Punctuation and Grammar

Punctuation and GrammarWriting Workshop #4 – Grace Bible College

Agenda• Paragraphs• Sentence structure

– Independent and Dependent Clauses– Subject Verb Agreement

• Punctuation– Commas– Semi-colons and colons– Apostrophes– Capitalization

Summarize the main idea of your paragraph. Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about.

1. Topic Sentence

Paragraphs

EXAMPLE: There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world. First, Canada has an excellent health care system. All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price. Second, Canada has a high standard of education. Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university. Finally, Canada's cities are clean and efficiently managed. Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live. As a result, Canada is a desirable place to live.

The basic rule of thumb with paragraphing is to keep one idea to one paragraph. If you begin to transition into a new idea, it belongs in a new paragraph.

Adequate development

The topic should be discussed fully and adequately.

Some methods to make sure your paragraph is well-developed:• Use examples and illustrations

• Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)

• Use an anecdote or story

• Define terms in the paragraph

• Examine effects and consequences

2. One Idea Per Paragraph

Paragraphs

Paragraphs are units of thought with one idea developed adequately. Listed here are some rules of thumb to use when paragraphing. As your writing improves, you'll be able to break these "rules" to meet your own needs. Until then, these suggestions can be helpful:

• Put only one main idea per paragraph.

• Aim for three to five or more sentences per paragraph.

• Include on each page about two handwritten or three typed paragraphs.

• Indent your paragraph one tab ( 0.5” )

3. Flow and Organization

Paragraphs

When you begin a new idea or point. New ideas should always start in new paragraphs. If you have an extended idea that spans multiple paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.

To contrast information or ideas. Separate paragraphs can serve to contrast sides in a debate, different points in an argument, or any other difference.

When your readers need a pause. Breaks between paragraphs function as a short "break" for your readers—adding these in will help your writing more readable. You would create a break if the paragraph becomes too long or the material is complex. When you are ending your introduction or starting your conclusion. Your introductory and concluding material should always be in a new paragraph. Many introductions and conclusions have multiple paragraphs depending on their content, length, and the writer's purpose.

4. When to start a new paragraph

Paragraphs

Independent and dependent clauses

• An independent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. An independent clause is a sentence.

– Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz.

• A dependent clause is a group of words that contains a subject and verb but does not express a complete thought. A dependent clause cannot be a sentence.

– When Jim studied in the Sweet Shop for his chemistry quiz

Basics of Sentence Structure

• Sentence fragments

Fragments are incomplete sentences. Usually, fragments are pieces of sentences that have become disconnected from the main clause.

– Fragment: I need to find a new roommate. Because the one I have now isn't working out too well.

Possible Revision: I need to find a new roommate because the one I have now isn't working out too well.

– Fragment: Toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.

Possible Revisions:

• Complete verb: Toys of all kinds were thrown everywhere.

• Direct object: They found toys of all kinds thrown everywhere.


Run-ons, Commas Splices, and Fused Sentences• A run-on sentence occurs when a writer

– runs two complete sentences together with no punctuation between them (creating a “fused sentence”)

• I got up late this morning I didn't have time for breakfast.

– incorrectly uses a comma to join two complete sentences (creating a “comma splice”)

• I got up late this morning, I didn't have time for breakfast.

– crams too many complete statements into a single sentence (creating an overloaded sentence) Grammatically, the problem is small. It may be nothing more than a punctuation error.

• I went into the kitchen late at night for a glass of milk and I noticed that the basement doorknob seemed to be turning, and I panicked until I found it was only the cat, and I remembered she had learned to turn doorknobs.


Run-ons, Commas Splices, and Fused Sentences

• In most cases a run-on sentence occurs because the writer’s thoughts outrun the writer’s punctuation skills.

– INCORRECT: I got up late this morning I didn't have time for breakfast.

– INCORRECT: I got up late this morning, I didn’t have time for breakfast.

– CORRECT: I got up late this morning, so I didn’t have time for breakfast.

– INCORRECT: I went into the kitchen late at night for a glass of milk and I noticed that the basement doorknob seemed to be turning, and I panicked until I found it was only the cat, and I remembered she had learned to turn doorknobs.

– CORRECT: : I went into the kitchen late at night for a glass of milk and I noticed that the basement doorknob seemed to be turning. I panicked until I found it was only the cat, and I remembered she had learned to turn doorknobs.


Run-ons, Commas Splices, and Fused Sentences• Run-on sentences can be corrected in three easy ways:

– Make separate sentences.

• Currently we are renting an apartment. We hope to buy a house next year.

– Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction

• Currently we are renting an apartment, but we hope to buy a house next year.

– Use a semicolon

• Currently we are renting an apartment; we hope to buy a house next year.


Subject – Verb Agreement

• Making subjects and verbs agree simply means using singular verbs with singular subjects and plural verbs with plural subjects. The following sentences have correct subject-verb agreement:

– A trail winds along the shoreline.

Hiking trails wind through the forest.

– In the examples above, notice that adding an s to the singular noun makes it plural, while removing the s from a singular verb makes it plural.


Subject – Verb Agreement• To make the subject and verb in a sentence agree, you must first identify

them. When you look for the subject of a sentence, always look for a noun. However, be careful not to choose a noun that is not the subject of the sentence. Consider the following sentences:

– The house looks beautiful in autumn.

The trees look beautiful in autumn.

The house under the trees looks beautiful in autumn.

– When a phrase comes between the subject and verb, as in the last of the example sentences, the noun in the phrase may seem to be the subject. It never is. Even though it is closer to the verb than the actual subject, a noun in a phrase can never be the subject of a sentence.


Subject – Verb Agreement

• Do not be misled by a phrase that comes between the subject and the verb. The verb agrees with the subject, not with a noun or pronoun in the phrase.

• One of the boxes is open

• The people who listen to that music are few.

• The team captain, as well as his players, is anxious.

• The book, including all the chapters in the first section, is boring.

• The woman with all the dogs walks down my street.


Pronouns

Pronouns• Avoiding Problems

– Shifts in number or person• A baseball player leads an exciting life because they get

to travel to many interesting cities. – A player can’t be replaced with the pronoun they because a

player is singular and they is plural– However, you have to be careful how you replace the singular

noun. If you don’t know if the noun is a male or female, you need to replace it with ‘he or she’

» A baseball player leads an exciting life because he or she gets to travel to many interesting cities.

Pronouns• Avoiding Problems

– Shifts in number or person• Many new students feel overwhelmed at first. However,

they soon learn that with hard work you can make good grades.

– This example shifts from third person they to second person you. » As a new student, you may feel overwhelmed at first.

However, you will soon learn that with hard work you can make good grades.

» Many new students feel overwhelmed at first. However, they soon learn that with hard work they can make good grades.

Pronouns• Possessive pronouns

– Do not take an apostrophe• Its, hers, theirs

– I saw her book on your table.– The kids are yours, mine, and ours.

• Reflexive Pronouns (myself, herself, himself)– Intensify the noun they refer to (must be in the sentence before you can refer

to it) – You cannot use a reflexive pronoun unless you have referred to the subject

already in the sentence. • Correct: I bought a present for myself.• Incorrect: Audrey and myself are going to the shareholders' meeting this

afternoon.

Pronouns• Subject Case

– Used as the subject or after the verb be– I, You, He, She, It, We, They

• She likes ice cream.• They are not happy.

• Object Case– Objects of verbs (receive the action)– Indirect objects (explain for whom or to whom something is done) – Me, You, Him, Her, It, Us, Them

• Mary doesn't like him.• The politician lied to us.

Who Whom

Pronouns• Compound Constructions

– To find the right case when your sentence has two pronouns or a noun and a pronoun, temporarily eliminate the noun or one of the pronouns as you read it to yourself – choose the correct form, either subject or object pronoun

• You and I will take the bus. • I made enough cookies for you and them.

• Who or Whom?– Who is a subject– Whom is an object– If you aren’t sure, turn a question into a statement or rearrange the order of

the phrase(Who, Whom) are you looking for?You are looking for whom

Pronouns

• Who/Which/That– Who – is used for people

• Anya is the one who rescued the bird.– Which – nonessential clauses

• The product claiming "all natural ingredients," which appeared in the Sunday newspaper, is on sale.

– That – essential clauses• Lokua is on the team that won first place.

Quotation Marks vs. italics When deciding whether to use italics or quotation marks for titles, the

general rule is to use italics for long works, such as magazines, full-length books, novels, TV series, and movies, and to use quotation marks for shorter works, such as articles, chapters, short stories, and episodes of TV series. Here is an example:

The funniest episode of Everybody Loves Raymond was "The Suitcase on the Stairs.”

Everybody Loves Raymond was a situation comedy series on television.

"Renewal" is the first chapter of The Earth Knows My Name. The Earth Knows My Name is a book.

A progressive rock band has recorded a song, "Roncevaux," based on the French medieval epic The Song of Roland.

Commas

Commas indicate a pause to help readers understand what is written

Compound Sentences Use when joining independent clauses

And, for, or , yet, but , nor so We were doing our homework, but we were interrupted.

Commas• The firemen rushed to the scene, and they put out

the fire.Uses a comma because it joins two independent

clauses.

• Jim entered the track meet and won the 400 meters.Does not use a comma because it joins two verbs.

Commas Compound Sentences

Use a semicolon when joining independent clauses and a connecting word and then a comma after the connection word

However, therefore, consequently, moreover, nevertheless, furthermore, I had my homework finished; however, I wanted to double check I

completed everything. Just use a semicolon when joining independent clauses with no

connecting words Everyone finished their homework; they felt more confident in their writing.

Commas

Introductory words, phrases, and clauses A comma is needed after introductory words, phrases

and clauses that come before the main clause. Yes, No, However, Well, In fact, First

Yes, we will be going to the game. Long prepositional phrases

With the help of all our friends, we were able to finish on time. Phrases ending in –ing verbals, -ed verbals, and t0 +verb.

Having run the race at a record speed, he won a trophy. Offended by the content of the movie, they walked out. To be able to see the baby, you better visit while she is awake.

Commas

• When you are traveling west from Philadelphia, you arrive in Chicago long before you arrive in Salt Lake City.

• After being awakened by our first bear, we drove to town the very next day and bought a big tent.

Commas Series and Lists

Use commas when three or more items are listed in a series

The commas after the last item before and or or is preferred, but it may be omitted if there is no possibility of misreading.

Would you like chocolate, vanilla or strawberry? Would you like chocolate, vanilla, or strawberry?

The comma before and cannot be omitted in sentences where and preceded or followed by terms that belong together (bread and butter)

He ate his lunch of juice, crackers, and peanut butter and jelly. If one or more of the items in a series have commas, semicolons should

be used between items The team was made up of John Rush, center; Bill Nadell, forward;

and Jim Camarota, guard.

Commas• Getting to a scheduled airline flight these

days can be very difficult due to the requirement that you take off your shoes and jacket, throw away your water bottle, and show your ticket before you enter the gate area.

Commas Usually, the terms restrictive and nonrestrictive describe relative

clauses—clauses beginning with who, which, or that.

A clause is restrictive (or essential or identifying) if the meaning of the

sentence would not be clear without it. Do not use a comma with a

restrictive clause. Consider this example:

Full-time students who attend summer school usually graduate in

less than four years.

.

Commas A clause is nonrestrictive (or nonessential or

nonidentifying) if the meaning of the sentence would remain

the same even without it. Always use commas with

nonrestrictive clauses.

The following sentence contains a nonrestrictive clause:

College students, who buy many compact discs, are a

main source of income for record companies.

http://blog.writeathome.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Semicolon1-1024x558.jpg

Semicolons• Avoid combining just any two ideas with a semicolon; join

ideas that are very closely connected.• Cause and Effect

• The attic has not been cleaned in years; it smelled of dust and mold.

• Generalization and example• Telephone solicitors always call at dinnertime; last

night, we were interrupted twice during our meal. • Statement and comment

• My wife considers The Three Stooges to be utterly moronic; I still think they are pretty funny.

Semicolons• Transitional terms

• However, thus, nevertheless, therefore

• Help the reader see how the idea in the second part of the sentence relates to the idea in the first part.

• When using a transitional term right after a semicolon, put a comma after the term.

• My car is too loud; therefore, I think it needs a new muffler.

Semicolons• The main use is to separate two related independent

clauses• Semicolons are similar to periods; they can both be used to

punctuate complete sentences. • Even baby giraffes are tall; their average height is six feet.

‘Imaginary Period’ Tip

TIP:Can you replace the semicolon with a period?

If there is a complete sentence on both sides of the imaginary period, the semicolon is correct.

Colons Introduce a quotation My teacher’s remark on my final essay was very complimentary: “This essay

coherently analyzes musical trends of the late 20th century.” Introduce lists that are not needed for the sentence to be

grammatically correct. At the theater I met three friends: Jose, Tyrone, and Mark.

It cannot introduce a list if the list is needed for the sentence to be complete. For our trip be sure to bring such items as a flashlight, clothes

and money.

‘Imaginary Period’ Tip

TIP:If you replace the colon with a period, would the part before the period be a complete sentence?

If so, the colon is probably correct.

Apostrophes in Contractions

• Contractions are shortened forms of words• Errors occur when a contraction lacks an apostrophe or

when the apostrophe appears in the wrong placewasnt ≠ was not wasn’t = was notits ≠ it is it’s = it is

• its is the possessive form of it. The dogs was glad to chew its bone.

• In formal writing, consider using the full, uncontracted forms rather than the contracted ones.

Apostrophes Showing PossessionTo see if you need to make a possessive, turn the phrase around and make it an "of the..." phrase. For example: the boy's hat = the hat of the boy

three days' journey = journey of three days

If the noun after "of" is a building, an object, or a piece of furniture, then no apostrophe is needed.

room of the hotel = hotel room door of the car = car door leg of the table = table leg

Apostrophes Showing Possession• Writers add an apostrophe and an s to indicate that

somebody possesses something.• I cooked my husband’s supper.

• The apostrophe lets readers know the s is added to show possession, not plurality.

• If a noun ends in s because it is plural, you just add an apostrophe after this s to indicate possession. • two cats' toys• three friends' letters

Apostrophes Showing Possession• For most singular possessive nouns, use an ‘s at the end of

the word.• The judge’s robe• Boss’s tie

• Exception – if it results in a tongue twister when it is said aloud• Sarah Connors’ son instead of Sarah Connors’s son

• If the possessive noun is plural, begin with the plural form. Then add JUST the apostrophe if the plural form ends in s. • Students’ cars

• For plurals that don’t end in s, add ‘s to make them possessive• Children’s toys

Capitalization

Use capital letters in the following ways:• The first words of a sentence

– When he tells a joke, he sometimes forgets the punch line.

• The pronoun "I"– The last time I visited Atlanta was several

years ago.

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/592/01/

Capitalization Proper nouns and proper adjectives should be capitalized to show

they are the ‘official’ names or nicknames of specific persons, places, things, or events.

Words that are derived from official names are capitalized. English, South (name of region)

General words are not capitalized math, high school Calculus I, Lewis and Clark High School

Watch how words are being used in a sentence My mom is my best friend. (common noun) I asked Mom for a favor. (name)

Capitalization The names of God, specific deities, religious figures, and

holy books Bible, Jesus, Hell, Heaven are all capitalized.

Titles preceding names, but not titles that follow names She worked as the assistant to Mayor Hanolovi. I was able to interview Miriam Moss, mayor of Littonville.

CapitalizationDirections that are names (North, South, East, and West when used as sections of the country, but not as compass directions)

The Patels have moved to the Southwest. Jim's house is two miles north of Otterbein.

The days of the week, the months of the year, and holidays (but not the seasons used generally)

Halloween October Friday winter

Ellipsis• If the original quote is too long and you feel not all the

words are necessary in your own paper, you may omit part of the quote. Replace the missing words with an ellipsis.

Original Quote: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They played a better game, scored more points, and that's why we lost."

Omitted Material: The quarterback told the reporter, "It's quite simple. They . . . scored more points, and that's why we lost."

https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/577/02/

Wrap Up

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Punctuation and Grammar