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7/29/2019 Project on Production & testing of cocnut oil based biodiesel fuel
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PRODUCTION AND TESTING OF COCONUT OIL BASED BIO DIESEL
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview
The world is presently confronted with the twin crisis of fossil fuel depletion
and environmental degradation. Supply of affordable energy to all strata's of
society is at the top of the development agenda of the most developing
countries.
Petroleum based fuels such as diesel and petrol continues to be the major source
of power, but these fossil fuel reserves are estimated to last only a few more
decades from now. According to an estimate, the reserves will last for 218 years
for coal, 41 years for oil, and 63 years for natural gas. India imports about 70%
of its petroleum consumption. Security of even this supply is not guaranteed as
most of India's import is from the Gulf countries that are most of the time under
political turmoil. By 2011 this percentage is likely to increase to 82%.
Environmental concerns have increased significantly in the world over the past
decade, particularly after the Earth Summit '92. Excessive use of fossil fuels has
led to global environmental degradation effects such as green house effect, acid
rain, ozone depletion, climate change, etc and its implications are being felt in
day-to-day life.(Usage of these fossil fuels has led to increase in CO2 levels in
atmosphere from 280PPM in pre-industrial era to 350PPM now.) In the Kyoto
conference on global climate change, nations world over have committed to
reduce GHG emissions significantly.
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In fact, projections for the 30-year period from 1990 to 2020 indicate that
vehicle travel, and consequently fossil fuel demand, will almost triple and the
resulting emissions will pose a serious problem. Combustion of various fossilfuels lead to emission of several pollutants, which are categorized as regulated
(ones whose limits have been prescribed by environmental legislations) and
unregulated pollutants (for which no legislative limits have been prescribe).
Regulated pollutants include NOx, CO, HC, particulate matter (PM) and
unregulated pollutants include formaldehyde, benzene, toluene, Xylene (BTX),
aldehydes, SO, CO, methane etc. They contribute to several harmful
effects on human health, which are categorized as short and long term health
effects. The short term health effects are caused by CO, nitrogen oxides, PM,(primarily unregulated pollutants) formaldehyde etc. While long term health
effects are caused mainly by poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), BTX,
formaldehyde, (primarily unregulated pollutants) etc.
Scientists around the world have explored several alternative energy resources,
which have the potential to quench the ever-increasing energy thirst of todays
population. Ever since the advent of the IC engines, vegetable oils have beentried as an alternative to the diesel fuel. The inventor of the diesel engine,
Rudolf Diesel, in 1885, used peanut oil as a diesel fuel for demonstration at the
1990 world exhibition in Paris. Speaking to the engineering society of St. Louis,
Missouri, in 1992, Diesel said, The use of vegetable oils for engine fuels may
seem insignificant today, but such oils may become in course of time as
important as petroleum and the coal tar products of the present times.
1.2 Resurgence of Bio-fuels
Gasoline emerged as the dominant transportation fuel in the early twentieth
century because of the ease of operation of gasoline engines with the materials
then available for engine construction, and a growing supply of cheaper
petroleum from oil field discoveries. But gasoline had many disadvantages as an
automotive fuel. The new fuel had a lower octane rating than ethanol, was
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much more toxic (particularly when blended with tetra-ethyl lead and other
compounds to enhance octane rating), was generally more dangerous and
emitted harmful air pollutants. Gasoline was more likely to explode and burn
accidently, gum would form on storage surfaces, and carbon deposits would
form in combustion chamber. Petroleum was much more physically and
chemically diverse than ethanol, necessitating complex refining procedures to
ensure the manufacture of a consistent gasoline product. Because of its lower
octane rating relative to ethanol, the use of gasoline meant the use of lower
compression engines and larger cooling systems. Diesel engine technology,
which developed soon after the emergence of gasoline as the dominant
transportation fuel, also resulted in the generation of larger quantities of
pollutants.
However, despite these environmental flaws, fuels made from petroleum have
dominated automobile transportation for the past three-quarters of a century.
There are two key reasons: first, cost per kilometre of travel has been virtually
the sole selection criteria. Second, the large investments made by the oil and
auto industries in physical capital, human skills and technology make the entry
of a new cost-competitive industry difficult.
The result was, for many years, a near elimination of the biomass fuel
production infrastructure. Only recently have environmental impact concerns,
decreasing cost differential and recent political events in the middle- east made
biomass fuels such as biodiesel a growing alternative. In 1991, the European
Community proposed a 90% tax reduction for the use of bio-fuels, including
biodiesel. Today 21 countries worldwide produce biodiesel. Today 21 countries
worldwide produce biodiesel. India is one of the largest petroleum consuming
and importing countries.
Europe has committed to promotion of the use of bio fuels or other renewable
fuels as a substitute for gasoline or diesel in the transport sector. It requires EU
member states to set indicative targets for bio fuel sales and the reference values
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are 2 % bio fuel penetration in gasoline and diesel by 2005, raising it to 5.75%
by 2010.
1.3 Potential of Bio-fuels
Governments aim to reduce reliance on imported energy and promote domestic
renewable energy programs, which could utilize domestic resources and create
new economic activities. Though bio fuels remain relatively small in use
compared to other forms of energy, the scenario is changing rapidly. When
factors are coupled with vast agro-resources, new technologies that reduce cost,emphasise on environment and pollution abatement and a strong will from both
government and private entrepreneurs; the markets for bio fuels are slowly but
surely gaining momentum.
Various bio fuel energy resources explored include biomass, biogas, primary
alcohols, vegetable oil, biodiesel etc. These alternative energy resources are
largely environment-friendly but they need to be evaluated on case-to-case basisfor their advantages, disadvantages and specific applications. Some of these
fuels can be used directly while others need to be formulated to bring the
relevant properties closer to conventional fuels.
In the Indian context, vegetable oils can be seriously considered as a fuel for CI
engines as the huge scope for cultivating oil crops is a major advantage. Also
the combustion related properties of vegetable oils and its derivatives aresomewhat similar to diesel oil. Moreover there is a vast forest resource from
which oil can be derived and formulated to give combustion related properties
close to that of diesel oil. Use of ethanol-diesel blends and biodiesel are the two
possibilities.
Biodiesel is chemically modified alternative fuel for diesel engines, derived
from vegetable oil fatty acids, and animal fat. Chemically it is defined as themono alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from renewable lipid sources
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that is, vegetable oils. This bio fuel obtained after transesterification is labelled
pure biodiesel (B100). But usually this pure bio fuel is mixed or blended with
different proportions of diesel to obtain various blends. In the present study the
blends prepared are B10, B20 and B30, B40, B50.
Broadly speaking, due to wide variations in climate, soil conditions, and
competing use of land, different nations and researchers look upon different
vegetable oils, which are locally available, as potential fuels. Considering the
huge rates of consumption of petroleum fuels at present, it is clear that
vegetable oils can, at best, provide only a partial replacement.
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CHAPTER 2
BIODIESEL AS AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL
2.1 Requirements of fuel used in CI engines
2.1.1 Ignition quality
Satisfactory diesel combustion demands self-ignition of the fuel as it is sprayed
near TDC into the hot swirling compressed cylinder gas. Long ignition delay is
not acceptable as it lead to knock. Therefore, the cetane number of the substitute
fuel should be high enough, which is a measure of knock tendency of the fuel.
Satisfactory fuel must have a cetane number between 40 and 60.
2.1.2 Viscosity
Fuel viscosity plays an important role in the combustion of fuel used. The direct
injection in the open combustion chamber through the nozzle and pattern of fuel
spray decides the ease of combustion and the thermal efficiency of the engine.
The high viscosity of vegetable oil tends to alter the injection spray pattern
inside the engine causing fuel impingement on the piston and other combustion
chamber surfaces. Viscosity of vegetable oils exerts a strong influence on the
shape of the fuel spray. High viscosity causes poor atomization, large droplets,
and high spray jet penetration. With high viscosities, the jet tends to be a solid
stream instead of spray of small droplets. As a result, the fuel is not distributed
in or mixed with the air required for burning. This results in poor combustion,
accompanied by loss of power and economy. This leads to formation of carbon
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deposits in the engine that eventually result in problems such as struck piston
rings with subsequent engine failures that wouldnt occur when using diesel.
Too low viscosity can lead to excessive internal pump leakage. The effect of
viscosity is critical at low speed or light load conditions.
2.1.3 Heating
Pour point and cloud point are important for cold weather operation of the I.C
engine. For satisfactory working, the values of both should be well below the
freezing point of the oil used. Flash point is an important temperature from asafety point of view. This temperature should be as high as practically possible.
Typical values of commercial vegetable oils fuel range between 50 and 110C.
2.1.4 Other properties
The sulphur content, carbon residue and ash are responsible for corrosion andforming a residue on the engine parts which will affect the engine life. These
values should be as small as possible. Practical values are 0.5% sulphur, 0.27%
carbon residue and 0.01% ash. Engine emissions should be within prescribed
limits.
2.2 Feasibility of introducing a new fuel
For successful use of any new fuel, therefore, requires a comprehensive
evaluation of the physical and chemical properties of the fuel, and their impact
on the engine performance, fuel economy, lubricating oil performance, engine-
out emissions, durability, safety and health effect. Such an evaluation requires
an extensive range of testing, both short-term as well as long term. The table
below gives the checklist for introducing a new automotive fuel.
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There are several factors that need to be taken care before recommending any
alternative fuel to be used in existing technologies on a large scale. These
factors are stated below.
1. Extent of modifications required in existing hardware, i.e., if any
alternative fuel needs extensive modification in the existing hardware
involving huge capital then it may be difficult to implement.
2. Investment costs for developing infrastructure for processing thesealternative fuels. Excessive infrastructure cost may act as a constraint for
the development of the energy resource.
3. Environmental compatibility compared to conventional fuels. If the new
fuel is more polluting then it will be unacceptable as fuel.
4. Additional cost to the user in terms of routine maintenance, fuel economy
equipment wear and lubricating oil life. Excessive additional cost will
have an adverse effect on the widespread acceptance of this fuel.
5. Safety
6. Stability in storage and handling
2.3 Vegetable Oil and Diesel Fuel: A Comparison
Vegetable oils have comparable energy density, cetane number, heat of
vaporization and stoichiometric air/fuel ratio with mineral diesel fuel. The ideal
diesel fuel molecules are saturated non-branched hydrocarbon molecules withcarbon number ranging between12 to 18 whereas vegetable oil molecules are
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triglycerides generally with no branched chains of different lengths and degrees
of saturation.
Vegetable oils have larger molecules, up to four times larger than typical diesel
fuel molecules. The high molecular weights of vegetable oils result in low
volatility as compared to diesel fuel and a high flash point, which leads to the
oils sticking to the injector or cylinder walls. Oils then undergo oxidative and
thermal polymerization, causing a deposition on the injector, forming a film that
continues to trap fuel and interfere with combustion and leads to more deposit
formation, carbonization of injector tips, ring sticking and lubricating oil
dilution and degradation. The accompanying inefficient mixing with air
contributes to incomplete combustion. The combination of high viscosity and
low volatility of vegetable oils causes poor cold engine start-up, misfire, and
ignition delay.
Due to the above said reasons neat vegetable oil cannot be used in a diesel
engine on a long term basis and has to be modified to bring their combustion
related properties closer to that of mineral diesel oil. This fuel modification is
mainly aimed at reducing the viscosity and increasing the volatility.
2.4 Biodiesel
Biodiesel is mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from renewable
lipid feed stocks such as vegetable oil and animal fats. The mono-alkyl esterdefinition eliminates pure vegetable oil from being classified as biodiesel. There
are only five chains that are common in most vegetable oils and animal fats
(others are present in small amounts). The relative amounts of the five methyl
esters determine the physical properties of the fuel, including the cetane
number, cold flow, and oxidative stability.
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2.5 Methods to prepare Biodiesel
Considerable efforts have been made to develop vegetable oil derivatives thatapproximate the properties and performance of hydrocarbon fuel. The efforts
can be classified into four main classes
Direct use and blending
Micro emulsions
Pyrolysis( Thermal cracking)
Transesterification
2.5.1 Direct use and blending
Direct use of vegetable oils or the blends of the oils have generally been
unsatisfactory and impractical for both DI and IDI engines. The high viscosity,
acid composition, free fatty acid content as well as gum formation due to
oxidation and polymerization during storage and combustion, carbon deposits
and lubricating oil thickening are obvious problems.
2.5.2 Micro emulsions
To solve the problem of high viscosity of vegetable oils, micro emulsions with
solvents like methanol, ethanol and I-butanol have been studied. A micro
emulsion is defined as a colloidal equilibrium dispersion of optically isotropicfluid microstructures with dimensions in the range 1-150 nm formed from two
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immiscible liquids. Micro emulsion can improve spray characteristics by
explosive vaporization of low boiling point constituents in it. Short term
performance of micro emulsions of aqueous ethanol in soybean oil was nearly
as good as that of diesel in spite of lower cetane number and energy content.
2.5.3 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis strictly defined is the conversion of one substance into another by
means of heat. The pyrolyzed material can be vegetable oil, animal oil, natural
fatty acid and methyl ester of fatty acid. The pyrolysis of fats has beeninvestigated for more than 100 years now. Thermal decomposition of
triglycerides produces a mixture of compounds such as alkanes, alkenes,
alkadienes, aromatics and carboxylic acids. However this process is
economically unviable.
2.5.4 Transesterification
Transesterification process utilizes methanol or ethanol and vegetable oils as the
process inputs. Biodiesel is produced by chemically reacting a fat or oil with an
alcohol, in the presence of a catalyst. Methyl esters are preferred as methanol is
non hygroscopic and is less expensive than other alcohols. In general, due to
high value of free fatty acids (FFA) of used cooking oils, acid catalysed
Transesterification is adopted. However FFA of the feedstock used in this work
is less and hence alkali catalysed transesterification process is employed for theconversion. Almost all biodiesel is produced using base catalysed
transesterification as this is the most economical process. It requires only low
temperatures and pressures and produces a 98% conversion yield. In the most
cases, methanol or ethanol is the alcohol used, where methanol produces methyl
esters, and ethanol produces ethyl esters. Potassium hydroxide has been found
to be more suitable for the ethyl ester biodiesel production. Either base catalyst
can be used for the methyl ester.
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The transesterification is as equilibrium reaction in which excess alcohol is
required to drive the reaction close to completion. During methanolosis, two
distinct phases are present as the solubility of the oil in methanol is low and thereaction mixture needs vigorous steering.
The product of the reaction is a mixture of methyl esters, which are known as
biodiesel, and glycerol, which is a high value co-product. The process is known
as transesterification as shown as in the equation below.
There are only five chains that are common in most vegetable oils and animal
fats (others are present in small amounts). The relative amounts of the five
methyl esters determine the physical properties of the fuel, including the cetane
number, cold-flow and oxidative stability. While virtually all commercial
biodiesel producers use an alkali-catalysed process for the transesterification
process, other approaches have been proposed including acid catalysis andenzymes the use of acid catalysts has been found to be useful for pre-treating
high free fatty acid feed stocks but the reaction rates for converting triglycerides
to methyl esters are very slow.
Both formaldehyde and acetaldehyde emissions increased (almost double) with
the ethanol blend. This route of utilizing alcohol as a diesel engine fuel is
definitely a superior route as the toxic emissions (aldehydes) are drastically
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reduced. The problem of corrosion various engine parts utilizing alcohol as fuel
is also solved by way of transesterification
Alkali-catalyzed transesterification
This process involves biodiesel production from feed stocks containing low
levels of free fatty acids (FFA). This includes soybean oil, canola (rapeseed) oil,
and the higher grades of waste restaurant oils. Alcohol, catalyst, and oil are
combined in a reactor and agitated for approximately one hour at 60C. The
reaction is sometimes done in two steps where approximately 80% of thealcohol and catalyst is added to the oil in a final stage. Then, the product stream
from this reactor goes through a glycerol removal step before entering a second.
The remaining 20% of the alcohol and catalyst is added in this second reactor.
This system provides a very complete reaction with the potential using less
alcohol than single step. Following the reaction, the glycerol is removed from
the methyl esters. Due to the slow solubility of glycerol in the esters, this
separation generally occurs quickly and may be accomplished with either a
settling tank or a centrifuge. The excess methanol tends to act as a solubilizerand can slow the separation. However, this excess methanol is usually not
removed from the reaction stream until after the glycerol and ethyl esters are
separated due to concern about reversing the transesterification reaction.
Water may be added to the reaction mixture after the transesterification iscomplete to improve the separation of glycerol. The salts will be removed
during the water washing step and free fatty acids will stay in the biodiesel. The
water washing step is intended to remove any remaining catalyst, soap, salts,
methanol or free glycerol from the biodiesel. Neutralization before washing
reduces the water required and minimizes the potential for emulsions to form
when the wash water is added to the biodiesel by vacuum flash process. The
glycerol stream leaving the separator is only about 50% glycerol. It contains
some of the excess and most of the catalyst and soap. In this form, the glycerol
has little value and disposal may be difficult. The methanol content requires the
glycerol to be treated as hazardous waste.
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Biodiesel is an important new alternative transportation fuel. It can beproduced from many vegetable oil or animal fat feed stocks. Conventional
processing involves an alkali-catalyzed process but this unsatisfactory for lowercost high free fatty acid feed stocks due to soap formation. Pretreatment
processes using strong acid catalysts have been shown to provide good
conversion yields and high quality final products. These techniques have been
extended to allow biodiesel production from feed stocks like soap stock that are
often considered to be waste. Adherence to a quality standard is essential for
proper performance of the fuel in the engine and will be necessary for wide
spread use of biodiesel.
2.6 Variables affecting transesterification
The most important variables affecting the yield of biodiesel from trans
esterification are:
2.6.1 The effect of reaction temperature
The rate of reaction is strongly influenced by the reaction temperature. However
given enough time the reaction will proceed to near completion at room
temperature. The maximum yield of esters occurred at temperature ranging
from 60 degree Celsius to 80 degree Celsius.
2.6.2 The effect of molar ratio
Another important variable affecting the yield of ester is the molar ratio of
alcohol to vegetable oil. The stoichiometry of transesterification reaction
requires 3 moles of alcohol per mole of triglyceride to yield 3 moles of fattyesters and 1 mole of glycerol. To shift the transesterification reaction in forward
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direction, it is necessary to use either an excess amount of alcohol or to remove
one of the products from the reaction mixture. A molar ratio of 6:1 is normally
used in industrial process to obtain methyl ester yields higher than 98% by
weight.
2.6.3 The effect of catalyst
Catalysts are classified as alkali, acid or enzyme. Alkali catalyst
transesterification is much faster than acid catalysts. However if a tri-glyceride
has high free fatty acid content and more water, alkali catalyst
transesterification is suitable. Alkali catalyst concentration in the range 0.5 to 1
by weight yields 94 to 99% conversion of vegetable oil into esters. Further
increase in catalyst concentration does not increase the conversion, but it adds
cost because it is necessary to remove from the reaction medium at the end.
2.6.4 The effect of reaction time
Many researchers already conducted have found out that the conversion rate
increases with reaction time
2.6.5 The effect of moisture and free fatty acids
Starting materials used for alkali catalysts transesterification must meet certain
specification. The glyceride should have an acid value less than 1 and should be
anhydrous. If the acid value is greater than 1 more NaOH is required to
neutralize the free fatty acid. The transesterification works well when the input
oil is of high quality.
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Often low quality oils are used as raw materials for biodiesel preparation. In
cases where FFA content of the oil is above 1%, difficulties arise due to the
formation of soap, which promote emulsification during the water washing
stage. If the FFA content is above 2%, the process becomes unworkable.
Interference of FFA with transesterification deactivates the basic catalyst and
biodiesel yield.
Presence of water causes soap formation which is difficult to remove and
consumes the catalyst and reduces catalyst efficiency. The resulting soap cause
an increase of viscosity, formation of gel and make separation of glycerol
difficult.
2.7 Properties of biodiesel
The biodiesel thus produced by this process is totally miscible with mineral
diesel in any proportion. The conversion of triglycerides into methyl or ethyl
esters through the transesterification process reduces the molecular weight to
one- thirds that of the triglycerides, the viscosity by a factor of about eight and
increases the volatility marginally. Biodiesel has viscosity close to mineral
diesel, hence no problems in the existing fuel handling system.
These vegetable oil ester contains 10-11% oxygen by weight, which may
encourage combustion than hydrocarbon based diesel in an engine.
Biodiesel has lower volumetric heating values (about 10%) than mineral diesel
but has a high cetane number and flash point. The esters have cloud point and
pour points that are 15-25C higher than those of mineral diesel. Calorific value
of biodiesel found to be very close to mineral diesel.
Some typical observations from the engine tests suggested that the thermal
efficiency of engine generally improves; cooling losses and exhaust gas
temperature increase, smoke opacity generally gets lower for biodiesel blends.
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Possible reason may be additional lubricity of the biodiesel; hence reduced
frictional loses
2.8 Advantages of biodiesel
2.8.1 Reductions in wear and tear
The use of biodiesel can extend the life of vital moving components in the
engine because it has inherent lubricating capacity. Tests conducted around the
world have indicated lowering of friction of engine parts and hence a reductionin wear of engine parts up to 30%.
Atomic absorption spectroscopy tests conducted on lubricating oil samples
drawn from biodiesel operated engines suggested low concentration of wear
metals such as Fe, Cu, Zn, Mg, Cr, Pb and Co. Ferrography tests showed
smaller size and lower concentration of wear debris for biodiesel operated
engines. The carbon deposits on piston top and injector choking is substantially
reduced.
2.8.2 Biodiesel A clean fuel
The use of biodiesel in a conventional diesel engine results in substantial
reduction of unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter.
Emissions of nitrogen oxides are slightly reduced or slightly increased
depending on duty cycle and testing methods. Exhaust temperatures increased
as a function of the concentration of biodiesel blend higher were the exhaust
temperatures. Increase in the exhaust temperature of biodiesel fueled engine led
to approximately 5% increase in NOx emissions biodiesel blend.
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Particulate emissions from conventional diesel engines can be divided into
three components. The first component, and the one most closely related to the
visible smoke often associated with diesel exhaust, is the carbonaceous material.
This can occur as a result of insufficient combustion air, over fuelling or poor
in-cylinder fuel-air mixing. Smoke emissions also reduced appreciably. The
higher the concentration of biodiesel blend, higher was the reduction in exhaust
smoke levels. Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel; emissions of carbon monoxide
and soot tend to reduce.
The second component is hydrocarbon or PAH material which is absorbed
on the carbon particles. A portion of this material is result of incomplete
combustion of the fuel and remainder is derived from the engine lube oil.
Finally, the third particulate component is comprised of sulfates and bound
water. The amount of this material is directly related to fuel sulfur content. The
use of biodiesel decreases the solid carbon fraction of particulate matter,
eliminate the sulfate fraction (as there is no sulfur in the fuel) (biodiesel
contains less than 24ppm sulfur), while the soluble or hydrocarbon fraction
stays the same or is increased. It also decreases the level of corrosive sulphuric
acid accumulating in the engine crankcase oil over time.
Biodiesel works well with new technologies such as catalysts (which reducethe soluble fraction of diesel particulate), particulate traps and exhaust gas
recirculation (potentially longer engine life due to less carbon). Particulate
matter reductions of 50% were obtained when using neat biodiesel compared todiesel fuel. The addition of catalyst reduced the biodiesel SOF by an additional
48%.
The lack of toxic and carcinogenic aromatics in biodiesel means the fuel
mixture combustion gases will have reduced impact on human health and
environment. The high cetane rating of biodiesel is another measure of the
additive ability to improve combustion ability. Combustion of biodiesel alone
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produces over a 90% reduction in total unburned hydrocarbons and a 75-90%
reduction in aromatic hydrocarbons.
2.8.3 Biodiesel CO cycle
The use of biodiesels can reduce emission of CO and other gases
associated with global climatic changes. As plants grow they capture CO
released during combustion processes effectively recycling the carbon. As a
result biofuel can significantly reduce net emissions. Thus there is a large a
potential for the application of biodiesel to provide sustainable fuel supplies fordistributed generation and regional energy security. Biodiesel has good potential
for rural employment generation.
2.9 Economics of biodiesel
Factors which influence the economic feasibility of biodiesel are
Economic feasibility of biodiesel depends on the price of the crude
petroleum and the cost of transporting diesel long distances to remote
markets. It is certain that the cost of crude petroleum is bound to increase
due to increase in demand and limited supply. Further, the strict
regulations on the aromatics and sulfur contents in diesel will result inhigher cost of production of diesel fuels.
The cost of producing methyl or ethyl esters from edible oils is currently
much more expensive than hydrocarbon based diesel fuel. Due to
relatively high costs of vegetable oils (about 1.5 to two times the cost of
diesel), methyl esters produced from it cannot compete economically with
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hydrocarbon based diesel fuels unless granted production from
considerable tax levies applied to the latter. Figures suggest that pure
biodiesel is of order of 120-175% more expensive. That is replacing 1litre
of conventional diesel requires 1.1litre of biodiesel.
Most of the biodiesel that is currently made uses soybean oil, methanol
and an alkaline catalyst. The high value of soybean oil as a food product
makes production of a cost-effective fuel very challenging. However,
there are large amounts of low costs oil and fats, such as restaurant waste
and animal fats that could be converted to biodiesel
The problem with processing these low cost oils and fats is that they often
contain large amount of FFA that cannot be converted to biodiesel using
alkaline catalyst. The cost of biodiesel production results in a generally
accepted view of industry in Europe that biodiesel production is notprofitable without fiscal support from the government.
From amongst the large number of vegetable oils available in the world, if any
specific oil needs to be adopted as a continuing energy crop, it is then essential
that an oilseed variety having higher productivity and oil content must be
produced. Nevertheless, technologies must be developed for the use of
vegetable oils as an alternative diesel fuel that will permit crop production to
proceed in an emergency situation. With pre-tax diesel priced at US $0.18/1 in
the US and US $0.20-.024/1 in some European countries, biodiesel is thus
certainly not economically feasible, and more research and technological
development will be needed.
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CHAPTER 3
COCONUT OIL AS AN ALTERNATIVE FUEL
3.1 Introduction
Coconut oil is an edible oil extracted from the kernel or meat of maturedcoconut harvested from the coconut palm (Cocos nucifera). Throughout thetropical world it has provided the primary source of fat in the diets of millionsof people for generations. It has various applications in food, medicine, andindustry. Coconut oil is very heat stable so is suited to methods of cooking athigh temperatures like frying. Because of its stability it is slow to oxidize andthus resistant to rancidity, lasting up to two years due to high saturated fatcontent. Numerous governmental agencies and medical organizationsrecommend against the consumption of significant amounts of coconut oil dueto the high saturated fat content.
3.2. Production
Coconut oil can be extracted through "dry" or "wet" processing. Dry processingrequires the meat to be extracted from the shell and dried using fire, sunlight or
kilns to create copra. The copra is pressed or dissolved with solvents, producingthe coconut oil and a high protein, high fiber mash. The mash is of poor quality
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for human consumption and is instead fed to ruminants; there is no process toextract the protein from the mash. The preparation and storage of copra oftenoccurs in unhygienic conditions which results in a poor quality oil that requiresrefining before consumption. A considerable portion of the oil extracted from
copra is lost due to spoilage, consumption by insects and rodents, and during theextraction process. All "wet" process involves raw coconut rather than driedcopra, using the protein in the coconut to create an emulsion of the oil and
water. The more problematic step is breaking up the emulsion to recover the oil.Originally this was done through lengthy boiling, but this produces a discoloredoil and is not economical; modern techniques uses centrifuges and various pre-treatments including cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, shock waves,
or some combination of them. Despite numerous variations and technologies,wet processing is less viable than dry processing due to a 10-15% lower yield,even compared to the losses due to spoilage and pests with dry processing. Wet
processes also requires an expensive investment of equipment and energy,incurring high capital and operating costs.
Proper harvesting of the coconut (the age of a coconut can be 2 to 20 months
when picked) makes a significant difference in the efficacy of the oil makingprocess and the use of a centrifuge process makes the best final extractedproduct. Copra made from immature nuts is more difficult to work with andproduces an inferior product with lower yields .Conventional coconut oil useshexane to extract up to 10% more oil than just using rotary mills and expellers.The oil is then refined to remove certain free fatty acids, in order to reducesusceptibility rancidification. Other processes to increase shelf life include usingcopra with a moisture content below 6%, keeping the moisture content of the oil
below 0.2%, heating the oil to 130150 C (266302 F) and adding salt or
citric acid. Virgin coconut oil (VCO) can be produced from fresh coconut meat,milk or residue. Producing it from the fresh meat involves removing the shelland washing, then either wet-milling or drying the residue and using a screw
press to extract the oil. VCO can also be extracted from fresh meat by gratingand drying it to a moisture content of 10-12%, then using a manual press toextract the oil. Producing it from coconut milk involves grating the coconut andmixing it with water, then squeezing out the oil. The milk can also be fermentedfor 36-48 hours, the oil removed and the cream heated to remove any remainingoil. A third option involves using a centrifuge to separate the oil from the otherliquids. Coconut oil can also be extracted from the dry residue left over from the
production of coconut milk.
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A thousand mature coconuts weighing approximately 8,640 kilograms(19,000 lb) yields around 170 kilograms (370 lb) of copra from which around
70 litres (15 imp gal) of coconut oil can be extracted
.
3.3 Properties of coconut oil
For proper utilization of anything, it is essential to have complete knowledge
regarding that substance. Same is the case with Coconut Oil. Before you useCoconut Oil, it will be quite helpful if you get yourself acquainted with the
properties of Coconut Oil. Broadly, the properties of Coconut Oil can beclassified as under;
Physical Properties: These properties of coconut oil are known to almosteveryone. Still, let us have a look at them;
Colour: Colourless at or above 30 degree Celsius. White when solid.
Odour: Typical smell of Coconut (if not refined, bleached &deodorized).
Melting Point: Melts at 25 degree Celsius (76 degree Fahrenheit). Solidbelow this temperature.
Smoking Point: 177 degree Celsius (350 degree Fahrenheit).
Solubility in Water: Forms a white homogenous mixture when beatenwell in little water. Otherwise insoluble in water at room temperature.
Density: 924.27 Kg/Meter Cube
3.4 Industrial applications of coconut oil
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Coconut oil has been tested for use as a feedstock for biodiesel to be used as adiesel engine fuel. In this manner it can be applied to power generators andtransport using diesel engines. Since straight coconut oil has a high gellingtemperature (2225 C), a high viscosity, and a minimum combustion chamber
temperature of 500 C (932 F) (to avoid polymerization of the fuel), coconutoil is typically transesterified to make biodiesel. Use of B100 (100% biodiesel)
is only possible in temperate climates as the gel point is approximately 10 C(50 F). The oil needs to meet the Weihenstephan standards for pure vegetableoil used as a fuel otherwise moderate to severe damage from carbonisation andclogging will occur in an unmodified engine.
The Philippines, Vanuatu, Samoa, and several other tropical island countries areusing coconut oil as an alternative fuel source to run automobiles, trucks, and
buses, and to power generators. Coconut oil is currently used as a fuel fortransport in the Philippinesfurther research into the oil's potential as a fuel forelectricity generation is being carried out in the islands of the Pacific. Coconutoil has been tested for use as an engine lubricants and a transformer oil.
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CHAPTER 4
PRODUCTION OF BIO DIESEL
4.1 TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS
Coconut oil like any other vegetable oils and animal fats are triglycerides,
inherently containing glycerine. The biodiesel process (transesterification) turns
the oils into esters, separating out the glycerine from the main product
(biodiesel). The glycerine sinks to the bottom and the biodiesel floats on top and
can be decanted off. The process is called transesterification, which substitutes
alcohol for the glycerine in a chemical reaction, using a catalyst.
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4.2 Materials required
3 litres of coconut oil, 1litre of methanol, 30grams of NaOH, measuring beakers
for methanol and oil , container with swirling arrangement enhanced by a motor
, thermometer , a heater and a 500ml separator bottle
4.3 Procedure
The entire production processes was done in our IC engines laboratory.
1litre of coconut oil was measured out in a measuring flask and is poured into
the container. The container is provided with a mechanical stirrer which is
enhanced by a motor .Now, the motor is switched on for swirling the oil. After 5
minutes, 300 ml of methanol is carefully taken and poured into the container.
Then the heater is switched on and a thermometer is inserted in the container.
The reaction temperature was set to 65 degrees which is way below the boiling
point of methanol (70 degrees). This reaction is enhanced by sodium hydroxide,
which is the catalyst . 10 grams of NaOH is carefully added to the mixture.
When the temperature is 60 degrees the heater is switched off and container isstirred at high speed .At that point additional 70 ml of methanol is also added.
The temperature is maintained at 60 degrees by frequent operation of heater and
is stirred for about 40 minutes until a visible change in the mixture is noticed.
Around 1litre of water which is preheated to 50 degrees is added to the mixture
along with 10 ml of concentrated HCl. The mixture is again swirled for another
20 minutes .This is to dissolve the glycerine which is the bi product of this
process.
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Now the mixture from the container is poured on to the seperator on which it is
kept for seperation.24 hours is allowed for the seperation process. On the next
day , it is seperated by decanting the glycerine at the bottom .In this processaround 900 ml of biodiesel is obtained The same process is repeated for about 3
times and a gross bio diesel yield of 2.7 litres is obtained . The bio diesel
obtained is stored in a container.
4.4 Process flow chart
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CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTS
Mainly two experiments are done. They are,
1. Load test on Kirloskar diesel engine.
2. Test to determine calorific value of bio diesel using Bomb calorie meter
Both of them are discussed in detail below,
5.1 Load test on kirloskar diesel engine
Aim
To conduct a load test on the Kirloskar diesel engine using 3 different fuels. viz
coconut oil, coconut oil based biodiesel and diesel .and to plot the following
graphs,1) Total fuel consumption(TFC) Vs Brake Power
2) Specific fuel consumption(SFC) Vs Brake Power
3) Brake mean effective pressure(BMEP) Vs Brake Power
4) Brake thermal efficiency(B Th ) Vs Brake Power
5) Indicated mean effective pressure(IMEP) Vs Brake Power
6) Indicated thermal efficiency(I Th ) Vs Brake Power
7) Mechanical efficiency(Mech ) Vs Brake Power
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Specifications
Type : Single cylinder water cooled BHP : 10
RPM : 1500 Bore :110 mm
Stroke : 110 mm Dynamometer constant : 1000
Apparatus
Engine test rig with loading system, stopwatch, etc.
Precautions
1) Open the fuel supply valve
2) Check the lubricating oil level
3) Start the engine on no load condition
4)Open the water inlet ad outlet series
Procedure
Calculate the maximum load that can be applied on the
engine. Start the engine on no load. Allow it to run for 5 minutes for the engine
to get heated up. At this no load condition, note the time taken for 10cc of fuel
consumption using the stopwatch .Apply the next load on the loading system.
Wait for 2 or 3 minutes and note the time taken for 10cc of fuel consumption.
Repeat this procedure by applyingthe remaining load up to the maximum
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load in 5 or 6 equal steps. Note all the observations, unload the engine and stop
it by cutting off the fuel supply.
Results & Inference
All the different graphs mentioned above are
plotted and the different parameters are compared. The different graphs are
discussed in the chapter 6. The readings taken during the experiment are given
in tables 1, 2 & 3
5.2 Test to determine calorific value of bio diesel
using Bomb calorie meter
Aim
To determine the calorific value of the given liquid fuel.
Description of the apparatus
The oxygen bomb calorimeter is very satisfactory for finding the calorific value
of solid and liquid fuels. The bomb calorimeter consists of a strong steel vessel.
The inside of the vessel is lined to prevent corrosion. It is closed by a screwed
on cover, which contains a needle valve to admit compressed oxygen. The fuel
whose calorific value is required is placed in the crucible. The fuel is ignited by
means of a fine wire, which dips into the fuel and is heated by electric current.
The copper calorimeter is surrounded by a water jacket and an air jacket, which
reduces the loss of heat by radiation and convection. A stirrer is provided so thatwater is constantly stirred throughout the experiment. The temperatures are
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measured by means of a precision thermometer. The heat equivalent or water
equivalent of the calorimeter is first determined. The water equivalent of the
bomb is the amount of water which has the same thermal capacity as the bomb
and its bucket. The value of the water equivalent of the calorimeter is found by
burning a known weight of a substance of known calorific value.
Procedure
Knowing the water equivalent of the calorimeter, find out the water to be taken
in the calorimeter. Take the calculated amount of water in the calorimeter andplace inside the chamber.
Take 10cc of distilled water inside bomb. Weigh out the given fuel accurately in
a common balance. Place the crucible with the fuel in provision made. The two
terminals are connected by a platinum wire and are connected to the fuel. Admit
oxygen into the bomb under pressure (25 Atmosphere). Place the bomb in the
calorimeter such that the water covers the bomb completely.
Replace the lid and tighten it correctly. Start the stirrer. Introduce the
thermometer. Observe the temperatures for 5 minutes (preliminary method) in
every one minute. At the end of 5th minute, switch on the electric supply to
fire the fuel. Observe the temperature rise in every 30 seconds. A sudden rise of
temperature indicates the firing of fuel.
Observe the maximum temperature attained. The period known as chief period.
Observe the fall in temperature until two consecutive reading shows constant
fall of temperature. To set correct rise in temperature a correction is to be
applied
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Result & Inference
The calorific value of bio diesel is found out and it is discussed in chapter 7.
The readings of the experiment are noted down in table 4.
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CHAPTER 6
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
6.1 Fuel properties
The oil considered in the present work is coconut oil. After transesterification
process, it is converted into bio diesel. The different fuel properties like calorific
value and density are calculated using the tests mentioned in chapter 4
6.1.1 Calorific value
The calorific value of the fuel is found out using bomb calorie meter. The
calorific value of coconut oil based bio diesel is found to be 38216.5kJ/kg,
which is way below the calorific value of diesel which is 45208.85kJ/kg. The
calorific value of pure coconut oil is found out to be 37802.3kJ/kg.
Since the calorific value of biodiesel and coconut oil is below the value for
diesel, the specific fuel consumption and total fuel consumption for both of
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them will be less. This can be clearly be evident from the figures 1 and 2 which
comes under the engine performance section
6.2 Engine performance
The performance of a diesel engine running using coconut oil, biodiesel and
diesel is studied using a Kirloskar diesel engine as explained in the previous
chapter 5
6.2.1 Brake power
Variation of brake power with load for different loads fuels was noted. The
brake power increased with increase in load. This was due to increase in fuel
consumption with increase in load. By and large the brake power is not
sacrificed by using different blends.
6.2.2 Total fuel consumption
FIGURE 1: Variation of total fuel consumption with different fuels.
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Total fuel consumption is a factor which depends on the density of fuel. Totalfuel consumption is a factor which depends on the density of fuel. The density
of coconut oil is about 0.91 gm/cc and that of coconut oil based bio diesel is
0.89 gm/cc .Both of them are above the density of diesel which is 0.85 gm/cc.
The significance of the graph is to find the value of frictional power, which is
the key factor in finding the mechanical efficiency. Frictional power is obtained
by extending backwards the middle portion of this graph to intercept the X axis
in the negative direction to obtain the frictional power. It is found that the
frictional power for diesel is more (2.25KW) and it is the least for coconut oil(2.05KW) owing to its lubricational properties .The frictional power while using
bio diesel is about 2.20KW.
6.2.3 Specific fuel consumption
FIGURE 2: Variation of specific fuel consumption with different fuels
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Specific fuel consumption depends on total fuel consumption and brake power.
after looking at the tables 1,2 and 3 which are the readings of the load test , it is
found that the total fuel consumption for coconut oil based bio diesel is higher
at lighter loads .but as the loads goes on increasing the total fuel consumption of
coconut oil increases and for diesel it is the least at peak load. The fuel
consumption is higher for coconut oil and bio diesel is comparable at all loads.
But for petroleum diesel is way below when compared to both of them. This
might be due to the lower density and higher calorific value of diesel.
6.2.4 Brake mean effective pressure
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FIGURE 3: Variation of brake mean effective pressure with different fuels.
This is one of the insignificant graphs among the lot. Because of the fact that the
brake mean effective pressure is an engine parameter which is completely
independent of the fuel used .It depends on brake power and parameters like
stroke, area of the cylinder, number of working strokes and number of
cylinders. But it gives an indication of the performance of the Kirloskar diesel
engine which is used to conduct this test.
6.2.5 Brake thermal efficiency
FIGURE 4: Variation of brake thermal efficiency with different fuels
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Brake thermal efficiency is an engine parameter which depends on total fuel
consumption and calorific value. It is found that at lighter loads, the brake
thermal efficiency is higher for coconut oil. Next coconut oil based bio diesel
and the least for diesel. But it is evident from the graph that as the load picks up
the brake thermal efficiency of diesel increases and that of coconut oil
decreases. At peak load, the efficiency is least for coconut oil and highest for
diesel .This scenario can be concluded like this the calorific value of diesel isthe highest among the three and the fuel consumption is least while using diesel
at lighter loads.
6.2.6 Indicated mean effective pressure
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FIGURE 5: Variation of indicated mean effective pressure with different fuels
Indicated mean effective pressure is solely depended on Indicated power other
than engine parameters .so indicated power will be having a greater effect on
the indicated mean effective pressure Vs brake power. Indicated power depends
on frictional power , due to the increased lubrication properties of coconut oil it
is having least frictional power (2.05 kW) when compared to bio diesel (2.20
kW) and diesel (2.25 kW) . Due to the above mentioned properties the indicated
mean effective pressure is more for diesel at all loads and least for diesel.
6.2.7 Indicated thermal efficiency
FIGURE 6: Variation of indicated thermal efficiency with different fuels
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The inference from the indicated thermal efficiency Vs brake power graph is
that at light loads, it is found that the indicated thermal efficiency is more for
coconut oil and least for diesel. But as the load goes on increasing the indicated
thermal efficiency increases for diesel and decreases for coconut oil .this can be
due to the greater calorific value of diesel which is about 45208.8kJ/kg when
compared to coconut oil (37802.3 kJ/kg) and bio diesel (38216.5 kJ/kg).
6.2.8 Mechanical efficiency
FIGURE 7: Variation of mechanical efficiency with different fuels
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Mechanical efficiency is found to be higher for coconut oil. Also, mechanical
efficiency is found to be lower for diesel. The reason for this can be concluded
like this; the lubrication efficiency of coconut oil reduces the friction on the
engine parts. As a result of this, the frictional power is much lower for coconut
oil. It is found that the frictional power is more for diesel. The self lubrication
power of coconut oil and coconut oil based bio diesel will reduce the wear and
tear on the engine parts which will increase the efficiency and reduce the
maintenance that are needed for the engine.
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
Bio diesel has become more attractive recently because of its environmental
benefits and the fact that it is made from renewable resources. A continuous
transesterification process is a method of choice to lower the production cost.
The use of bio fuels as IC engine fuels can play a vital role in reducing the
environmental impact of fossil fuels, strengthening the agricultural econ omy,besides providing rural employment and energy security.
All tests for characterization of coconut oil biodiesel demonstrated that almost
all the important properties of bio diesel are in very close agreement with the
mineral diesel. But Engine performance was found to be slightly (3 to 5%) less
as compared to fossil fuels.
This detailed experimental investigation confirms that bio diesel can substitute
mineral diesel without any modification in the engine. There is also an
advantage of bio diesel having a self lubricating power inherent from coconut
oil which reduces the frictional power.
Coupled with the fact that, there is enormous scope for production of coconutoil in the country and considering that extra land area is not needed for its
production, it can be a potential candidate for the application in CI engines.
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REFERENCES
1. Production and Testing of Coconut Oil Biodiesel Fuel and its Blend
by J Alamu1*, Dehinbo2 and M Sulaiman2 (1Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Osun State University, Osogbo, Nigeria 2Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ibogun, Nigeria.
2. Perfomance analysis of rice bran biodiesel blends on diesel engine by
Abhilash Das H , Aravind M , Libin V Joseph (Department of
Mechanical Engineering , Thangal Kunju Musaliar college of
Engineering ,Kollam)
3. Use of vegetable oils in diesel engines by Dr J Nazar (Department of
Mechanical Engineering , Thangal Kunju Musaliar college of
Engineering , kollam)
4. Kavitha P.L., Studies on transesterified mahua oil as an alternative fuel
for diesel engines. M.Sc. thesis: Anna University, Chennal-600 025.
India, (2003).
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5. Chitra P., Venkatachalam P., Sampathrajan A., Optimisation of
experimental conditions for biodiesel production from alkali-catalysed
transesterification of Jatropha curcus oil. Energy for Sustainable
Development, 2005, IX (3), p. 13-18.
6. Peterson C.L., Cruz R.O., Perkings L., Korus R., Auld D.L.,
Transesterification of vegetable oil for use as diesel fuel: A progress
report., ASAE Paper 1990, No. 90-610.
7. Bio fuels applications as fuels for internal combustion engines by
Avinash Kumar Agarwal , Department of Mechanical Engineering ,
Indian Institute of Technology , Kanpur .
8. Performance evaluation of single cylinder diesel engine using bio diesel
by B Murali Krishna ,proceedings of 14th ISME international
conference on mechanical engineering in knowledge age, December 12-
14,2005
9. Perfomance of Renewable Fuel Based CI engine by R N Singh, S P
Singh and B S Pathak Sardar Patel Renewable Energy Research Institute,
Vallabh Vidya Nagar, Gujarat ( India)
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10.Biodiesel: Technology & Business Opportunities An Insight by S
Biswas, N Kaushik & G Srikanth Technology Information Forecastingand Assessment Council (TIFAC) Department of Science & Technology,
New Delhi
APPENDIX A
Load test values during the performance analysis on Kirloskar diesel engine
TABLE 1: DIESEL
Sl.No.
Load(kg)
TimeFor10ccfuelCons:(s)
BrakePower(KW)
TotalFuelCons:(kg/hr)
SpecificFuelCons:(kg/kWhr)
BMEP(KN/m)
B Th:(%)
Indi:Power(KW)
IMEP(KN/m)
I Th:(%)
Mech:(%)
1 0 41.2 0 0.74 0 0 2.25 172.26
24.32
0
2 1.3 29.5 1.43 1.04 0.73 109.75
11.01
3.68 281.74
28.31
38.86
3 2.6 26.1 2.87 1.17 0.41 219.49
19.62
5.12 391.98
35.01
56.05
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4 4 18.9 4.41 1.62 0.37 337.68
21.78
6.66 505.30
32.89
66.22
5 5.3 15 5.84 2.04 0.35 447.43
22.90
8.09 619.37
31.73
72.19
6 6.7 10.3 7.39 2.97 0.40 565.6
1
19.9
1
9.64 738.0
4
25.9
6
76.65
TABLE 2: COCONUT OIL
Sl.No
Load(kg)
TimeFor10cc
fuelCons:(s)
BrakePower(KW
TotalFuelCons:(kg/hr)
SpecificFuelCons:(kg/kWhr)
BMEP(KN/m)
B Th
:(%)
Indi:Power(KW)
IMEP(KN/m)
I Th:(%)
Mech :(%)
1 0 40.25
0 0.81 0 0 2.05 156.95
24.04 0
2 1.3 33 1.43 0.99 0.69 109.75 13.72
3.48 266.42
33.39 41.09
3 2.6 23.3 2.87 1.41 0.49 219.49 19.34
4.92 376.68
33.15 58.33
4 4 17.3 4.41 1.89 0.428 337.68 22.12
6.46 494.58
32.47 68.27
5 5.3 13.1 5.84 2.50 0.428 447.43 22.19
7.89 604.06
29.98 74.01
6 6.7 8 7.39 4.09 0.553 565.61 17.16
9.44 722.73
21.93 78.28
TABLE 3: BIO DIESEL
Sl.No.
load(kg)
TimeFor10cc
fuelCon
BrakePower(KW
TotalFuelCons:(kg/hr)
SpecificFuelCons:(kg/kWhr)
BMEP(KN/m)
B Th
:(%)
Indi:Power(KW)
IMEP(KN/m)
I Th:(%)
Mech:(%)
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PRODUCTION AND TESTING OF COCONUT OIL BASED BIO DIESEL
s:(s)
1 0 38.5 0 0.83 0 0 2.20 168.4
3
24.92 0
2 1.3 29.1 1.43 1.10 0.77 109.75 12.22
3.63 277.91
31.02 39.39
3 2.6 21.5 2.87 1.49 0.52 219.49 18.11
5.07 388.16
31.98 56.61
4 4 15.5 4.41 2.07 0.47 337.68 20.03
6.61 506.06
30.02 66.72
5 5.3 13.5 5.84 2.37 0.41 447.43 23.16
8.04 615.54
31.88 72.64
6 6.7 8.5 7.39 3.77 0.51 565.61 18.43
9.59 734.21
23.91 77.06
APPENDIX B
Observation values of Bomb calorimeter experiment for coconut oil based bio diesel
TABLE 4: CALORIFIC VALUE
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PRODUCTION AND TESTING OF COCONUT OIL BASED BIO DIESEL
TIME (minutes) TEMPERATURE(C)
1 0.32
2 0.343 0.36
4 0.36
5 0.365.5 0.936 1.70
6.5 2.31
7 2.65
7.5 2.858 2.93
8.5 3.00
9 3.07
9.5 3.1310 3.18
10.5 3.2211 3.25
11.5 3.2712 3.28
12.5 3.29
13 3.28
APPENDIX C
SAMPLE CALCULATION OF LOAD TEST
(TABLE 1 ; set no:3)
BRAKE POWER
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PRODUCTION AND TESTING OF COCONUT OIL BASED BIO DIESEL
BP = WN HP
K
= WN X 0.735 kW
K
W = load in kg
N = speed in RPM
K =Dynamometer constant
= 2.6 X 1500 X 0.735 Kw
1000
= 2.87 Kw
MAXIMUM LOAD
Wmax = BHP K kg
N
= 10 x 1000 kg
1500
= 6.67 kg
TOTAL FUEL CONSUMPTION
TFC = 10 3600 kg/hrt1000
where t - time taken for 10cc of fuel consumption , s;
density of fuel , gm/cc (0.85gm/cc)
= 10x0.85x3600 kg/hr
26.1x1000
= 1.17 kg/hr
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PRODUCTION AND TESTING OF COCONUT OIL BASED BIO DIESEL
SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
SFC = TFC kg/kWhr
BP
= 1.17 kg/kWhr
2.87
= 0.41 kg/kWhr
BRAKE MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE
BMEP = BP 60 kN/m
LAnX where BP brake power , kW ;
A - area of cylinder , m
L - length of stroke , m
n no. of working strokes
X no. of cylinders
= 2.87x60 kN/m
0.783
= 219.49 kN/m
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
B Th = Brake Power 100%
Heat input
where TFC Total fuel consumption , kg/hr
CV Calorific value of fuel (45208.8kJ/kg)
= BP 3600 100%
TFC x CV
= 2.87 x 3600 x 100%50
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PRODUCTION AND TESTING OF COCONUT OIL BASED BIO DIESEL
1.17x45208.8
= 19.62%
INDICATED POWER
IP = BP + FP kW
where FP Frictional power of engine (from graph TFC vs BP)
FP = 2.25 KW (from graph)
IP = 2.87 + 2.25
= 5.12 kW
INDICATED MEAN EFFECTIVE PRESSURE
IMEP = IP 60 KN/mLAnX
where IP Indicated power , kW
=5.12x60 KN/ m
0.783
= 391.98 KN/ m
INDICATED THERMAL EFFICIENCY
I Th = IP 3600 100%
TFC CV
= 5.12 x 3600 x100%
1.17x45208.8
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PRODUCTION AND TESTING OF COCONUT OIL BASED BIO DIESEL
= 35.01%
MECHANICAL EFFICIENCY
Mech = BP 100%
IP
= 2.87 x 100%
5.12
= 56.05%
APPENDIX D
CALCULATION FOR CALORIFIC VALUE OF BIO DIESEL
ON BOMB CALORIE METER (TABLE 4)
Weight of fuel used; f = 0.001 kg
Steady temperature before combustion; T= 0.32 C
Maximum temperature after combustion; t =3.29C
Water equivalent of calorimeter; Q = 0.94 Kg
Observed rise in temperature; R = t-T
=2.97C
Actual rise in temperature; A = R + 0.5rk; where r- rate of cooling
k-time elapsed for maximum temperature to attain
=3.025C
Specific heat of water C (w) = 4.187kJ/kgK
Weight of water in calorimeter; W = 2.25kg
Assuming fuse wire correction = 2000 KJ/kg of fuel
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Heat liberated by fuel and fuse wire = Heat absorbed by calorimeter
f x CV (f) = (Q+W) C(w) x A
CV (f) = (Q+W) C(w) x A -2000
f
= (0.94+2.25) 4.187 x 3.025 - 2000
0.001
=38216.5 kJ/kg