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Psychological Psychological Attributes: Attributes: Ability, Interests, & Ability, Interests, & Personality Personality

Psychological Attributes: Ability, Interests, & Personality

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Psychological Attributes: Psychological Attributes: Ability, Interests, & Ability, Interests, &

PersonalityPersonality

Attributes and Decision MakingAttributes and Decision Making

• Certain psychological attributes have been shown to be Certain psychological attributes have been shown to be more relevant for decision making regarding individuals -- more relevant for decision making regarding individuals -- but this depends on the nature of the decision. but this depends on the nature of the decision.

• When using psychological attributes in making decisions, When using psychological attributes in making decisions, it is absolutely vital to match the appropriate attribute it is absolutely vital to match the appropriate attribute with the predicted behavior. with the predicted behavior.

•For example, measures of general intelligence wouldn’t be For example, measures of general intelligence wouldn’t be of much use in determining an appropriate psychological of much use in determining an appropriate psychological treatment. treatment.

Attributes and Decision Making (cont.)Attributes and Decision Making (cont.)

• All psychological attributes of interest are assumed to be All psychological attributes of interest are assumed to be normally distributed. normally distributed.

• Therefore, all psychological attributes should reveal Therefore, all psychological attributes should reveal individual differences (used for comparisons). individual differences (used for comparisons).

• This assumption of normal distribution is necessary in This assumption of normal distribution is necessary in order to analyze data with parametric statistics. order to analyze data with parametric statistics.

Fluid AttributesFluid Attributes

• Fluid attributesFluid attributes such as mood can change such as mood can change on an hour to hour basis. This instability on an hour to hour basis. This instability indicates that moods are not great indicates that moods are not great predictors of future behavior within a predictors of future behavior within a particular situation. particular situation.

• Attitudes and Opinions are also relatively Attitudes and Opinions are also relatively fluid from 18 to 25. fluid from 18 to 25.

• Personal Values can also change over Personal Values can also change over time. time.

• The fluidity of the above attributes makes The fluidity of the above attributes makes them less than optimal predictors of them less than optimal predictors of important behaviors important behaviors

Stable AttributesStable Attributes• Stable attributes are essential in making long Stable attributes are essential in making long term predictions. e.g., Adult Intelligenceterm predictions. e.g., Adult Intelligence

• Intelligence, although relatively fluid at an early Intelligence, although relatively fluid at an early age, is relatively stable across the majority of adult age, is relatively stable across the majority of adult years. years.

• Researchers believe that an individual’s Researchers believe that an individual’s personality is basically set by age 5. personality is basically set by age 5.

•Broad classes of Interest are also relatively Broad classes of Interest are also relatively stable. stable.

• Due to the relative stability of measures of Due to the relative stability of measures of ability, interest, and personality, these three areas ability, interest, and personality, these three areas are the primary focus of people using psychological are the primary focus of people using psychological tests to predict future behavior. tests to predict future behavior.

What is Intelligence?What is Intelligence?• Intelligence is a construct (i.e, concrete Intelligence is a construct (i.e, concrete observational entities), not a concrete object.observational entities), not a concrete object. • Researchers disagree on what the definition of Researchers disagree on what the definition of intelligence should be. intelligence should be.

• Although we may not be able to definitively answer Although we may not be able to definitively answer what intelligence is, we can list behaviors which we what intelligence is, we can list behaviors which we feel represent some level of intelligence. feel represent some level of intelligence.

For Example:For Example:

- Crossing a busy street without looking both ways. - Crossing a busy street without looking both ways. - Being able to solve a Rubiks cube- Being able to solve a Rubiks cube- Being able to get a super low airfare on - Being able to get a super low airfare on priceline.com priceline.com

• Additionally, none of these behaviors alone can be Additionally, none of these behaviors alone can be said to represent the entire range of intelligent said to represent the entire range of intelligent behavior.behavior.

What is Intelligence (cont.)?What is Intelligence (cont.)?Scientists believe that intelligence is a valid and Scientists believe that intelligence is a valid and useful construct for two reasons : useful construct for two reasons :

FirstFirst, , a wide variety of mental processing tasks a wide variety of mental processing tasks show systematic individual variation. An individual show systematic individual variation. An individual who performs well on one measure of cognitive who performs well on one measure of cognitive ability, will likely perform well on other measures ability, will likely perform well on other measures of mental processing. of mental processing.

SecondSecond, this construct is related to success in a , this construct is related to success in a wide variety of life tasks : school performance, wide variety of life tasks : school performance, training programs, and work behaviors. training programs, and work behaviors. So, since intelligence does exhibit consistent So, since intelligence does exhibit consistent individual differences and can be used to predict individual differences and can be used to predict performance in a number of important areas.performance in a number of important areas.

What is Intelligence (cont.)?What is Intelligence (cont.)?

Although experts differ on an exact Although experts differ on an exact definition of intelligence most agree that definition of intelligence most agree that intelligent behavior has at least two intelligent behavior has at least two components:components:

1. The ability to 1. The ability to learn from experience. learn from experience.

2. The ability to 2. The ability to adapt to the surrounding adapt to the surrounding environment.environment.

Definition of IntelligenceDefinition of Intelligence•(1) The ability to learn or understand (1) The ability to learn or understand or to deal with new or trying or to deal with new or trying situations : the skilled use of reason situations : the skilled use of reason (2) : the ability to apply knowledge to (2) : the ability to apply knowledge to manipulate one's environment or to manipulate one's environment or to think abstractly as measured by think abstractly as measured by objective criteria (Webster's) objective criteria (Webster's)

• The cognitive abilities of an The cognitive abilities of an individual to learn from experience, to individual to learn from experience, to reason well, and to cope effectively reason well, and to cope effectively with the demands of daily living.with the demands of daily living.

History of IntelligenceHistory of Intelligence

- - Relatively modern phenomenon - not until 1890Relatively modern phenomenon - not until 1890

- Before 1900, psychologists were not able distinguish - Before 1900, psychologists were not able distinguish intelligence from other human characteristics intelligence from other human characteristics

- Early development of theories of intelligence and test - Early development of theories of intelligence and test construction started in England & France.construction started in England & France.

- Galton & Cattell looked at individual differences - i.e., - Galton & Cattell looked at individual differences - i.e., reaction time, measures of strengthreaction time, measures of strength

- Classification of mentally retarded - treatment was - Classification of mentally retarded - treatment was inhumane.inhumane.

History of Intelligence (cont.)History of Intelligence (cont.)

- - Binet was commissioned by Ministry of Public Binet was commissioned by Ministry of Public Instruction to construct a test that differentiates children Instruction to construct a test that differentiates children with learning disabilities from non-learning disabled with learning disabilities from non-learning disabled children.children.

- Binet-Simon scale was created and contained 30 items - Binet-Simon scale was created and contained 30 items arranged in order of difficulty. arranged in order of difficulty.

- Most items called for the use of language, reasoning, or - Most items called for the use of language, reasoning, or comprehension.comprehension.

- Binet-Simon scale was revised by Terman (1916) and - Binet-Simon scale was revised by Terman (1916) and renamed Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - the term IQ is renamed Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test - the term IQ is born.born.

History of Intelligence (cont.)History of Intelligence (cont.)

Sir Francis GaltonSir Francis Galton

Charles SpearmanCharles Spearman

Louis ThurstoneLouis Thurstone

General factor (g)

J. P. GuilfordJ. P. Guilford

Howard GardnerHoward Gardner

The Biological Basis of IntelligenceThe Biological Basis of IntelligenceGaltonGalton (1822-1911) - (1822-1911) - view of intelligence is that it is a view of intelligence is that it is a

single general factor that is the basis. single general factor that is the basis.

G factorA greater ability to form neural connections which A greater ability to form neural connections which leads to a better general intellectual performanceleads to a better general intellectual performance

(i.e. if we are generally intelligent, we are more likely to develop strong mechanical, musical, artistic, and other kinds of ability)

• Brain can process information more quicklyBrain can process information more quickly

• Better able to learn from experienceBetter able to learn from experience

Two Factor Theory of IntelligenceTwo Factor Theory of IntelligenceSpearman observed that an individual’s scores on any two Spearman observed that an individual’s scores on any two cognitively demanding tasks were positively correlated. This led him cognitively demanding tasks were positively correlated. This led him to believe that a general intellectual factor (g), was responsible for to believe that a general intellectual factor (g), was responsible for this correlation.this correlation.

Basically His Idea Was:Basically His Idea Was:

Different types of problems require different types of abilities. For example, the abilities needed to fix a car are at least somewhat different from the abilities needed to do a geometric proof in math class. But, all types of problems require an ability to see relationships between things and to manipulate those relationships. All types of problems require g.

So performance on all tasks are determined by a general factor (g) which determines the ability to see relationships and manipulate those relationships and more specific factors (s)

Fluid and Crystallized IntelligenceFluid and Crystallized Intelligence

Crystallized IntelligenceCrystallized Intelligence - - an individuals acquired set of an individuals acquired set of knowledge and skills. knowledge and skills.

In cognitive psychology, crystallized intelligence is further divided In cognitive psychology, crystallized intelligence is further divided into: into: Declarative KnowledgeDeclarative Knowledge: Fact based information : Fact based information Procedural KnowledgeProcedural Knowledge: How to do things. : How to do things.

Fluid and Crystallized intelligence measures are correlated, but Fluid and Crystallized intelligence measures are correlated, but distinctdistinct

Cattell (1963) agreed with Spearman but argued that g Cattell (1963) agreed with Spearman but argued that g was made up of two types of general intelligence:was made up of two types of general intelligence:

Fluid IntelligenceFluid Intelligence - - the ability to see relationships, i.e. the ability to see relationships, i.e. analogies and number and digit series completion. analogies and number and digit series completion. For example : 2 4 8 16 ___ For example : 2 4 8 16 ___

Grouping Factors of IntelligenceGrouping Factors of Intelligence

• Thurstone didn’t believe that the Thurstone didn’t believe that the g g factor could explain factor could explain all variation across cognitive tests. all variation across cognitive tests.

• Thurstone theorized that there were common group Thurstone theorized that there were common group factors present in different classes of tests. factors present in different classes of tests. For example, a reading comprehension test and a For example, a reading comprehension test and a vocabulary test show greater correlation than do a reading vocabulary test show greater correlation than do a reading comprehension test and a measure of numerical ability. comprehension test and a measure of numerical ability.

• These group factors are independent of one another, but These group factors are independent of one another, but still related to still related to gg. .

Grouping Factors of Intelligence (cont.)Grouping Factors of Intelligence (cont.)

Thurstone hypothesized seven primary mental abilities, which together combined to create g:

1. Verbal Comprehension1. Verbal Comprehension - vocabulary, reading, verbal - vocabulary, reading, verbal analogies analogies 2. Word Fluency2. Word Fluency --- anagrams, rhyming tests --- anagrams, rhyming tests 3. Number 3. Number -- mathematical operations -- mathematical operations 4. Space4. Space - spatial visualizations and mental transformation. - spatial visualizations and mental transformation. 5. Associative Memory5. Associative Memory -- rote memory -- rote memory 6. Perceptual Speed6. Perceptual Speed -- quickness in noticing similarities and -- quickness in noticing similarities and differences differences 7. Reasoning7. Reasoning - skill in inductive, deductive, and math problems - skill in inductive, deductive, and math problems

Intelligence Core Components End-StatesLogical-mathematical

Linguistic

Musical

Spatial

Sensitivity to, and capacity to discern, logicalor numerical patterns; ability to handle longchains of reasoning.

Sensitivity to the sounds, rhythms, andmeanings of words; sensitivity to thedifferent functions of language.

Abilities to produce and appreciate rhythm,pitch, and timbre; appreciation of the formsof musical expressiveness.

Capacities to perceive the visual-spatialworld accurately and to performtransformations on ones initial perceptions.

ScientistMathematician

PoetJournalist

ViolinistComposer

SculptorNavigator

Gardner’s Seven Intelligences

Gardner’s Seven Intelligences

Intelligence Core Components End-StatesBodily-Kinesthetic

Interpersonal

Intrapersonal

Abilities to control ones bodymovements and to handle objectsskillfully.

Capacities to discern and respondappropriately to the moods,temperaments, motivations, and desiresof other people.

Access to ones own feelings and theability to discriminate among them anddraw upon them to guide behavior;knowledge of one’s own strengths,weaknesses, desires, and intelligences.

DancerAthlete

TherapistSalesman

Person withdetailedaccurate self-knowledge

Measures of IntelligenceMeasures of Intelligence

- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale- Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

- The Wechsler Scales- The Wechsler Scales

Group TestsArmy Alpha : Army Alpha : consisted of 8 subtests measuring verbal, consisted of 8 subtests measuring verbal, numerical, & reasoning abilities.numerical, & reasoning abilities.

Army Beta : Army Beta : equivalent non-verbal test and used pictorials & equivalent non-verbal test and used pictorials & nonverbal instructionnonverbal instruction

Individual Intelligence Tests

Construction of Intelligence TestsConstruction of Intelligence Tests

Mental Age (MA)Mental Age (MA)Chronological Age (CA)Chronological Age (CA)

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

IQ = MA/CA x 100IQ = MA/CA x 100

Ratio IQRatio IQ

Deviation IQDeviation IQ

Normal distributionNormal distribution•Because Mental Age doesn’t typically grow after 25, this method Because Mental Age doesn’t typically grow after 25, this method underestimates most adult IQs. underestimates most adult IQs.

Construction of Intelligence TestsConstruction of Intelligence Tests- On modern tests, a deviation IQ is On modern tests, a deviation IQ is obtained. obtained.

- By comparing your actual score on an - By comparing your actual score on an intelligence test to the average score on intelligence test to the average score on that test, we determine whether you are that test, we determine whether you are above average, below average , or average above average, below average , or average in intelligence. in intelligence.

- We take the raw data from the test (your - We take the raw data from the test (your score, the average, and the standard score, the average, and the standard deviation) and we statistically transform the deviation) and we statistically transform the score into a distribution where the mean is score into a distribution where the mean is 100 and the standard deviation is 15. 100 and the standard deviation is 15.

Characteristics of Good Intelligent TestsCharacteristics of Good Intelligent Tests

2. Norms2. Norms

3. Objectivity3. Objectivity

4. Reliability4. Reliability

5. Validity5. Validity

1. Standardization1. Standardization

Importance of Intelligence ScoresImportance of Intelligence Scores

• Predicts to some extent how well we will do in lifePredicts to some extent how well we will do in life

Predictability of Intelligence Scores

• Many occupations are available only to persons Many occupations are available only to persons with college or graduate degrees.with college or graduate degrees.

• It takes less time to train persons with higher It takes less time to train persons with higher intelligence to a high level of job knowledge and intelligence to a high level of job knowledge and skill.skill.

• Persons with higher intelligence tend to perform Persons with higher intelligence tend to perform better in complex jobs.better in complex jobs.

Race-Ethnic DifferencesRace-Ethnic DifferencesDifferences in intelligence and achievement:Differences in intelligence and achievement:

Gap is narrowingGap is narrowing

•White Americans score 15 points than African Americans

• Asian Americans score higher than White Americans

Definition of PersonalityDefinition of Personality

Personality refers to “factors” Personality refers to “factors” inside people that explain their inside people that explain their behavior (MacKinnon, 1944).behavior (MacKinnon, 1944).

The sum total of typical ways of The sum total of typical ways of acting, thinking, and feeling acting, thinking, and feeling that makes a person unique.that makes a person unique.

History of PersonalityHistory of Personality

• Ancient Greeks characterized human character by Ancient Greeks characterized human character by excessive influence of bodily fluids: blood, yellow & black excessive influence of bodily fluids: blood, yellow & black bile, and phlegm.bile, and phlegm.

• Early psychological examinations looked at Early psychological examinations looked at psychopathology.psychopathology.

•By the 1930’s researchers started looking at the structure By the 1930’s researchers started looking at the structure of everyday behaviour. Came up with universal traits.of everyday behaviour. Came up with universal traits.

The Trait TheoryThe Trait Theory

Openness - refers to open-minded thinking and interest

Conscientiousness - refers to how organized and persistent we are in pursuing our goals.

Extroversion - refers to the preference for, and beheviour in

social situations Agreeableness - refers to how well we tend to interact with others

Neuroticism - refers to the tendency to experience negative thoughts and feelings.

Additions to the Big Five? – Honesty, Respect, Integrity,. Additions to the Big Five? – Honesty, Respect, Integrity,.

Many agree that five basic traits provide a Many agree that five basic traits provide a complete description of our personalities. complete description of our personalities. They are:They are:

How Personality is AssessedHow Personality is AssessedFrank (1939) stated that “an initial difficulty in the study of Frank (1939) stated that “an initial difficulty in the study of personality is the the lack of any clear cut conception of what is to be personality is the the lack of any clear cut conception of what is to be studied.studied.

Rorschach Inkblot TestRorschach Inkblot Test

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)Projective Tests

Objective Tests

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

16PF16PF

Myers Briggs Inventory Myers Briggs Inventory

What Are Projective Tests?What Are Projective Tests?

A projective test uses ambiguous A projective test uses ambiguous stimuli designed to reveal the contents stimuli designed to reveal the contents of the client’s unconscious mind. of the client’s unconscious mind.

What Are Objective Tests?What Are Objective Tests?

In an objective test, no attempt is In an objective test, no attempt is made to subjectively understand made to subjectively understand what the person means by answer what the person means by answer to each question.to each question.

What Make a Good Personality MeasureWhat Make a Good Personality Measure

InterpretabilityInterpretability - Broad vs. Narrow (more - Broad vs. Narrow (more reliable)reliable)

StabilityStability - Are tests valid? - Are tests valid?

- Are they reliable?- Are they reliable?

- Are they standardized?- Are they standardized?

Interest TestingInterest Testing

Strong (1943) defined interest as “a response to liking”Strong (1943) defined interest as “a response to liking”

• Things that we like elicit positive Things that we like elicit positive feelings, things in which we have little feelings, things in which we have little interest elicit little emotions, and things we interest elicit little emotions, and things we have disinterested in elicits apathy or have disinterested in elicits apathy or feelings of aversion feelings of aversion

• Interests are different that abilities - just Interests are different that abilities - just because you like something doesn’t mean because you like something doesn’t mean you can do it well.you can do it well.

• Interests are related to satisfaction, Interests are related to satisfaction, rather than performance.rather than performance.