Psych Chapt 1

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    Chapter 1

    Introduction and Research Methods

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    What is Psychology?

    The science of behavior and mental

    processes

    Behaviorobservable actions of a person or animal

    Mindthoughts, feelings, sensations, perceptions,

    memories, dreams, motives and other subjective

    experiences

    Sciencean objective way to answer questionsbased on observable facts/data and well-described

    methods

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    Philosophical Developments

    A Question: How are mind and

    body related?

    Ren Descartes (15961650)Interactive

    dualism

    The mind and body interact to produceconscious experience

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    Philosophical Developments

    Another Question: Nature vs. Nurture

    Are abilities determined by our genes or our

    experiences? What are the interactions between genetics and

    environment?

    What effect does it have on behavior?

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    Foundations of

    Modern Psychology

    Separated from philosophy in 19th century influences from physiology remain

    Wilhelm Wundt (18321920) Leipzig, Germany

    wrote the first psychology textbook

    applied laboratory techniques to study of the mind

    structuralismidentify atoms of the mind

    focused on basic sensory and perceptual processes

    measured reaction times

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    Other Pioneers

    Edward Titchener (18671927) Wundts student, professor at Cornell University

    William James (18421910) started psychology at Harvard in 1870s

    opposed Wundt and Titcheners approach functionalisminfluenced by Darwin

    Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)

    Student of James

    First woman president of APA

    G. Stanley Hall

    Received first PhD in psychology in US

    First president of APA

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    E. B. Titchener (18671927)

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    William James (18421910)

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    Other Pioneers

    Sigmund Freud (18561939) Austrian physician that focused on illness

    psychoanalytic theory of mental disorders

    John B. Watson (18781958) psychologists should study overt behavior

    B. F. Skinner (19041990) American psychologist at Harvard

    studied learning and effect of reinforcement

    behaviorism

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    John B. Watson (18781958)

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    B. F. Skinner (19041990)

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    Humanistic Psychology

    Carl Rogers

    focus on self-determination and free will

    more positive view of basic forces than Freuds Abraham Maslow

    behavior reflects innate actualization

    theory of motivation emphasizing psychological

    growth

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    Carl Rogers (19021987) Abraham Maslow (19081970)

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    Biological Perspective

    Study the physiological mechanisms in the brain and

    nervous system that organize and control behavior

    Focus may be at various levels individual neurons

    areas of the brain

    specific functions like eating, emotion, or learning

    Interest in behavior distinguishes biological

    psychology from many other biological sciences

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    Psychodynamic Perspective

    View of behavior based on experience treating

    patients

    Psychoanalytic approach (Sigmund Freud) both a method of treatment and a theory of the mind

    behavior reflects combinations of conscious and

    unconscious influences

    drives and urges within the unconscious component ofmind influence thought and behavior

    early childhood experiences shape unconscious

    motivations

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    Behavioral Perspective

    View of behavior based on experience or

    learning

    Classical conditioning

    Operant conditioning

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    Humanistic Perspective

    Focus on motivation of people to grow

    psychologically

    Influence of interpersonal relationships onself concept

    Importance of choice and self-direction to

    reach potential

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    Cognitive Perspective

    How is knowledge acquired, organized,

    remembered, and used to guide behavior?

    Influences includePiagetstudied intellectual development

    Chomskystudied language

    Cyberneticsscience of information processing

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    Cross-Cultural Perspective

    The study of psychological differences

    among people living in different cultural

    groups How are peoples thoughts, feelings, and

    behavior influenced by their culture?

    What are the common elements across

    culture? Are these innate?

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    Evolutionary Perspective

    Influenced by Darwin and the emphasis on

    innate, adaptive behavior patterns

    Application of principles of evolution to

    explain behavior and psychological processes

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    Review

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    Psychology should study how behavior and mental

    processes allow organisms to adapt to their

    environments

    School/Approach Evolutionary perspective

    Founder Charles Darwin

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    Psychology should emphasize peoples unique

    potential for psychological growth

    School/Approach Humanistic

    Founder Maslow

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    Psychology should only study observable behavior

    School/Approach Behaviorism

    Founder Watson/Skinner

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    Goals of Psychology

    Describe

    Explain

    Predict

    Control

    behavior and mental processes

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    Scientific Skepticism

    Science helps build explanations that areconsistent and predictive rather thanconflicting and postdictive (hindsight)

    Science is based onknowledge of facts

    developing theories

    testing hypotheses

    public and repeatable procedures

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    Scientific Method

    Formulate testable questions Develop hypotheses

    Design study to collect data

    Experimental

    Descriptive Analyze data to arrive at conclusions

    Use of statistical procedures

    Use of meta-analysis

    Report results Publication

    Replication

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    What a journal reference really means

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    Theory

    Tentative explanation for observed findings

    Results from accumulation of findings of

    individual studies

    Tool for explaining observed behavior

    Reflects self-correcting nature of scientific

    method.

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    Research Strategies

    Descriptivestrategies for observing anddescribing behavior

    Naturalistic observation

    Case studiesSurveys

    Correlational methods

    Experimentalstrategies for inferring causeand effect relationships among variables

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    Descriptive Study

    Describes a set of facts

    Does not look for relationships between facts

    Does not predict what may influence the facts May or may not include numerical data

    Example: measure the percentage of new

    students from out-of-state each year since 1980

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    Naturalistic Observation

    Researchers directly observe and record

    behavior rather than relying on subject

    descriptions. Innaturalistic observationresearcher records behavior as it occurs

    naturally.

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    Case Study Method

    Highly detailed description of a single

    individual

    Generally used to investigate rare, unusual,or extreme conditions

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    Survey MethodsDesigned to investigate opinions,

    behaviors, or characteristics of aparticular group. Usually in self-reportform.

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    Samples and Sampling

    Populationlarge (potentially infinite)group represented by the sample. Findingsare generalized to this group.

    Sampleselected segment of thepopulation

    Representative sampleclosely parallelsthe population on relevant characteristics

    Random selectionevery member of largergroup has equal change of being selectedfor the study sample

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    Correlational Study

    Collects a set of facts organized into two or

    more categories measure time spent playing video games

    measure other personality characteristics

    Examines the relationship between

    categories

    Correlation reveals relationships among facts

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    Coefficient of Correlation

    Numerical indication of magnitude and

    direction of the relationship between two

    variables

    Positive correlationtwo variables vary

    systematically in the SAME direction

    Negative correlationtwo variables varysystematically in OPPOSITE directions

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    Correlational Study

    Correlation cannot prove causation

    Does playing video games cause a decline in

    academic achievement?

    Does playing video games cause more aggressive

    behavior?

    May be an unmeasured common factor

    e.g., maybe more aggressive people are attracted

    to video games.

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    Experiments

    Direct way to test a hypothesis about a

    cause-effect relationship between factors

    Factors are calledvariables

    One variable is controlled by the

    experimenter

    e.g., type of video game--violent vs. non-violent

    The other is observed and measured e.g., aggressive behavior

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    Definitions

    Hypothesistentative statement about the

    relationship between variables

    Variablesfactors that can vary in waysthat can be observed, measured, and

    verified

    Operational definitionprecise descriptionof how the variables will be measured

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    Experimental Variables

    Independent variable (IV)

    the controlled factor in an experiment

    hypothesized to cause an effect on anothervariable

    Dependent variable (DV)

    the measured factshypothesized to be affected

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    Independent Variable

    Must have at least two levels

    categoriesmale vs. female

    numericages 10, 12, 14

    Simplest is experimental vs. control group

    experimental gets treatment

    control does not

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    Experimental Design

    Random sampleevery member of the

    population being studied should have an equal

    chance of being selected for the study

    Random assignmentevery subject in the

    study should have an equal chance of being

    placed in either the experimental or control

    group

    Randomization helps avoid false results

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    Variations in Design

    Placebo control groupexposed to a fake

    IV (placebo), the effects of which are

    compared to group receiving the actual IV. Double-blind studytechnique in which

    neither experimenter nor participant is

    aware of the group to which participant isassigned

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    Possible Bias

    Expectancy effectschange in DV produced bysubjects expectancy that change should happen

    Demand characteristicssubtle cues or signals bythe researcher that communicate type ofresponses that are expected.

    Both controlled through use of double blindprocedures

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    Natural Experiments

    Often used to measure impact of naturally

    occurring events

    Used when actual experiments areimpossible or unethical to create

    Example: Effects of chronic noise on stress

    in children

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    Limitations

    Often criticized for having little to do with

    actual behavior because of strict laboratory

    conditions

    Ethical considerations in creating some

    more real life situations

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    Ethical Guidelines

    Informed consent and voluntary

    participation

    Students as participants

    Use of deception

    Confidentiality of records

    Information about the study and debriefing

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    Evaluating Media Reports

    Be skeptical of sensationalist claims

    Goal of shock media is ratings

    Look for original sources

    Separate opinion from data

    Consider methodology and operational

    definitions

    Correlation is not causality

    Skepticism is the rule is science.