence, gastritis,carminative, abdominal pain, coughs and colds[7]; edema, asthma, chest diseases, andvomiting [111]

New uses of these plants documented among the Pangkhua are highlighted in bold

Faruque et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2019) 15:8 Page 25 of 29

rich ethnomedicinal knowledge, as they use many medi-cinal plant species in their healthcare system. The nov-elty of this study is that 12 ethnomedicinal plant specieshave been recorded with new uses, and 6 of these spe-cies have never been screened pharmacologically. Thetraditional plants utilized have in some cases been vali-dated scientifically by isolation of active ingredients, thusshowing that traditional remedies are an important andeffective part of indigenous healthcare systems in thedistrict. Our findings will be helpful to ethnobotanistsand phytochemists for conducting research into the iso-lation of active principles from these species. The preser-vation of these plant species is the gateway towarddeveloping efficacious remedies for treating disease. En-hancing the sustainable use and conservation of indigen-ous knowledge of useful medicinal plants may benefitand improve the living standards of poor people. Hence,it is necessary to document the indigenous knowledge ofuseful plants and their therapeutic uses before they arelost forever.

Additional files

Additional file 1: Group interview. There were 28 Pangkhua peoplepresent while we were conducting an interview about ethnomedicinalplant usage. We considered all 28 Pangkhua people as informants, dueto each person having some knowledge regarding ethnomedicines. (TIF6452 kb)

Additional file 2: List of 218 informants in the study, alongside theirdemographic characteristics (traditional healers highlighted in red). Thedetailed descriptions of all 218 informants, including their age, sex,location, education, and occupation were documented from the studiedareas. (XLSX 19 kb)

AbbreviationsCHTs: Chittagong Hill Tracts districts; FIC: Factor of Informant Consensus;IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature; JI: Jaccard index

AcknowledgementsThe authors express their deep sense of gratitude to the informants and theBangali men and women who helped them in many different ways duringthe field work. The authors declare there is no actual or potential conflict ofinterest pertinent to this study.

FundingThis research was supported by the Natural Science Foundation of HubeiProvince, China, No. 2015CFA091 (XH), the Fundamental Research Funds forthe Central Universities Program No. 2015PY181 (XH), No. 2662017PY104(XH)and National Key R&D Program of China 2017YFD0501500 (XH).

Availability of data and materialsAll documented data will be included online at www.ebbd.info andwww.mpbd.info.

Authors’ contributionsMOF, GF, SBU, and JB conceived and designed the experiments. MOF, MNAK,and URA collected the data. MOF, GF, SH, URA, and MK analyzed the data.MOF, JB, XH, and SBU wrote the manuscript. All of the listed authors haveread and approved the submitted final manuscript.

Ethical approval and consent to participateThere are no formal rules and regulations governing consent fromparticipants in Bangladesh regarding the sharing of ethnomedicinal

knowledge. For the purposes of our study, a consistent approach wasestablished. Each participant agreed to participate voluntarily. The researchstudy was explained to all participants prior to interview. Participants wereallowed to discontinue the interview at any time. For collecting voucherspecimens, permission was taken from the appropriate body/owner/informants.

Completing of interestsThe authors declare that they have no competing of interest.

Consent for publicationNot applicable.

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Author details1Ethnobotany and Pharmacognosy Lab, Department of Botany, University ofChittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh. 2Laboratory of Drug Discoveryand Molecular Engineering, Department of Medicinal Plants, College of PlantScience and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070,China. 3National-Regional Joint Engineering Research Center in Hubei forMedicinal Plant Breeding and Cultivation, Wuhan 430070, China. 4MedicinalPlant Engineering Research Center of Hubei Province, Huazhong AgriculturalUniversity, Wuhan, China. 5Wuhan Fourth Hospital, Puai Hospital, TongjiMedical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan430034, China. 6Kurigram Government College, Kurigram, Bangladesh.7Department of Chemistry, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin,Ireland. 8Hubei Cancer Hospital, Wuhan 430034, China. 9The State KeyLaboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, Ministry of Education, Department ofPlant Pathology, Collage of Plant Science and Technology, HuazhongAgricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei, China.

Received: 9 October 2018 Accepted: 16 January 2019

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