Polyvinyl chloride 1

Polyvinyl chloride

Because of its chemical resistance, light weight, andlow-cost, PVC has had a revolutionary impact on

plumbing and municipal waste treatment.

Polyvinyl chloride

Elongation at break 20–40%

Notch test 2–5 kJ/m2

Glass temperature 82 °C[1]

Melting point 100–260 °C[1]

Effective heat of combustion 17.95 MJ/kg

Specific heat (c) 0.9 kJ/(kg·K)

Water absorption (ASTM) 0.04–0.4

Dielectric Breakdown Voltage 40 MV/m

Polyvinyl chloride, commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely-produced plastic, after polyethylene andpolypropylene.[2] PVC is widely used in construction because it is durable, cheap, and easily worked. PVCproduction is expected to exceed 40 million tons by 2016.[3][4]

It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the most widely used being phthalates. In thisform, it is used in clothing and upholstery, electrical cable insulation, inflatable products and many applications inwhich it replaces rubber.[5]

Pure polyvinyl chloride without any plasticizer is a white, brittle solid. It is insoluble in alcohol, but slightly solublein tetrahydrofuran.

Polyvinyl chloride 2

Pure Polyvinyl Chloride powder

Discovery and production

Space-filling model of a part of a PVC chain

PVC was accidentally discovered at least twice in the 19th century,first in 1835 by Henri Victor Regnault and then in 1872 by EugenBaumann. On both occasions the polymer appeared as a white solidinside flasks of vinyl chloride that had been left exposed to sunlight. Inthe early 20th century the Russian chemist Ivan Ostromislensky andFritz Klatte of the German chemical company Griesheim-Elektron bothattempted to use PVC in commercial products, but difficulties inprocessing the rigid, sometimes brittle polymer blocked their efforts. Waldo Semon and the B.F. Goodrich Companydeveloped a method in 1926 to plasticize PVC by blending it with various additives. The result was a more flexibleand more easily processed material that soon achieved widespread commercial use.

Polyvinyl chloride is produced by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride (VCM), as shown.[6]

Polyvinyl chloride 3

About 80% of production involves suspension polymerization. Emulsion polymerization accounts for about 12 %and bulk polymerization is 8 %. In suspension polymerization. Suspension polymerizations affords particles withaverage diameters of 100 – 180 mm, whereas emulsion polymerization gives much smaller particles of average sizearound 0.2 mm. VCM and water are introduced into the reactor and a polymerization initiator, along with otheradditives. The reaction vessel is pressure tight to contain the VCM. The contents of the reaction vessel arecontinually mixed to maintain the suspension and ensure a uniform particle size of the PVC resin. The reaction isexothermic, and thus requires cooling. As the volumes also contract during the reaction (PVC is denser than VCM),water is continually added to the mixture to maintain the suspension[7]

The polymerization of VCM is started by compounds called initiators that are mixed into the droplets. Thesecompounds break down into to start the radical chain reaction. Typical initators include dioctanoyl peroxide anddicetyl peroxydicarbonate, both of which have fragile O-O bonds. Some iniators start the reaction rapidly but decayquickly and other initiators have the opposite effect. A combination of two different intiators is often used to give auniform rate of polymerization. After the polymer has grown by about 10x, the short polymer precipitates inside thedroplet of VCM, and polymerization continues with the precipitated, solvent-swollen particles. The weight averagemolecular weights of commercial polymers range from 100,000 to 200,000 and the number average molecularweights range from 45,000 to 64,000.Once the reaction has run its course, the resulting PVC slurry is degassed and stripped to remove excess VCM,which is recycled. The polymer is then passed though a centrifuge to remove water. The slurry is further dried in ahot air bed, and the resulting powder sieved before storage or pelletization. Normally, the resulting PVC has a VCMcontent of less than 1 part per million. Other production processes, such as micro-suspension polymerization andemulsion polymerization, produce PVC with smaller particle sizes (10 μm vs. 120–150 μm for suspension PVC)with slightly different properties and with somewhat different sets of applications.

MicrostructureThe polymers are linear. The monomers are mainly arranged head-to-tail, meaning that there are chlorides onalternating carbon centres. PVC has mainly an atactic stereochemistry, which means that the relative stereochemistryof the chloride centres are random. Some degree of syndiotacticity of the chain gives a few percent crystallinity thatis influential on the properties of the material. About 57% of the mass of PVC is chlorine. The presence of chloridegroups gives the polymer very different properties from the structurally related material polyethylene.[8]

Additives to finished polymerThe product of the polymerization process is unmodified PVC. Before PVC can be made into finished products, it always requires conversion into a compound by the incorporation of additives such as heat stabilizers, UV stabilizers, lubricants, plasticizers, processing aids, impact modifiers, thermal modifiers, fillers, flame retardants, biocides, blowing agents and smoke suppressors, and, optionally pigments.[9]. The choice of additives used for the PVC finished product is controlled by the cost performance requirements of the end use specification e.g.

Polyvinyl chloride 4

underground pipe, window frames, intravenous tubing and flooring all have very different ingredients to suit theirperformance requirements.

Phthalate plasticizersMost vinyl products contain plasticizers which dramatically improve their performance characteristic. The mostcommon plasticizers are derivatives of phthalic acid. The materials are selected on their compatibility with thepolymer, their low volatility, their low toxicity, and their cost. These materials are usually oily colourless substancesthat mix well with the PVC particles. 90% of the plasticizer market, estimated to be millions of tons per yearworldwide, is dedicated to PVC.[9]

Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate is a common plasticizer forPVC.

High and low molecular weight phthalates

Phthalates can be divided into two groups: high and lowmolecular weight with high molecular phthalates nowrepresenting over 80 percent of European market forplasticisers. Low molecular weight phthalates include thosewith 3-6 carbon atoms in their chemical backbone; the mostcommon types being Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP),Di-butyl phthalate (DBP), Di- isobutyl phthalate (DIBP) andButyl benzyl phthalate (BBP). They represent about 15% ofthe European market. High molecular weight phthalatesinclude those with 7-13 Carbon atoms in their chemicalbackbone, which gives them increased permanency anddurability. The most common types of high phthalates include di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) and di-isodecylphthalate (DIDP). The European market has been shifting in the last decade from low to high phthalates, whichtoday represent over 80% of all the phthalates currently being produced in Europe.

Heat stabilizersOne of the most crucial additives are heat stabilizers. These agents minimize loss of HCl, a degradation process thatstarts above 70 °C. Once dehydrochlorination starts, it is autocatalytic. Many diverse agents have been usedincluding, traditionally, derivatives of heavy metals (lead, cadmium). Increasingly, metallic soaps (metal "salts" offatty acids) are favored, species such as calcium stearate.[7]

Physical propertiesPVC is a thermoplastic polymer. Its properties for PVC are usually categorized based on rigid and flexible PVCs.

Property Rigid PVC Flexible PVC

Density [g/cm3][10] 1.3–1.45 1.1–1.35

Thermal conductivity [W/(m·K)][11] 0.14–0.28 0.14–0.17

Yield strength [MPa][10] 31–60 10–25

Young's modulus [psi] 490,000[12]

Flexural strength (yield) [psi] 10,500[12]

Compression strength [psi] 9500[12]

Coefficient of thermal expansion (linear) [mm/(mm °C)] 5×10−5[12]

Polyvinyl chloride 5

Vicat B [°C][11] 65–100 Not recommended

Resistivity [Ω m][13][14] 1016 1012–1015

Surface resistivity [Ω][13][14] 1013–1014 1011–1012

ApplicationsPVC's relatively low cost, biological and chemical resistance and workability have resulted in it being used for awide variety of applications. It is used for sewerage pipes and other pipe applications where cost or vulnerability tocorrosion limit the use of metal. With the addition of impact modifiers and stabilizers, it has become a popularmaterial for window and door frames. By adding plasticizers, it can become flexible enough to be used in cablingapplications as a wire insulator. It has been used in many other applications.

PipesRoughly half of the world's polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured annually is used for producing pipes for municipaland industrial applications.[15] In the water distribution market it accounts for 66% of the market in the US, and insanitary sewer pipe applications, it accounts for 75%.[16] Its light weight, high strength, and low reactivity make itparticularly well-suited to this purpose. In addition, PVC pipes can be fused together using various solvent cements,or heat-fused (butt-fusion process, similar to joining HDPE pipe), creating permanent joints that are virtuallyimpervious to leakage.In February, 2007 the California Building Standards Code was updated to approve the use of chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC) pipe for use in residential water supply piping systems. CPVC has been a nationally acceptedmaterial in the US since 1982; California, however, has permitted only limited use since 2001. The Department ofHousing and Community Development prepared and certified an environmental impact statement resulting in arecommendation that the Commission adopt and approve the use of CPVC. The Commission's vote was unanimousand CPVC has been placed in the 2007 California Plumbing Code.In the United States and Canada, PVC pipes account for the largest majority of pipe materials used in buriedmunicipal applications for drinking water distribution and wastewater mains.[17] Buried PVC pipes in both water andsanitary sewer applications that are 4 inches (unknown operator: u'strong' mm) in diameter and larger aretypically joined by means of a gasket-sealed joint. The most common type of gasket utilized in North America is ametal reinforced elastomer, commonly referred to as a Reiber sealing system.[18]

Electric cablesPVC is commonly used as the insulation on electrical cables; PVC used for this purpose needs to be plasticized.In a fire, PVC-coated wires can form HCl fumes; the chlorine serves to scavenge free radicals and is the source ofthe material's fire retardance. While HCl fumes can also pose a health hazard in their own right, HCl dissolves inmoisture and breaks down onto surfaces, particularly in areas where the air is cool enough to breathe, and is notavailable for inhalation.[19] Frequently in applications where smoke is a major hazard (notably in tunnels andcommunal areas) PVC-free cable insulation is preferred, such as low smoke zero halogen (LSZH) insulation.

Polyvinyl chloride 6

Unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC)

Modern "Tudorbethan" house with uPVC guttersand downspouts, fascia, decorative imitation

"half-timbering", windows, and doors

uPVC or rigid PVC is extensively used in the building industry as alow-maintenance material, particularly in Ireland, the United Kingdom,and in the United States. In the USA it is known as vinyl, or vinylsiding.[20][21] The material comes in a range of colors and finishes,including a photo-effect wood finish, and is used as a substitute forpainted wood, mostly for window frames and sills when installingdouble glazing in new buildings, or to replace older single glazedwindows. It has many other uses including fascia, and siding orweatherboarding. The same material has almost entirely replaced theuse of cast iron for plumbing and drainage, being used for waste pipes,drainpipes, gutters and downspouts.[22] uPVC does not containphthalates or BPA. Most dental retainers and mouthguards are madefrom uPVC. uPVC does not have the same concerns as flexible PVC.Phthalates are only added to flexible PVC. uPVC is also known as rigid PVC, uPVC is known as having strongresistance against chemicals, sunlight, and oxidation from water.[23]

Double glazed units

Signs

Polyvinyl chloride is formed in flat sheets in a variety of thicknessesand colors. As flat sheets, PVC is often expanded to create voids in theinterior of the material, providing additional thickness withoutadditional weight and minimal extra cost (see Closed-cell PVCfoamboard). Sheets are cut using saw and rotary cutting equipment.Plasticized PVC is also used to produce thin, colored, or clear,adhesive-backed films referred to simply as vinyl. These films aretypically cut on a computer-controlled plotter or printed in awide-format printer. These sheets and films are used to produce a widevariety of commercial signage products and markings on vehicles, e.g. car body stripes.

Clothing and furniturePVC has become widely used in clothing, to either create a leather-like material or at times simply for the effect ofPVC. PVC clothing is common in Goth, Punk and alternative fashions. PVC is cheaper than rubber, leather, andlatex which it is therefore used to simulate.PVC fabric has a sheen to it and is waterproof so is used in coats, skiing equipment, shoes, jackets, aprons, and bags.

Other applicationsPVC has been used for a host of consumer products of relatively minor volume compared to the industrial andcommercial applications described above. Another of its earliest mass-market consumer applications was to makevinyl records. More recent examples include greenhouses, home playgrounds, foam and other toys, custom trucktoppers (tarpaulins), ceiling tiles and other kinds of interior and exterior cladding (see uPC).

Polyvinyl chloride 7

Chlorinated PVCPVC can be usefully modified by chlorination, which increases its chlorine content a few percent. The new materialis even more rugged and more rigid, but it is expensive and it is found only in niche applications, such as certainwater heaters and certain specialized clothing. CPVC, as it is called, is produced from aqueous suspensions of PVCparticles swollen with chlorinated solvents. Treatment of this mixture with chlorine followed by exposure toUV-light initiates the free-radical chlorination.[7]

Health and safetyPVC is a useful material because of its inertness and this inertness is the basis of its low toxicity: "There is littleevidence that PVC powder itself causes any significant medical problems."[7] The main health and safety issues withPVC are associated with "VCM", its carcinogenic precursor, the products of its incineration (dioxins under somecircumstances), and the additives mixed with PVC, which include heavy metals and potential endocrine disruptors."Fear of litigation ... have all but eliminated fundamental research into VCM polymerization."[7]

Probably the greatest impact of PVC on health and safety have been highly positive. It has revolutionized the safehandling of sewage and, being affordable, its use is widespread outside of developed countries.[7]

PlasticizersIt has been claimed that some plasticizers leach out of PVC products. However plasticizers do not readily migrateand leach into the environment from flexible vinyl articles because they are physically and tightly bound into theplastic as a result of the heating process used to make PVC particles. Vinyl products are pervasive including toys,[24]

car interiors, shower curtains, and flooring initially release chemical gases into the air. Some studies indicate that thisoutgassing of additives may contribute to health complications, and have resulted in a call for banning the use ofDEHP on shower curtains, among other uses.[25] The Japanese car companies Toyota, Nissan, and Honda haveeliminated PVC in their car interiors starting in 2007.In 2004 a joint Swedish-Danish research team found a statistical association between allergies in children and indoorair levels of DEHP and BBzP (butyl benzyl phthalate), which is used in vinyl flooring.[26] In December 2006, theEuropean Chemicals Bureau of the European Commission released a final draft risk assessment of BBzP whichfound "no concern" for consumer exposure including exposure to children.[27]

EU decisions on phthalates

Risk assessments have led to the classification of low molecular weight and labelling as Category 1B Reproductiveagents. Three of these phthalates, DBP, BBP and DEHP were included on annex XIV of the REACH regulation inFebruary 2011 and will be phased out by the EU by February 2015 unless an application for authorisation is madebefore July 2013 and an authorisation granted. DIBP is still on the REACH Candidate List for Authorisation. TheEuropean Union has confirmed that DEHP poses no general risk to human health. The summary of a comprehensiveEuropean risk assessment, involving nearly 15 years of extensive scientific evaluation by EU regulators, waspublished in the EU Official Journal on February 7, 2008 [28] The assessment demonstrated that DEHP poses no riskto the general population and that no further measures need to be taken to manage the substance in any of its keyend-use applications. This confirms an earlier opinion of member state experts and an opinion from the EU ScientificCommittee for Toxicity, Ecotoxicity and the Environment (CSTEE) adopted in 2004. The only areas of possible riskidentified in the assessment relate to•• The use of DEHP in children's toys. Under regulations introduced in January 2007 DEHP is no longer permitted

in toys and childcare articles in the EU.•• Possible exposure of workers in factories. with adequate precautions are already taken based on occupational

exposure limit values and some localised environmental exposure near to factories.

Polyvinyl chloride 8

•• The use of DEHP in certain medical devices. An EU Scientific Review was requested to determine whether theremay be any risk from the use of DEHP in certain medical applications (children and neonates undergoinglong-term blood transfusion and adults undergoing long-term haemodialysis).

In 2008 the European Union's Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR)reviewed the safety of DEHP in medical devices. The SCENIHR report states that certain medical procedures usedin high risk patients result in a significant exposure to DEHP and concludes there is still a reason for having someconcerns about the exposure of prematurely born male babies to medical devices containing DEHP.[29] TheCommittee said there are some alternative plasticizers available for which there is sufficient toxicological data toindicate a lower hazard compared to DEHP but added that the functionality of these plasticizers should be assessedbefore they can be used as an alternative for DEHP in PVC medical devices. Risk assessment results have shownpositive results regarding the safe use of High Molecular Weight Phthalates. They have all been registered forREACH and do not require any classification for health and environmental effects, nor are they on the CandidateList for Authorisation. High phthalates are not CMR (carcinogenic, mutagenic or toxic for reproduction), neither arethey considered endocrine disruptors.In the EU Risk Assessment the European Commission has confirmed that Di-isononyl phthalate (DINP) andDi-isodecyl phthalate (DIDP) pose no risk to either human health or the environment from any current use. TheEuropean Commission’s findings (published in the EU Official Journal on April 13, 2006)[30] confirm the outcomeof a risk assessment involving more than 10 years of extensive scientific evaluation by EU regulators. Following therecent adoption of EU legislation with the regard to the marketing and use of DINP in toys and childcare articles, therisk assessment conclusions clearly state that there is no need for any further measures to regulate the use of DINP.In Europe and in some other parts of the world, the use of DINP in toys and childcare items has been restricted as aprecautionary measure. In Europe, for example, DINP can no longer be used in toys and childcare items that can beput in the mouth even though the EU scientific risk assessment concluded that its use in toys does not pose a risk tohuman health or the environment. The rigorous EU risk assessments, which include a high degree of conservatismand built-in safety factors, have been carried out under the strict supervision of the European Commission andprovide a clear scientific evaluation on which to judge whether or not a particular substance can be safely used.The FDA Paper titled "Safety Assessment of Di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP)Released from PVC MedicalDevices" states that [3.2.1.3] Critically ill or injured patients may be at increased risk of developing adverse healtheffects from DEHP, not only by virtue of increased exposure, relative to the general population, but also because ofthe physiological and pharmacodynamic changes that occur in these patients, compared to healthy individuals.[31]

Vinyl chloride monomerIn the early 1970s, the carcinogenicity of vinyl chloride (usually called vinyl chloride mononomer or VCM) waslinked to cancers in workers in the polyvinyl chloride industry. Specifically workers in polymerization section of aB.F. Goodrich plant near Louisville, Kentucky (US) were diagnosed with liver angiosarcoma also known ashemangiosarcoma, a rare disease.[32] Since that time, studies of PVC workers in Australia, Italy, Germany, and theUK have all associated certain types of occupational cancers with exposure to vinyl chloride. Since that time, it hasbecome accepted that VCM is a carcinogen.[7] Technology for removal of VCM from products have becomestringent commensurate with the associated regulations.

Polyvinyl chloride 9

DioxinsPVC produces HCl upon combustion almost quantitatively related to its chlorine content. Extensive studies inEurope indicate that the chlorine found in emitted dioxins is not derived from HCl in the flue gases. Instead, mostdioxins arise in the condensed solid phase by the reaction of inorganic chlorides with graphitic structures inchar-containing ash particles. Copper acts as a catalyst for these reactions.[33]

Studies of household waste burning indicate consistent increases in dioxin generation with increasing PVCconcentrations.[34] According to the EPA dioxin inventory, landfill fires are likely to represent an even larger sourceof dioxin to the environment. A survey of international studies consistently identifies high dioxin concentrations inareas affected by open waste burning and a study that looked at the homologue pattern found the sample with thehighest dioxin concentration was "typical for the pyrolysis of PVC". Other EU studies indicate that PVC likely"accounts for the overwhelming majority of chlorine that is available for dioxin formation during landfill fires."[34]

The next largest sources of dioxin in the EPA inventory are medical and municipal waste incinerators.[35] Variousstudies have been conducted that reach contradictory results. For instance a study of commercial-scale incineratorsshowed no relationship between the PVC content of the waste and dioxin emissions.[36][37] Other studies have showna clear correlation between dioxin formation and chloride content and indicate that PVC is a significant contributorto the formation of both dioxin and PCB in incinerators.[38][39][40]

In February 2007, the Technical and Scientific Advisory Committee of the US Green Building Council (USGBC)released its report on a PVC avoidance related materials credit for the LEED Green Building Rating system. Thereport concludes that "no single material shows up as the best across all the human health and environmental impactcategories, nor as the worst" but that the "risk of dioxin emissions puts PVC consistently among the worst materialsfor human health impacts."[41]

In Europe the overwhelming importance of combustion conditions on dioxin formation has been established bynumerous researchers. The single most important factor in forming dioxin-like compounds is the temperature of thecombustion gases. Oxygen concentration also plays a major role on dioxin formation, but not the chlorinecontent.[42]

The design of modern incinerators minimises PCDD/F formation by optimising the stability of the thermal process.To comply with the EU emission limit of 0.1 ng I-TEQ/m3 modern incinerators operate in conditions minimisingdioxin formation and are equipped with pollution control devices which catch the low amounts produced. Recentinformation is showing for example that dioxin levels in populations near incinerators in Lisbon and Madeira havenot risen since the plants began operating in 1999 and 2002 respectively.Several studies have also shown that removing PVC from waste would not significantly reduce the quantity ofdioxins emitted. The European Union Commission published in July 2000 a Green Paper on the EnvironmentalIssues of PVC. "[43] The Commission states (page 27) that it has been suggested that the reduction of the chlorinecontent in the waste can contribute to the reduction of dioxin formation, even though the actual mechanism is notfully understood. The influence on the reduction is also expected to be a second or third order relationship. It is mostlikely that the main incineration parameters, such as the temperature and the oxygen concentration, have a majorinfluence on the dioxin formation”. The Green Paper states further that at the current levels of chlorine in municipalwaste, there does not seem to be a direct quantitative relationship between chlorine content and dioxin formation.A study commissioned by the European Commission on "Life Cycle Assessment of PVC and of principal competingmaterials" states that "Recent studies show that the presence of PVC has no significant effect on the amount ofdioxins released through incineration of plastic waste." [44]

Polyvinyl chloride 10

End-of-lifeThe European waste hierarchy refers to the 5 steps included in the article 4 of the Waste Framework Directive:[45]

1.1. Prevention - preventing and reducing waste generation.2.2. Reuse and preparation for reuse - giving the products a second life before they become waste.3.3. Recycle - any recovery operation by which waste materials are reprocessed into products, materials or substances

whether for the original or other purposes. It includes composting and it does not include incineration.4.4. Recovery - some waste incineration based on a political non-scientific formula that upgrades the less inefficient

incinerators.5. Disposal - processes to dispose of waste be it landfilling, incineration, pyrolysis, gasification and other finalist

solutions. Landfill is restricted in some EU-countries through Landfill Directives and there is a debate aboutIncineration E.g. original plastic which contains a lot of energy is just recovered in energy and not recycled.According to the Waste Framework Directive the European Waste Hierarchy is legally binding except in casesthat may require specific waste streams to depart from the hierarchy. This should be justified on the basis oflife-cycle thinking.

The European Commission has set new rules to promote the recovery of PVC waste for use in a number ofconstruction products. It says: "The use of recovered PVC should be encouraged in the manufacture of certainconstruction products because it allows the reuse of old PVC [..] This avoids PVC being discarded in landfills orincinerated causing release of carbon dioxide and cadmium in the environment".[46]

Industry Initiatives

In Europe, developments in PVC waste management have been monitored by Vinyl 2010,[47] established in 2000.Vinyl 2010's objective was to recycle 200,000 tonnes of post-consumer PVC waste per year in Europe by the end of2010, excluding waste streams already subject to other or more specific legislation (such as the European Directiveson End-of-Life Vehicles, Packaging and Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment).Since June 2011, it is followed by Vinylplus, a new set of targets for sustainable development.[48] Its main target isto recycle 800,000 tonnes/year of PVC by 2020 including 100,000 tonnes of difficult to recycle waste. Onetechnology for collection and recycling of PVC waste is Recovinyl[49] which reported the recycled tonnage asfollows: pipe 25 kT, profile 107 kT, rigid film 6 kT, flexible cables 79 kt and mixed flexible 38 kT.One approach to address the problem of waste PVC is through the process called Vinyloop. It is a mechanicalrecycling process using a solvent to separate PVC from other materials. This solvent turns in a closed loop process inwhich the solvent is recycled. Recycled PVC is used in place of virgin PVC in various applications: coatings forswimming pools, shoe soles, hoses, diaphragms tunnel, coated fabrics, PVC sheets.[50]

Restrictions

In November, 2005 one of the largest hospital networks in the U.S., Catholic Healthcare West, signed a contract withB. Braun Melsungen for vinyl-free intravenous bags and tubing.[51]

In January, 2012 a major U.S. West Coast healthcare provider, Kaiser Permanente, announced that it will no longerbuy intravenous (IV) medical equipment made with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and DEHP (di-2-ethyl hexylphthalate) type plasticizers.[52]

Polyvinyl chloride 11

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?id=YUkJNI9QYsUC& pg=PA414). Hanser Verlag. p. 414. ISBN 978-1-56990-379-7. .[2] "ACC Resin Statistics Annual Summary" (http:/ / www. americanchemistry. com/ s_acc/ sec_policyissues. asp?CID=996& DID=6872). .

Retrieved 2009-11-18.[3] Ebner, Martin (2008-11-18). "Ceresana Research Releases New Comprehensive PVC Market Study" (http:/ / www. newswiretoday. com/

news/ 42864/ ). Newswire Today. . Retrieved 2009-11-18.[4] According to IUPAC, polyvinyl chloride should be named poly(chloroethanediyl), but this name found no widespread use.[5] W. V. Titow (31 December 1984). PVC technology (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=N79YwkVx4kwC& pg=PA6). Springer. pp. 6–.

ISBN 978-0-85334-249-6. . Retrieved 6 October 2011.[6] Chanda, Manas; Roy, Salil K. (2006). Plastics technology handbook. CRC Press. pp. 1–6. ISBN 978-0-8493-7039-7.[7][7] M. W. Allsopp, G. Vianello, "Poly(Vinyl Chloride)" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 2012, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.

doi:10.1002/14356007.a21_717[8][8] Handbook of Plastics, Elastomers, and Composites, Fourth Edition, 2002 by The McGraw-Hill, Charles A. Harper Editor-in-Chief. ISBN

0-07-138476-6[9] David F. Cadogan and Christopher J. Howick “Plasticizers“ in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2000, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.

doi: 10.1002/14356007.a20_439[10][10] Titow 1984, p. 1186.[11][11] Titow 1984, p. 1191.[12][12] Titow 1984, p. 857.[13][13] At 60% relative humidity and room temperature.[14][14] Titow 1984, p. 1194.[15] Shah Rahman (19–20 June 2007). "PVC Pipe & Fittings: Underground Solutions for Water and Sewer Systems in North America" (http:/ /

www. institutodopvc. org/ congresso2/ ShahRahman. pdf) (PDF). 2nd Brazilian PVC Congress, Sao Paulo, Brazil. .[16] Uses for vinyl: pipe (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070822041842/ http:/ / vinylbydesign. com/ site/ page. asp?CID=14& DID=15).

vinylbydesign.com[17] Shah Rahman (October 2004). "Thermoplastics at Work: A Comprehensive Review of Municipal PVC Piping Products" (http:/ / www.

oildompublishing. com/ uceditorialarchive/ october04/ oct04utech. pdf) (PDF). Underground Construction: 56–61. .[18] Shah Rahman (April 2007). "Sealing Our Buried Lifelines" (http:/ / www. hultec. co. za/ downloads/ Buried_lifelines. pdf) (PDF). American

Water Works Association (AWWA) OPFLOW magazine: 12–17. .[19] Galloway F.M., Hirschler, M. M., Smith, G. F. (1992). "Surface parameters from small-scale experiments used for measuring HCl transport

and decay in fire atmospheres". Fire Mater 15 (4): 181–189. doi:10.1002/fam.810150405.[20] uPVC Windows, Doors (http:/ / www. windowstoday. co. uk/ products_pvcu. htm). Windowstoday.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-10-06.[21] PolyVinyl (Poly Vinyl Chloride) in Construction (http:/ / www. azom. com/ details. asp?ArticleID=988). Azom.com (2001-10-26).

Retrieved on 2011-10-06.[22] Fascia, Guttering, Fascias, PVCu Soffits, Roofing, Cladding (http:/ / www. windowstoday. co. uk/ cladding. htm). Windowstoday.co.uk.

Retrieved on 2011-10-06.[23][23] [Plastics: Materials and Processing (3rd Edition)] P. 36-37, 68-72,[24] Directive 2005/84/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 14 December 2005 (http:/ / eur-lex. europa. eu/ LexUriServ/ site/ en/

oj/ 2005/ l_344/ l_34420051227en00400043. pdf). Official Journal of the European Union. 27 December 2005[25] Vinyl shower curtains a 'volatile' hazard, study says (http:/ / www. canada. com/ cityguides/ winnipeg/ info/ story.

html?id=dfe49cb3-b104-4d4a-a449-14e4faf17e2b). Canada.com (2008-06-12). Retrieved on 2011-10-06.[26] Bornehag, Carl-Gustaf et al. (2004). "The Association between Asthma and Allergic Symptoms in Children and Phthalates in House Dust: A

Nested Case–Control Study". Environmental Health Perspectives 112 (14): 1393–1397. doi:10.1289/ehp.7187. PMC 1247566.PMID 15471731.

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Polyvinyl chloride 12

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Article Sources and Contributors 13

Article Sources and ContributorsPolyvinyl chloride  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=486661621  Contributors: *Wilfred*, 2T, 2beeps, A Man In Black, A. B., Addshore, Adj08, Adrian J. Hunter,Ahering@cogeco.ca, Ahoerstemeier, Ajbarendt, Alan Liefting, Alansohn, Aldie, Andrea105, Andrevan, Angusmclellan, Ankit Maity, Anna Frodesiak, ArglebargleIV, Arsenikk,AusBusinessPerson, Backinblack92, Badagnani, Bardsandwarriors, Barefootguru, Basilbrushleo, BeamerNZ, Beetstra, Beland, Belg4mit, Benjah-bmm27, Bert Hickman, Billgordon1099,Biscuittin, Blevitz01, Blinken, Blizzard242, Bobo192, Bobrayner, Boilingt, Boothy443, BorgHunter, Borgx, BrendanNZ, Brinerustle, Brodie 145, Brutaldeluxe, Bryan Derksen, Bubba73,Cacycle, Cadmium, Caiaffa, Calum MacÙisdean, CanOfWorms, Causa sui, Ccknowles, ChemGardener, Chemic29, Chimpex, Chowbok, Chris Henniker, Christian75, Ck lostsword, Ckatz,Cmgoogin, Cnwb, Coasterjunkie31, Conversion script, CoolMike, Crackerbelly, Crosbiesmith, Crystal whacker, Cvgittings, Cyrius, DMacks, DVdm, DaL33T, Dale1g, Daniblanco, Daniel C.Boyer, Danielpbell, Dannyc77, Darth Panda, Dave souza, Daveb813, Deli nk, Delta G, Dennis Brown, DerHexer, Dionyziz, DonDaMon, Donreed, Doseiai2, DrBob, Dracofhc, Drkay01, Drmies,Drmonth, Drphilharmonic, Ducati38, Dynalab, E-Pro, EdDavies, Edgar181, Edgarde, Edgart, Eeekster, Efcmagnew, El0i, ElBenevolente, Elkman, EncMstr, Epbr123, Eric-Wester, EricSGrow,Erich031985, Escape Orbit, Esprit15d, Everyking, Ewen, Femto, Fibonacci, Fissionfox, Fleela, Fnfd, Fongs, Foobar, Forenti, Fourohfour, Fratrep, Frpcad, Fæ, Gadfium, GalFisk, GallopingMoses, Gazjo, Gcm, Gene Nygaard, Gidonb, Giftlite, Gimboid13, GimpyFauxHippy, Gobonobo, Grafen, Graham87, GreenGrass, GregorB, Grutness, Guest9999, Gurch, Hadal, Harryboyles,Haza-w, Heirpixel, Hellbus, Heqs, Hippowitak, Holographicsynthesis, Hooperbloob, Hopkapi, Hu12, Huftbaumer, I Like Cheeseburgers, Imjustmatthew, Imoen, Infrogmation, Iridescent,IronMaidenRocks, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, J04n, Jaaron, JarlaxleArtemis, Jcw69, Jdpipe, Jdwwilson, Jesse ritchie, Jesster79, Jfdwolff, Jhd, Joefromrandb, Jogloran, John Heinze, Jonnie5, Jpt262,Jrtayloriv, Judofred, Jusses2, Justanother, Jynto, KCinDC, KMoriarty, Kaisershatner, Karam.Anthony.K, Karol Langner, Kci357, Keeper76, Killing sparrows, Kimiko, King Pickle, Kj650,Kollision, Krash, L Kensington, LHcheM, La goutte de pluie, Lamro, Langbein Rise, LarryMorseDCOhio, Lefer,de Karik, Leithp, Leyo, Liftarn, LilHelpa, Linkspamremover, Loren.wilton,LostLeviathan, Ly, Lyla1205, M.Ebner, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MacStep, Macsterpiece, Maestlin, Mahmud Halimi Wardag, Maias, Malcolm Farmer, Mannafredo, Mark, Marshalldunn,Martinkugler, Mastercampbell, Materialscientist, Maxi-24, Maximus Rex, Mayur, Mbeychok, Mclay1, Mendaliv, Michael Hardy, MightyWarrior, Mike Rosoft, Mikiemike, Minbk, Minimac,Mokgen, Mr. Recycle, Mromaine, Municipal.asset.management, Munita Prasad, Mushroom, Nake89, Neforum, Neilwikiconway, Nem1yan, Neparis, Netdude, Newone, Nick, Nickkid5,Niessenwr, Nk, Notinasnaid, Nsaa, Nyh, Omicronpersei8, Onyxh0tel88, Oxymoron83, Pabouk, Pakaraki, Palffy, Panzuriel, Paulburnett, Paulthefirst, Pengo, Peruvianllama, Peterlewis, Peyre,Pflodo, Pikiwyn, Pilotguy, Pion, Pip2andahalf, Pishogue, Pit, Plasticman2, Plastikspork, Polyparadigm, Pseudomonas, Psiphiorg, Pspicecamaron, Puchiko, Puffin, PureRED, Quickmythril, R'n'B,R000t, RMHED, Radon210, Rambeeke, Random User 937494, RandomP, Rccoms, Rchandra, Rebthered, RexNL, Rich Farmbrough, Rifleman 82, Rjwilmsi, Ronhjones, Rosieplichta, SCEhardt,SDC, Sadads, SadanYagci, Saimhe, Sargant, Sarregouset, SchreiberBike, Securiger, Seraphim, Sf5xeplus, SgtMunk, Shaddack, Shimmin, Shootbamboo, Siawase, SilentC, Sillybilly, Simms.pa,Skater, Smalljim, Smokefoot, Some jerk on the Internet, Sonjaaa, Spencerk, Spiffy sperry, StanZegel, StaticGull, Stefan Milosevski, Stephen.beaudoin, Stewartadcock, Strifedaniel, StruthiousBandersnatch, Stu42, StuPat, Sturm55, SudoGhost, Super Rad!, Superm401, Superowls, Susten.biz, Synchronism, Tanner Swett, Tarquin, Tassedethe, Tdogg241, Techdoctor, Technotaoist,TestPilot, Tha Stunna, Thaurisil, The Flying Spaghetti Monster, The Letter J, The Next Doctor, The Nut, The Thing That Should Not Be, The lorax, Thebandman, Thrindel, Thumperward, Tiderolls, Tifferroni, Tiger1616, Tim Starling, Tobinmarcus, Tom Lent, Tom harrison, Tomasz Dolinowski, Tomjohnson357, TransUtopian, Trev M, Trusilver, Tsukiyume1209, Tucker T, Txuspe,Uncle Dick, United1234567890, Vanisheduser12345, Vilerage, Vir Novus, Viriditas, Voidxor, Von1235, Vssun, Vuo, Waealu, Wandering perfect fool, Watch37264, Wavelength, Wayne Slam,WegianWarrior, Wervo, West.andrew.g, Wgfcrafty, Wickey-nl, WikHead, WikiWikiPhil, Wikibofh, Wikichem, Wildplum69, Wiza, Wizard191, Wizzard2k, Wolock, Woohookitty, WordyMcWordWord, Wtmitchell, Wtshymanski, Youngamerican, Zach Biesanz, Zack, Zaphraud, Zscout370, 802 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributorsimage:Pipes.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pipes.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: ubercultureFile:Pure Polyvinyl Chloride powder.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pure_Polyvinyl_Chloride_powder.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: LHcheMFile:PVC-3D-vdW.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PVC-3D-vdW.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Benjah-bmm27Image:PVC-polymerisation-2D.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PVC-polymerisation-2D.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Benjah-bmm27, Cjp24,Edgar181, SarregousetImage:Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Annabel, Benjah-bmm27,ShaddackImage:Builder's tudorbethan.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Builder's_tudorbethan.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:User:Dave souzaFile:Double glazed Units.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Double_glazed_Units.JPG  License: Creative Commons Zero  Contributors: Mfc3058

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