Proceedings of International Workshop on

Editors

Abdelhadi A. W.

Takeshi Hata and Anil Mishra

Session Organized by

Takeshi Hata & Abdelhadi A. W.

Water Environment Laboratory, Kobe University. Japan

Agricultural Research Corporation, Sudan

No parts may be reproduced by any process without complete reference

Front Cover Photo:

• Minor Canal, Gezira Scheme, Sudan: Photo by Anil Mishra

Back Cover Photos from top to bottom:

• Kyoto Golden Temple: Photo by Dr. Akio Tada

• �Saccho� Farmer�s proportional water distribution structure �Argali Raj Kulo� in

Palpa, Nepal: Photo by Dr. Robert Yoder.

• Farmers field training in Farmers Field Schools, Gezira Scheme, Sudan: Photo by Dr.

Ahmed Hassan.

Covers designed by Dr. Abdelhadi A. W.

Printed at: Kobe University Coop

Table of Contents

Table of Contents i

Forward: Abdelhadi A. W. & Takeshi Hata iii

Participatory Approaches to Irrigation Systems, Water Resources Planning and

Management: Takeshi Hata & Abdelhadi A. W. vi

Performance Issues and Challenges for Improving Water Use and Productivity:

Keynote: Luis S. Pereira 1

The Future of Participatory Water Management in Gezira Scheme, Sudan:

Adam H. S., Abdelhadi A. W. & Takeshi Hata 18

Towards Self-management of Irrigation Systems: Experiences From Nepal:

Prachanda Pradhan 25

Comparison of Farmer Participation for Irrigation Management in Post-Wars in

Cambodia and Japan: Hajime Tanji & Takao Masumoto 42

Participatory Adoption and Management of Water Utilization Techniques for

Enhancing Agricultural Production: Taley S. M. & Kale P. B. 50

Semi-natural canal renovation & its effects on O&M: Shinichi Hirose 60

Farmer Field School System in Training on Water Management in Sudan:

Ahmed Hassan Mohamed 70

Role of Remote Sensing Technology on Monitoring Large Irrigation Project in Gezira,

Sudan: KIYOSHI Torii, Takeshi Hata, Abdelhadi A. W., Akio Tada & Anil Mishra 76

Developing a Hydrological-GIS Data Base System in the Blue Nile Basin: A Support

for the Irrigated Agriculture: Anil Mishra, Takeshi Hata & Abdelhadi A. W. 86

i

Participatory Management of Irrigation System and Water Utilization: Experiences

from India: Goyal S. P. & Ashwani Kumar 94

Sustainable Participatory Water Management: Experiences in Bangladesh:

Bari M. F., Kiyoshi Torii & Islam M. N. 109

ii

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Forward

Abdelhadi A. W. and Takeshi Hata

“Every human being, now and in the future, should have access to safe water for

drinking, appropriate sanitation and enough food and energy at reasnable cost. We are

not a cheiving these goals today, and we are on a path leading to crises and to future

problems for a large part of humanity” (World Water Commission 2000).

Within the next two decades many countries will face water deficit situations.

Many in arid and semi-arid regions are already faced with insufficient water resources

to satisfy their current agricultural, domestic, industrial and environmental water

demands. The world population is expected to grow by about 30% by the year 2025

reaching 8 billion people. As a result of improved communications, more globalization

and more urbanization, the living standards are also expected to increase. This means

competition among the agricultural, industrial, domestic and other users will increase in

unprecedented levels.

On the other hand, the growth in irrigated agriculture is already slowing down.

The expenditure on irrigated agriculture has fallen significantly during the past two

decades. This coupled with the reduction on suitable agricultural lands for horizontal

expansion, the deterioration on large parts of the available irrigated lands and the

growing environmental concerns cast dark shadows on the future and prosperity of

mankind.

However, the awareness is already high and growing. According to three

different models developed by FAO, IWMI and IFPRI the irrigated agriculture must

increase by 15-22% in order to keep up with the growing population. Consequently,

water withdrawals for irrigated agriculture and the crop yields from irrigated fields have

to increase at extraordinary rates.

Currently India is the leading country in expansion of irrigated area with 13.2

million ha added during the period 1990-98. Egypt is expected to hit its potential by the

iii

completion of Toshka project. The completion of the heightening of Roseires dam on

the Blue Nile in Sudan will exhaust the potential from this river in Sudan but Sudan still

remains in the top 10 countries in terms of the arable land. However, expansion in many

countries would require heavy national and international investments.

One of the greatest hopes is that the increase in the use of improved and/or

water-saving application techniques together with better management may brighten the

bleak future and prevent the world from entering another world wide food crisis. One is

tempted to cite the Keynote of the ICID 1992 Congress;

“Irrigation schemes in many parts of the world are known to be performaing well

below their ful potential”. “There is now wide recognition that deficiencies in

management and related institutional problems, rather than technology of irrigation,

were the chief constriants of poor performance of irrigation systems”.

It has been realized that incorporation of improved irrigation technologies with

better management and institutional reforms will remain a key issue for the success of

any reform programs in irrigated agriculture.

Participatory water management (PWM) have been increasingly seen as a way-

out to improve water use efficiency by reducing wastage, enhancing sustainability of the

service and insures equity. Since the introduction of the PWM approach, and its

realization by some international organizations and governments, the method is

spreading all over the world. More experience is gained during the past 12 years. Under

the advances of water utilization techniques and integrated hydrological studies;

sharing, discussing and disseminating the recent knowledge is vital towards better water

management and food security.

Session Objectives

The session will bring together scientists, academics, policymakers,

governments and stakeholders from around the world to discuss and share their

experiences with the goal of identifying efficient ways and successful methods in PWM

that had led to more efficient water utilization. The Session addresses the following

issues;

• Advances in participatory training and extension methodologies.

• Planning and policy reforms for better funding and legalization of water users

associations.

iv

• Second-generation problems of PWM and their suggested solutions.

• Advances in water utilization techniques and their considerations to the growing

environmental concerns.

• The role of integrated hydrological studies for improved water distribution and

enhanced water user�s association activities.

• The role of remote sensing and GIS on management of large irrigated schemes and

river basins.

Venue and date

Kyoto, Takaragaike Prince Hotel, Takasago Room, March 20, 2003, during the

3rd World Water Forum in Kyoto, Shiga and Osaka cities of Japan under the theme;

Agriculture, Food and Water.

Session Conveners

Professor PhD. Takeshi Hata, Division of Regional and Environmental

Science, Department of Agricultural and Environmental Engineering, Water

Environment Laboratory, Kobe University, Japan.

Assistant Research Professor PhD. Abdelhadi A. W., Agricultural Research

Corporation, Gezira Research Station, Agricultural Engineering Research Program,

Wad Medani, Sudan.

v

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture Food & Water, March 2003

Participatory Approaches to Irrigation Systems, Water

Resources Planning and Management

Takeshi Hata1 and Abdelhadi A.W.2

Abstract Participatory system is discussed in the cases of irrigation system management,

planning and implementation system of projects, sustainable development of

organization. Necessity of gathering opinions from inside and outside of the

organization for its sustainable improvement is emphasized. Constructing suitable

responses is the key issue for each organization.

Introduction

Participatory approaches are expected to bring somewhat or great changes in

many systems including irrigation systems. If properly applied participatory approaches

will yield good result (Hata, 2002). One of the most important factors for success is the

setting of the approach according to the needs within the whole project or system.

There are many systems that are old-fashioned or include many shortcomings inside

them (self-inflicted wounds, Burt 1999). Keeping such systems without modification

results in poor performance, inability to compete in the markets and failure to match the

ever growing food demands and may lead to discontinuation due to economic reasons.

There are also many projects which have been developed and constituted not

necessarily suitable to the surrounding conditions and have given much problems to the

related people or environment. In these cases another inefficiency and uneconomic are

1 Professor, Water Environment Laboratory, Faculty of Agriculture, Kobe University, Japan. E-mail:

hata@kobe-u.ac.jp. 2 Assistant Research Professor, Agricultural Research Corporation, Agricultural Engineering Research

Program, Gezira Research Station, Medani, Sudan. E-mail: hadi103@hotmail.com.

vi

brought to the people. Project planning is understood to be really difficult and

important issue through these cases. Public involvement or participatory planning will

help to avoid this dissatisfaction of planning out of harmony with the surroundings.

Participatory management of irrigation system

There are always problems to greater or lesser extent in any system built up by

men. Irrigation system and its management also have points that must be modified. It is

important to have a mechanism to find the faults, modify and/or revise the system for

modernization. Only by adding the active support mechanism to the current system the

situation for the movement of improving the system is changed according to the

decision system.

Management system

Irrigation system

Efficiency of water use

Survey to identify problems

Applying adaptable techniques

Optimal management

Evaluation of problems

Stakeholder participation

Support mechanism

Fig. 1. Supporting mechanisms with stakeholders participation

vii

Participation of farmers and stakeholders is important for the support

mechanism (Fig. 1). Gathering the data of the problems related to the system from their

experiences and thoroughly evaluating its value, is the first role of the mechanism.

Secondly it is to take some actions for the resolution of the problem by asking a change

in the way the person in charge of the related unit is handling the situation or by

applying new technique, etc. The supporting mechanism must have the ability of

implementation to find out the problems and to suggest or order the solution.

Participatory planning of water related projects

Planning of irrigation projects, river projects, etc. has been done by the

professionals and produces many excellent projects in the world. However, even long

experienced designers still have unknown parts in each project area. Though they

usually know the way to supplement the lack of data about it, knowledge accumulated

in the related area and people includes valuable contents and help designers not to make

wrong decision.

Fig. 2 shows a proposed planning system with the introduction of participatory

approach. The process leading to the final plan is very important and is cyclic one of

reaching to the final agreement by the stakeholders. Starting from the first proposed

plan some stages of proposals are important to be modified by referring to the suitable

opinions of stakeholders. From the side of planner explanation and public perception

especially to the people affected by the planned scheme must be fully implemented. The

person who gets direct influence from the proposed scheme thinks earnestly about it and

sometimes eagerly tries to find out problems which may be included in the scheme.

These opinions are useful for the modification and for raising the level of the plan.

Before the construction starts by the decided company after the competition,

the plan should be open to the public. This participatory system should be continued

until the construction is over. Opinions from people inside and outside of the company

are valuable to maintain the good work of construction. A system of receiving useful

opinions and reflecting them to the work is the key of successful completeness of the

work.

viii

Proposed project

Final plan

Opinions from stakeholder

Competition

Explanation at the site and the related district

Organization r design and

implementationfo

Public perception

Section of gathering information

Modification system

Construction work

Modification according to the

internal and external findings for the work

Fig. 2. Proposed planning system

Sustainable development of water management systems and

organizations

As mentioned above, collecting valuable opinions and ideas and using them for

the improvement of the system is the key issue of sustainable development for every

organization (Figure 3). Unfortunately many organizations have not succeeded in

ix

making this system or activating it. Many organizations and their members are still

keeping the old style and refusing to accept good opinions for modernizing their system.

In case the organization is a state or at national level, the influence spreads very widely

and the members become to be unhappy.

Gathering demands to the organization

from the outer world

Modernized systems or organization

Execution system of modifying organizations or

systems

Evaluation and adoption of useful

proposals

Systems and organizations

Collecting opinions inside the organization

Fig. 3. Sustainable development for systems and organizations

Application of technologies harmonized with human and natural

ecosystem

The development of science and technology brings various benefits to our

daily life. Despite of the fact many unpleasant matters happen to our lives as the results

of their application. It is necessary to raise the level of systems to check the safety of

technology and its application. Participatory approaches have important role also in this

x

issue. Technology itself should be evaluated in and out of the organization where it is

developed. It is necessary to know if the checking system is active or not for the

products that is got from the application especially in the case they orient too much to

the profit-making.

In the field of river waters, the problems sometimes happen due to the

application of modern technologies to the development of natural lands. The planners

have not necessarily thought enough for the project impact on the natural ecosystem.

This is raising strong opposition movement against dam construction. In this field the

evaluation from the point of view of weather it is nature-oriented and/or how it

contributes to human welfare (Figure 4).

Nature-oriented and human welfare?

Evaluation and improvement

Consumers

Evaluation Science and technology

Products and goods

Fig. 4. Evaluation of products of science and technology

Conclusion

For the development of systems and their management including irrigation

systems, participatory approaches are important. The methods are discussed for the

application to the efficient management of the systems, planning and implementation of

projects, improvement of the organizations and the evaluation of the application of

technologies like dam constructions. The key issue for the continuous improvement is to

develop the system of gathering valuable opinions from inside and outside of an

xi

organization and of selecting and implementing necessary modification according to

these valuable ideas.

References

Burt C. 1999. Current canal modernization from an international perspective. Proceedings from USCID Workshop: Modernization of Irrigation Water Delivery Systems. Phoenix, Arizona, 17-21 October. Pp. 15-28.

Hata, T. (2002): Integration and management of irrigation, drainage and flood control, Transactions of 18th Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, ICID, Vol. 1C, pp.73-100.

xii

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Performance Issues and Challenges for Improving Water Use

and Productivity Keynote

Luis S Pereira1*

Summary

After introducing several constraints and pressures placed on irrigation system

management including those resulting from the exogenous forces that led to expand

irrigation, modify technologies and adopt non-traditional institutions for irrigation

management, the discussion is oriented to possible issues that may enhance water use

and productivity. Limits, misunderstandings and misleading interpretations relative to

the use of the term �efficiency� are discussed and new performance indicators aiming at

water conservation and saving are considered. The brief analysis is completed with

some application examples of service performance and attributes relative to several

irrigation systems where farmers are involved in management. The constraints imposed

by systems design are evidenced.

1. Introduction

Irrigation is the fruit of human wisdom passed through many generations of

farmer irrigators since the aurora of many civilizations. Some already disappear, others

still are alive but we all are the users of that heritage. Large part of irrigated areas have

been developed since centuries, and many large irrigation projects were implemented in

the last century in areas where irrigation already existed but where supply and systems

required very heavy transformations.

1 Incoming President of the International Commission on Agricultural Engineering (CIGR) and Professor,

Agricultural Engineering Research Center, Institute of Agronomy, Technical University of Lisbon,

Portugal, lspereira@isa.utl.pt.

1

The last century has known an increased intervention of governmental and

state institutions in management following the enormous investments made everywhere.

Traditional institutions lost therefore importance, also because political trends were to

increase the power of the state and governmental institutions in many aspects of the

society, the water and the land in particular. New centralized institutions were created

following such investments and introduced technologies, mainly those that changed the

traditional small irrigated areas into large or very large irrigation and drainage projects.

The old institutional arrangements, generally at village level, which built up from

progressively implemented water and land management rules and rights, were not

anymore appropriate to the large new projects covering areas of several villages and/or

municipalities and adopting technologies different from those used in the past for

centuries.

The users� participation issue is claimed after some decennia, and international

programmes aiming at its implementation took a very high priority in the 90�s. There

are good examples of success but difficulties still are great in many areas. One main

problem is related to the fact that a large number of irrigation projects built in the

second half of the 20th century did not had their roots into the cultural and social

behaviour of the populations. The irrigation scientists and engineers created an

irrigation culture that was external, and in many cases still is, to the main actors, the

peasant farmers. Then, water management actors at all levels created new challenges,

including the need to decrease water demand for irrigation� often said to decrease water

consumption -, to improve water productivity, and to control negative environmental

impacts. These pressures are coming with campaigns on water prices, telling that

farmers should pay for the full costs of water, pay for pollution by chemicals and

fertilizers, and with slogans such �more crop per drop�. However, the great problem is

that these and other pressures come from an ever growing urban society that

understands less and less the rural world and the peasants in particular. All non-

economic externalities of irrigation are not understood and the irrigation profession still

assumes them in a limited way.

This economical culture follows the already imposed technological culture,

both very often imported from other places where the organisation, institutions, culture,

know-how and social behaviour are different from those in most irrigated areas.

Farmers institutions for irrigation management face therefore several and

heavy challenges because farmers have a perception of problems and issues different

2

from non-farmer water managers. When one asks for high performance of irrigation

systems he may give particular attention to irrigation efficiency, but the farmer may be

thinking about reliability of supplies or dependability of deliveries. A peasant farmer,

having a limited land, e.g. 0.5 ha/family such as in the Yellow River Basin, China, do

not understand the water productivity concept because he really needs to increase the

total product from his land. A farmer in a terraced area, where water flows through

successive fields can not easily understand the need to limit field runoff: the water is not

lost but used downstream. Farmers in lowland areas that know the excess water is

flowing into the groundwater may have difficulties in understanding why they should

limit water demand because field percolation is recharging the aquifer. Peasants in

irrigated areas that have been earlier developed by their ancestors may not understand a

policy of water prices that not respect the water rights they consequently received in

heritage. Similarly, farmers that see the excess water being reused downstream do not

understand why they should be highly charged due to large water use.

Among problems faced by participatory irrigation management is that relative

to irrigation performance. Issues around these concepts are discussed herein. However,

issues relative to other questions referred above may be more important but space is

limited.

2. Irrigation performance vs. efficiency

The term efficiency is often used to express the performance of water supply

systems and water use activities. More recently, the use of the term water use efficiency

is expanding. However, there are no widely accepted definitions, and both terms may be

used with different meanings. In an UNESCO conference dedicated to this subject,

Garduño (1994) reviews a large variety of concepts for water use efficiency but does not

propose any common definition. Tate (1994), when analysing the respective principles,

assumes that water use efficiency �includes any measures that reduces the amount of

water used per unit of any given activity, consistent with the maintenance or

enhancement of water quality�. This concept would consider both water conservation

and water saving as synonymous of water use efficiency, which is not appropriate (cf.

Pereira et al., 2002 a). For a better understanding of terminology utilised in relation to

water use performances, a better and more consistent conceptual approach is required.

3

The term efficiency is often used in case of irrigation systems and it is

commonly applied to each irrigation sub-system: storage, conveyance, distribution off-

and on-farm, and farm application sub-systems. It can be defined by the ratio between

the water depth delivered by the sub-system under consideration and the water depth

supplied to that sub-system, usually expressed as a percentage. For farm systems, the

application efficiency may be defined by the ratio between the average water depth

added to the root zone storage to the average water applied. However, this indicator

should be used together with others, mainly those relative to distribution uniformity

(Pereira, 1999: Pereira and Trout, 1999). The irrigation system efficiency corresponds to

the integrated effects of all subsystems and may be computed by the product of the

average efficiencies of those sub-systems. Adopting an output/input non-dimensional

ratio, the term efficiency could be applied to evaluate the performance of any irrigation

and non-irrigation water system. However some misunderstandings in using that term

must be avoided.

It is often said that improving irrigation or water supply efficiencies is of great

importance under water scarcity regimes because that improvement represents the

capability for achieving near optimal use of the available water. This is true when

considering the specific system or sub-system under analysis because higher output to

input ratios indicate that less water is diverted to produce the same yield or service

quantity. However, it is also common that people says that improving irrigation

efficiencies would lead is to water savings, i.e. water would then become available for

other users or uses. This is only true when the excess water is added to degraded water

bodies and made not available to reuse by other uses downstream. Others use to say that

low irrigation efficiencies mean high water losses. Nevertheless, despite low

efficiencies correspond to large input to output differences they do not necessarily

indicate high water losses because a fraction of the non-consumed volumes may be

returned with acceptable quality to the natural water bodies and re-used, thus not

consisting in actual losses. Moreover, part of the so-called losses may be beneficial,

such as the water used for salts leaching when irrigating in saline environments.

In line with these ideas, Allen et al. (1997) and Jensen (1996) state that the

term irrigation efficiency is often leading to misconceptions and misunderstandings

mainly when increasing irrigation efficiencies is almost a synonymous of creating more

available water. The traditional concept of irrigation efficiency is different from those

given above and refers to the ratio between the �irrigation water consumed by the crops

4

(...) during crop growth� and the �water diverted (...) during the same period�.

Analysing this definition, Jensen (1996) called for the �need to quantify the proportion

of irrigation water that is consumptive and the proportion that is non-consumptive use�.

Thus, to avoid misunderstandings and misinterpretations, Jensen (1996) proposes to

rename that ratio as a �consumptive use coefficient� and to restrict the use of the term

efficiency to output/input ratios such as referred above. In a review of terminology, also

intending to clarify concepts, Bos (1997) proposed to abandon the efficiency terms and

replace them by ratio indicators, e.g. conveyance ratio and distribution ratio.

Another term commonly used in irrigation is water use efficiency (WUE).

Some authors refer to it as a synonymous of application efficiency, so as a non-

dimensional output/input ratio. Others adopt it to express the productivity of the

irrigation water, so as a yield to water ratio. In crop production, the term WUE is

applied with different but precise meanings: the photosynthetic WUE, ratio between the

leaf rates of net assimilation and transpiration, the biomass WUE, ratio of the

cumulative above-ground biomass to the cumulative evapotranspiration, and the yield

WUE, ratio of the harvested biomass yield to the water consumed to achieve that yield

(Steduto, 1996). It would then be a yield to water consumed ratio. To avoid

misunderstandings, the term water use efficiency should be limited to physiological and

ecophysiological purposes, and the term water productivity, defined by the ratio of the

yield quantity to the amount of water used, could be adopted as an irrigation indicator

(Pereira et al., 2002 b).

The idea that improving the water use efficiency (or the water productivity)

leads to water savings is also not entirely true because it is also required to distinguish

between consumptive and non-consumptive uses. The same amount of grain yield

depends not only on the amount of irrigation water used but also on the amount of

rainfall water that the crop could use, which relates to rainfall distribution during the

crop season.

Improving conveyance and distribution efficiencies or ratios may be an

objective of farmers management of irrigation systems when the operational losses by

seepage, leaking or overflow would decrease availability of water to tail-end distributor

canals and tail-end farmers or when those improvements relate to easier control of

deliveries to branch canals, distributors and farmers. However, the perspective of water

saving and conservation is rarely assumed by itself. In other words, the interest of

farmers mostly relates to improve service performances. Then, indicators such as

5

reliability, dependability or equity (Molden and Gates, 1990; Bos, 1997) are those that

interest farmers and managers. Efficiency indicators are improved because service

performance indicators are enhanced.

The improvement of farm application efficiencies is not seen by farmers as a

must. Application efficiencies become higher when farmers apply water timely and the

distribution uniformity is higher. Improved uniformities decrease differences in amounts

of water made available for the crop in the under-and over-irrigated parts of the field.

As discussed by Keller and Bliesner (1990) and Mantovani et al. (1995) among others,

this leads to more even crop development and higher yields. When the farmer adopts an

appropriate irrigation scheduling, then yields are positively impacted and, in addition,

the application efficiency becomes higher too. Once again, improving irrigation

efficiency is not a farmer�s objective but to achieve higher yields and economic profit.

Higher water productivities are also not an objective of farmers except when water is

the limiting yield factor as in case of severe water scarcity such as drought. When the

limiting factor for achieving higher economic returns is land, as it is the case for small

farmers, their objective is to optimize the total yield. Their gross margins are so small

that optimizing the water productivity is not achievable.

The analysis above leads to conclude that more efforts must be developed to

adopt performance indicators that effectively respond to farmer objectives but also

respond to the need for water resource conservation and improved water use by the

society. In particular, following the efforts of many researchers, it is required that such

indicators do not lead to misunderstandings and misleading approaches that create less

appropriate pressures on the irrigator farmers but support policies that lead them to

improve water use and productivity, control the demand for water, and avoid water

pollution and soil degradation.

Water use performances

New concepts to clearly distinguish between consumptive and non-

consumptive uses, beneficial and non-beneficial uses, and reusable and non-reusable

fractions of the non-consumed water diverted into an irrigation system or subsystem

were proposed by Allen et al. (1997) and Burt et al. (1997). These consist of alternative

performance indicators that are much more relevant than �irrigation efficiency� when

adopted in regional system water management for the formulation of water conservation

6

and water savings policies and measures. These concepts and indicators are easy to

adapt and extend to non-irrigation water uses (Pereira et al., 2002 a).

These indicators can be adapted and extended to any water use or system to

identify the respective performances under the perspective of water resources

conservation as described in Table 1. These are more useful for water resources

planning and management under scarcity and should lead to less misinterpretation than

the term �efficiency�.

Essentially, three water use fractions are considered:

• the consumed fraction, consisting of the fraction of diverted water which is

evaporated or incorporated in the product, or consumed in drinking and food, which

is no longer available after the end use,

• the reusable fraction, consisting of the fraction of diverted water which is not

consumed when used for a given production process or service but which returns

with appropriate quality to non degraded surface waters or ground-water and,

therefore, can be used again, and

• the non-reusable fraction, consisting of the fraction of diverted water which is not

consumed when used for a given production process or service but which returns

with poor quality or returns to degraded surface waters or saline ground-water and,

therefore, cannot be used again.

Each of the above fractions is then divided into two parts, corresponding

respectively to the beneficial and the non-beneficial uses. Therefore, it is then easier to

identify how water use could be improved, and how water savings should be oriented.

Adopting the indicators explained in Table 1, it can be concluded that water

losses are those corresponding to the non-beneficial consumed water fraction and to the

non-consumptive and non-reusable quantities of water used, which define the non-

reusable fraction. However, in the case of saline environments, part of that water loss is

beneficial to the crop and the soil because it is used for leaching of salts and, therefore

this loss cannot be avoided.

The non-consumptive but reusable quantities of water are in reality not lost

because other users or the same system downstream can use them again, mainly when

reuse facilities are available. This reusable fraction, like the non-reusable, may be due to

poor or less than optimal management, but may be required by the production or service

process under consideration. It is often considered as lost but in fact it is only a

temporary loss to the system and cannot be considered a loss from a hydrological

7

perspective or under the overall water resource economy. However, the size of the

reusable fraction influences the cost of the system or sub-system operation and

management and, moreover, it represents a non-necessary part of the demand, thus

inducing negative impacts on the water allocation process and on the conservation of

the resource.

Considering the irrigation sector, which has the highest share in consumption

and demand in many water scarcity areas, assuming the concepts above it can be

concluded that the improvement of irrigation efficiencies may be of great importance

under water scarcity because higher efficiencies correspond to an increase of the

beneficial use of the water for agricultural production. However, this objective has to be

effectively complemented by others such as:

• controlling the non-beneficial consumptive uses, particularly those associated to soil

evaporation and evapotranspiration by phreatophyte plants and weeds receiving

seepage and excess irrigation water,

• minimizing the non-reusable fraction of the diverted water, thus avoiding percolation

to saline water tables or the disposal of drainage water into saline water bodies which

would degrade the water quality and would make it non reusable, and

• reducing the non-beneficial but reusable fraction by controlling deep percolation,

seepage from canals, runoff return flows and canal excess water spills. These

negatively impact operation and management costs and may be the cause for water-

logging, competition by weeds, loss of nutrients and agro-chemicals, contamination

of water bodies used for human consumption, and yield and income losses.

Farmer management of irrigation systems is not yet adopting this kind of

indicators or does it in only a limited way. However, this approach has the potential to

well accommodate to water conservation and water saving policies intending to improve

water use and water productivity, control the demand for water, and avoid water

pollution and soil degradation.

8

Table 1. Irrigation water consumption, use and losses (From Pereira et al., 2002 a)

Consumptive Non-Consumptive but

Reusable

Non-Consumptive and

Non-Reusable

Beneficial uses Irrigation: ! ET from irrigated

crops ! evaporation for

climate control ! water incorporated in

product

Irrigation: ! leaching water added

to reusable water

Irrigation: ! leaching added to

saline water

Non-irrigation uses: ! human and animal

drinking water ! water in food and

drinking ! water incorporated in

industrial products ! evaporation for

temperature control ! ET from vegetation in

recreational and leisure areas

! evaporation from swimming pools and artificial recreational lakes

Non-irrigation uses: ! treated effluents from

households and urban uses

! treated effluents from industry

! return flows from power generators

! return flows from temperature control

! non-degraded effluents from washing

Non-irrigation uses: ! degraded effluents

from households and urban uses

! degraded effluents from industry

! degraded effluents from washing

! every non degraded effluent added to saline and low quality water

Non-beneficial uses

Irrigation: ! soil water evaporation! phreatophyte ET ! sprinkler evaporation ! canal and reservoir

evaporation

Irrigation: ! deep percolation

added to good quality aquifers

! Reusable runoff ! Reusable canal spills

Irrigation: ! deep percolation

added to saline groundwater

! drainage water added to saline water bodies

Non-irrigation uses: ! ET from non

beneficial vegetation ! evaporation from

water wastes ! evaporation from

reservoirs

Non-irrigation uses: ! deep percolation from

recreational and urban areas added to good quality aquifers

! leakage from urban, industrial and domestic systems added to good quality waters

Non-irrigation uses: ! deep percolation from

recreational and urban areas added to saline aquifers

! leakage from urban, industrial and domestic systems added to low quality waters

Consumed fraction Reusable fraction Non-reusable fraction

9

5. Service performance

A great deal of research has been developed relative to irrigation service

performance particularly by IWMI (Manor and Chambouleyron, 1993; Murray-Rust and

Snellen, 1993; Bos et al., 1994). However, its improvement is often hampered by the

design characteristics of the systems, i.e. management can not solve all problems when

systems are not appropriately designed. The use of service performance indicators in

design, including in modernisation and rehabilitation, is an important issue for farm

managed systems.

In a case study relative to low pressure distribution systems, three indicators

(Molden and Gates, 1990) were used (Pereira et al., 2003):

• reliability, representing the ability of the system to deliver the target design

discharges at every operating outlet,

• dependability, referring to the ability of the system to deliver the target discharge at

each outlet along a given period of time, i.e., measuring the temporal uniformity of

deliveries at each outlet, and

• equity, that measures the spatial uniformity of deliveries during a given irrigation

time of the season.

Under the present cropping and irrigation management conditions in the

Sorraia irrigation system, Portugal, which management is in charge of a Water Users

Association, the reliability (Fig. 1a) averages 0.95 but shows poor values for the day

time peak demand hours.

Equity (Fig. 1 b) shows that unequal service is provided among outlets during

the same peak demand hours, with an average 0.93. Both indicators make evident that

service is only excellent during the night hours, when only rice is irrigated using

continuous flow discharges. The dependability (Fig. 1 c) also averages 0.93 but shows

that service is not dependable for some outlets, which are mostly located in terminal

branches of the network where pipe diameters are small. The analysis allows the

identification of some alternative solutions: (1) to increase the daily labour schedules,

which could decrease the problems during the peak daily demand periods; (2) to enlarge

the use of automated farm irrigation systems, thus allowing for irrigation of row crops

out of the normal labour hours; and (3) to reinforce the pipe network.

10

Fig. 1. Reliability, equity and dependability relative to the 10 days peak demand

period for the existing network of sector 11, of the Sorraia irrigation system.

Alternative systems have been designed using an improved pipe size

optimization method to respond to issues indicated above but keeping the upstream

discharge unchanged. These alternatives have been analysed using a several flow

regimes simulation (Lamaddalena and Pereira, 1998; Lamaddalena and Sagardoy,

1999). For scenarios where the cropping pattern remains the same as at present, the rice

being the main crop, it is evidenced that average performances are excellent when farm

irrigation automation would be adopted (Fig. 2 left). However, not all problems may be

solved in that way because demand during daylight hours would remain very high.

Without automation, results are similar to those for present. For scenarios where the

cropping pattern is modified (Fig. 2 right), replacing rice by row crops to reduce the

demand for water, performances are smaller than those without changing the crop

pattern. This evidences the role of night time irrigation of the paddies in decreasing the

11

daylight time demand, showing that rice basins play a role of buffer reservoirs in

surface irrigation systems.

0,75

0,80

0,85

0,90

0,95

1,00

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Automation percentage

Reliability

Equity

Dependability

0,75

0,80

0,85

0,90

0,95

1,00

0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Automation percentage

Reliability

Equity

Dependability

Fig. 2. Simulated system performances in relation to on-farm automation: without

changing the cropping pattern (on top) and when replacing rice by row crops (on

bottom).

Another example of service performance analysis is that from Lamaddalena

and Pereira (1998) relative to a pressurized irrigation system. Then reliability is defined

as the ability of the system to deliver the target design discharges at the appropriate

pressure at every operating hydrant. An application to the Capitanatta irrigation system

in Italy is shown in Fig. 3. Farmers are involved in management but supported but a

quite diversified technical and administrative staff.

The results in figure 3 show that the system is undersized and some particular

distributors are not able to provide service at those hydrants with appropriate pressure.

For some reaches, near the hydrant 600, the system is not able to produce a pressurized

delivery. This is a good example where the use of a service performance indicator

makes clear that despite there is no system water losses, which could produce high

distribution efficiency, the system is not able to provide conditions for high (economic)

12

water productivity due to design constraints. Farmer management do not impact system

performance under such circumstances. α j

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.0

Hydrant numbers

Fig. 3. Reliability of pressure and discharge delivery service relative to Sinistra

Ofanto irrigation district, Capitanatta, Foggia, Italy (from Lamaddalena and

Pereira, 1998)

A third example refers to a typical surface irrigation system in northwest

China, in the Ningxia province, in the upper reaches of the Yellow River basin. The

climate there is arid but the river water is abundant (Gonçalves et al., 2002). The

Huinong irrigation system (HID) is a very large system irrigating 75000 ha and where

farmers are in charge only of the distribution downstream from the branch canals.

Peasant irrigators farm only 0.6 ha in average. Crops include paddy and wheat

intercropped with maize. Field and simulation research was developed there to identify

issues for improved management. Water conservation and saving are essential to reduce

the groundwater level and decrease salinity induced by excess water. Solutions include

improved farm irrigation, better delivery schedules, changes in the drainage system and,

overall, the modernisation of canal regulation and control. A DSS is used to evaluate

alternative scenarios through yield, operational costs and environmental utility indices.

These utility indices are non-dimensional ratios representing the increase in benefits

expected for each item from enhancing the irrigation system. These results are shown in

Fig. 4 relative to divisions 2 and 4.

13

-0.2

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Sector Scenarios

Util

ity

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Sector Scenarios

Util

ity

Sector Scenariosglobal Farm Gross MarginFarm Water Cost Delivery CostDrainage Cost Water UseFarm Perc. Runoff Delivery Seepage & Runoff

Fig. 4. The utility values for the current scenario (0) and for the improved

scenarios (1 to 8) for Divisions 2 and 4 of HID, China.

It can be seen that improvements result in benefices relative to decreasing the

total water use, deliver seepage and runoff and farm percolation and runoff. A

consequent decreasing trend is computed for delivery and drainage costs. Due to

expected improvements, yields (and water productivity) are expected to be enhanced as

well as the farm gross margin. Among main improvements are those in the conveyance

canal system aiming at enhancing the conditions to deliver the target volumes of water

at the outlets without requiring that the flowing discharges be at maximum because this

situation is currently causing excess water in the drainage system as well as excessive

runoff from branch and sub-branch canals to both the drains and the non-cultivated

lowlands. Improved delivery aims not only a better service to farmers but to reduce the

time when canals are at full capacity, thus causing very high seepage into the

groundwater.

In Fig. 5 are the simulated results for water savings resulting from the

progressive implementation of such rehabilitation and modernization measures. Results

are extremely impressive and show that present conditions are totally inappropriate. A

water price police has been implemented but the system characteristics is such that

water saving can not be produced as consequence of water pricing. The results in Fig. 5

show that main saving shall result from improving the conveyance and distribution

system, not from the farmers. Anyway, peasant farmers can only produce large water

14

saving when they would be supported to improve the farm systems, mainly through land

levelling

DIV. 2

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time implementation (years)

Wat

er v

olum

es (m

3/ha

/yea

r)

DIV. 4

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Time implementation (years)

Wat

er v

olum

es (m

3/ha

/yea

r)

Water Use Farm Perc. Runoff Delivery Seepage & Runoff

Fig. 5. Foreseen time evolution of the total water use, seepage and runoff from the

distribution system and percolation and runoff from the farm irrigation systems

for Division 2 and 4 of HID.

6. Conclusion

Farm managed irrigation systems face several challenges such as to improve

water use, to implement water conservation and water saving programs, to achieve

economic auto-sufficiency and to manage the systems in such a way that service to

farmers allows them to achieve high yields, good economic returns and to control

impacts on the environment. This is a difficult task particularly when irrigators are

peasant farmers, thus in a very large number having small farms and poor conditions to

invest. The non-agricultural world, because irrigation is the main water user and

consumer, places pressure on irrigation asking for higher efficiency, high water

productivity, enhanced water conservation and water saving and increased prices for the

water used.

The efficiency question is approached herein to show it is not an appropriate

indicator because the concept is not fully clear and allows for misunderstandings and

misleading issues. For that reason, following several proposals from research and the

need to adopt indicators that may be common to irrigation and non-irrigation water uses

and systems, a new approach to measure the performances is proposed using the

15

consumed, the reusable and the non-reusable fractions and, for each one of them, a

distinction between beneficial and non-beneficial water uses. Then we approach the

water use concepts from those of hydrology and, mainly, making it more clear which

water use fractions should receive attention in terms of water conservation and saving.

Irrigation systems management require appropriate quality of service to users.

However, this quality do not depend upon management only, it is constrained by the

characteristics of the system. Then monitoring and simulation may allow using service

performance indicators such as reliability, dependability and equity. Two examples

show issues in using these indicators to identify possible problems that hamper actual

management, as well as possible solutions. A third example, relative to a large surface

irrigation system, shows that indicators may be replaced by any other indices when a

DSS is used to evaluate alternative improvements for rehabilitation and modernization

of irrigation systems. In all examples it is evident that the characteristics of the systems,

not the farmers, constitute the main constraints to achieve high performances. However,

the application of remedial measures may be easily achieved when the farmers manage

the systems despite they require heavy technical support to it. The social and cultural

implications due to the use of technologies that change management rules and

institutions should be better known.

References

Allen, R.G., Willardson, L.S., Frederiksen, H.D., 1997. Water use definitions and their use for assessing the impacts of water conservation. In: J. M. de Jager, L.P. Vermes, and R. Ragab (Eds.) Sustainable Irrigation in Aeas of Water Scarcity and Drought (Proc. ICID Workshop, Oxford), British Nat. Com. ICID, Oxford, pp. 72-81.

Bos, MG, 1997. Performance indicators for irrigation and drainage. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 11: 119-137.

Bos, MG, Murray-Rust, DH, Merrey, DJ, Johnson, HG, Snellen, WB, 1994. Methodologies for assessing performance of irrigation and drainage mangement. Irrig. Drain. Syst. 4: 231-261.

Burt, C.M., Clemmens, A.J., Strelkoff, T.S., Solomon, K.H., Bliesner, R.D., Hardy, L.A., Howell, T.A., Eisenhauer, D.E., 1997. Irrigation performance measures: efficiency and uniformity. J. Irrig. Drain. Engng. 123: 423-442.

Garduño,H., 1994. Efficient water use : a multidimensional approach. In: H. Garduño and F. Arreguin-Cortés (Eds) Efficient Water Use. UNESCO Regional Office, Montevideo, pp. 15-39.

Gonçalves JM, Pereira LS, Campos AA, Fabião MS, Paredes P, Fang SX, Mao Z, Dong B, 2002. Modeling demand and distribution for environmental upgrading of the Huinong irrigation system, upper Yellow River Basin: a multi-criteria approach for DSS in the irrigation domain. In: 2002 ASAE Annual International Meeting / CIGR XVth World Congress (Chicago, Illinois, July 28-July 31, 2002) ASAE, CD-ROM paper 022211.

16

Jensen, M. E. (1996) Irrigated agriculture at the cross-roads. In: L.S. Pereira, R.A. Feddes, J.R. Gilley and B. Lesaffre (Eds) Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture, Kluwer Acad. Publ., Dordrecht, pp. 19-33.

Keller, J. and Bliesner, R. D., 1990. Sprinkler and Trickle Irrigation. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York.

Lamaddalena, N. and Pereira, L.S., 1998. Performance analysis of on-demand pressurized irrigation systems. In: L.S. Pereira and J.W. Gowing (Eds) Water and the Environment: Innovation Issues in Irrigation and Drainage, E &FN Spon, London, pp. 247-255.

Lamaddalena N. & Sagardoy J. A. 2000. Performance Analysis of On-Demand Pressurized Irrigation Systems. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper Nº59. FAO, Rome.

Manor, S., Chambouleyron, J., (Eds.) 1993. Performance Measurement in Farmer-Managed Irrigation Systems. IIMI, Colombo

Mantovani, E.C., Villalobos, F.J., Orgaz, F., Fereres, E., 1995. Modelling the effects of sprinkler irrigation uniformity on crop yield. Agric. Water Manag. 27: 243-257.

Molden D. J. & Gates T.K. 1990. Performance measures for evaluation of irrigation-water-delivery systems. J. Irrigation and Drainage Engineering 116(6): 804-823.

Murray-Rust, DH, Snellen, WB, 1993. Irrigation System Performance Assessment and Diagnosis. IIMI, Colombo

Pereira, L. S., 1999. Higher performances through combined improvements in irrigation methods and scheduling: a discussion. Agric. Water Manage. 40 (2): 153-169.

Pereira, L.S. and Trout, T.J., 1999. Irrigation Methods. In: H.N. Van Lier, L.S. Pereira, and F.R. Steiner (Eds.) CIGR Handbook of Agricultural Engineering, Vol. I: Land and Water Engineering, ASAE, St. Joseph, MI, pp. 297-379.

Pereira, LS, Cordery, I, Iacovides, I, 2002 a. Coping with Water Scarcity. UNESCO IHP VI, Technical Documents in Hydrology No. 58, UNESCO, Paris, 267 p.

Pereira LS, Oweis T, Zairi A, 2002 b. Irrigation management under water scarcity. Agric. Water Manag. 57: 175-206.

Pereira, L. S., Calejo, M. J., Lamaddalena, N., Douieb, A., Bounoua, R., 2003. Design and performance analysis of low pressure irrigation distribution systems. Irrig. Drain. Syst. (accepted)

Renault D. & Vehmeyer P. W. 1999. On reliability in irrigation service preliminary concepts and application. Irrigation and Drainage Systems 13(1): 75-103.

Steduto, P.1996. Water use efficiency. In. L.S. Pereira, R. Feddes, J.R. Gilley, and B. Lesaffre (Eds.) Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture. Kluwer Acad. Publ., Dordrecht, pp. 193-209.

Tate,D. M., 1994. Principles of water use efficiency. In: H. Garduño and F. Arreguin-Cortés (Eds.) Efficient Water Use. UNESCO Regional Office, Montevideo, pp. 41-59.

17

R (1-10-1)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

The Future of Participatory Water Management in Gezira

Scheme, Sudan

Adam H. S.1∗, Abdelhadi. A. W.2 & Takeshi Hata3

Abstract This paper is a follow up of the paper by Adam et al. (2002). In October 2002 a

very important Workshop was held in Khartoum to evaluate the pilot project of Abdel

Hakam. The World Bank and FAO participated. There was unanimous agreement that

the WUAs should take full responsibility for the Water Management of Minor Canals.

However there was no such full agreement on the time scale The Farmers Union is of

the opinion that the Transfer should be completed within three to five years. The other

opinion, supported by the authors of this paper, call for a gradual transfer and the time

this takes shall depend on the readiness of farmers in each block to take the

responsibility of the O&M of Minor Canals. An important factor in determining this

period is the intensity of training given to farmers on Water Management and the

present level of development in each of the 114 Blocks in the scheme. One of the

recommendations of the Workshop is that the Pilot project in Abdel Hakam is to be

extended for another year and also repeated in at least two other Blocks: one in a

Medium Developed area and the other in a low Developed area. The other

recommendation is that the Transfer should not be done in all Blocks at the same time.

It should be staggered: Farmers in a certain Block should take over when they are ready

1 Professor, Dean, Water Management & Irrigation Institute, Gezira University, Sudan, Corresponding

Author, E-mail: hsadam2002@yahoo.com. 2 Assistant Research Professor, Agricultural Research Corporation, Agricultural Engineering Research

Program, Wad Medani, Sudan. 3 Professor, Dept. of Agricultural & Environmental Engineering, Kobe University, Faculty of Agriculture,

Water Environment Laboratory, Japan.

18

to do so. The future outlook is that Government should be fully responsible for the

O&M of the Upper System (Main Canals, Branches and Major Canals). The

Government will supply water to the WUAs at the off-takes of Minor Canals, according

to legal contracts. The contract specifies certain quantities of water in cubic meters

every ten days throughout the season at agreed upon charges per cubic meter. The Unit

of production is the Minor Canal. The crop choice, crop mix and crop areas is

determined by the WUAs governed only by availability of water.

Introduction

Gezira Scheme had been the backbone of Sudan economy for many years. It

still plays a major role in the economy of the country. Its impact on the socioeconomics

of about 4 million people in Gezira state is profound. The livelihood of the 110

thousand tenants and their families directly depends on the Scheme. It is the source of

water and feed for about 2 million livestock units (0.5 million cattle, 2.5 million sheep

and 3 million goats). During the drought of 1984, millions of animals from east of the

Blue Nile (Butana) and also from west of the While Nile influxed into the Scheme for

feed and water. The scheme contributed significantly to bridge the gap in sorghum

production (main staple food for the locals in the area and around the scheme), during

dry years.

On the water management side, the scheme consumes about One third of

Sudan share in the Nile water (6 � 7 billion m3 per year). More important, it uses 80% of

the limited stored water in the Sennar & Roseires dams on the Blue Nile during the

period December to end of March. Other users are: Rahad & Suki Schemes, Guneid

Sugar factory and hydroelectric power generation. So, any saving of irrigation water in

the Scheme will be quite significant for the other users. A 10% increase in the water use

efficiency in Gezira Scheme amounts to about 200 million m3 which is equal to the

water requirement of the whole of Guneid Sugar factory for five months (December �

May).

The maintenance & Operation of the huge network of 1500 minor canals with

a total length of about 8000 km, cost billions of Sudanese Dinars. This extensive

network needs a large number of man power for its O&M. Participation of farmers in

water management is a necessity. This has been appreciated by all concerned.

However, due to the extensiveness of the Irrigation Network, It takes time and it

19

involves intensive training of farmers. This paper highlights the steps being taken

towards achieving effective farmers participation in the water management in Gezira

Scheme in Sudan.

Institutional Set-up

The administrative structure of the scheme is composed of Groups (18) and

Blocks (113). Fig. 1 shows the Groups and the Blocks. The Irrigation Network was

described by Adam et al (2002). From the beginning of Gezira Scheme in 1925 and up

to 1999, the Ministry of Irrigation (MOI) has been responsible for the O&M of the Main

Irrigation System (Main, Branch & Major Canals). It is also responsible for the

maintenance of the minor canals. The Sudan Gezira Board (SGB) handles the Operation

of the minor canals. The farmers manage the tertiary network.

10

10

Sennar Dam

Barakat

Wad Medani

114

78

9

18

1617

17 15

1312

3

211

Managil

6 5

4

14 °N

15 °N

Blue Nile

Whi

teN

ile

Khartoum33.5°E 32.5°E

Fig. 1. Administrative structure of the Gezira Scheme, numbers show the Groups

bounded by dark lines while the Blocks are bounded by thinner lines, Modified

from Adam et al. (2002)

20

In 1999, the maintenance of the minor canals is transferred to the SGB. This is

a great step forward to bring together the O&M of the minor canals under one umbrella

that is SGB. It ended an odd arrangement that has been going on for more than 70 years.

It also paved the way for more participation of farmers in the O&M of minor canals.

Table 1, shows some information about the irrigation system, number of farmers and

total area.

Table 1. Some important features of the Gezira Scheme*

No. Feature Length (km) Capacity (m3/s) 2 Main canals 261 Max. 186 & 168 11 Branch canals 651 25 to 120 107 Major canals 1652 1.5 to 15 1,498 Minor canals 8,119 0.5 to 1.5 29,000 Water courses 40,000 0.116 350,000 Field channels 100,000 0.05 Total irrigated Area 882,000 ha Total number of Tenants 110,000 Average farm size 8.4 ha

*Modified from Herve Plusquellec, 1990.

Farmers Union Set-Up

The Farmers Union (FU) set up is based on the administrative structure of the

Scheme (Adam et al. 2002). Representatives from Blocks (114 Blocks) to

Representatives of Groups (18 Groups) to the Central Committee to the Executive

Committee. All Representatives are elected freely from the bottom up: 110 thousand

farmers are involved in the process.

The Farmers Union has a respected political weight. It is very influential in the

State and in the Country as a whole. Therefore, its commitment to participatory water

management is crucial. During the last few years it has been whole heartedly behind it.

It gave effective support during the last year to the training of farmers and the selling of

the idea to all concerned.

The administration of SGB has been reluctant, fearing that the participation of

farmers may mean redundancy to their staff. However, these fears have been removed

through extensive and intensive meetings and seminars on the issue of participatory

water management. It has been shown that the new arrangement may end up with more

jobs for the staff of SGB.

21

The Frame-Work for Participatory Water Management

The base of the frame work is the minor canal. For each minor canal an

Irrigation committee will be formed. Two members from each Rotation (4-5 tertiary

canals) on the minor constitute the Irrigation Committee. The chairpersons of the

Minors Irrigation Committees form the Irrigation Committee at the Block level. This is

based on Abdel Hakam pilot Project, Centre Group, SGB, described by Adam et al.

2002. The pilot project will be extended into a second phase to augment the experience

gained. Similar pilot projects will be started in 2003 in at least two other blocks: One in

the low development area and another in the medium development zone (Abdel Hakam

is considered as representing a high development zone). These pilot projects will be the

spear head in extending the experience gradually into the rest of the Blocks in the

Gezira Scheme.

The Need for Training of Farmers

All concerned now believe that participatory water management is the way to

reduce the cost of O&M, to increase the water use efficiency and to improve the yields

of crops and ultimately the net returns to farmers and the lifting up of the

socioeconomics of farmers and inhabitants of Gezira state at large.

However the time frame during which the transfer of the responsibility for the

O&M of minors to farmers depends on the readiness and preparedness of farmers to

take up that responsibility. This will vary a lot from Group to Group and from Block to

Block due to the variation in the social set up in each Block, the level of education and

the financial situation. The speeding up of the process depends on the extent and

intensiveness of training of farmers. The intensive training of farmers needs substantial

financial support, in this area the financial support of the World Bank is badly needed.

The important and most crucial point, is that the transfer should not take place

unless it is ensured that farmers in a certain minor in a certain Block are ready and

prepared.

The Future Outlook

It is envisaged that Government will be responsible for the O&M of the Main

Irrigation System, from the Dam to the off-take of minor canals. This should be done

22

annually, so that water is made available to the Users. The Government should be the

Supplier and should consider the Gezira Scheme as a national security against drought

and years of poor rainfall.

On the other hand, the Irrigation committee of each minor canal, should work

out their agricultural plan for the coming season: Choose their crops, areas for each crop

and crop mix according to the capacity of the canal and proper rotation. The Irrigation

Requirements are then calculated for each ten day period throughout the season.

This is handed to the Irrigation Engineers of the Ministry of Irrigation

(Government � the Suppliers). The quantity of water needed every 10 days is contracted

to the MOI.

From the beginning of the season, the contracted quantities in cubic meters per

day are to be discharged into each minor canal. This requires that the gates at the off-

takes of minor canals are rehabilitated and calibrated. Then the Irrigation committee can

check whether they are getting the contracted quantities of water or not.

The charge for the water services will be per cubic meter and not per unit area.

This encourages saving water. It will discourage farmers from giving unnecessary

irrigations. They will realize that any additional Un-required irrigation costs money that

they are going to directly pay. They will go even to weigh the increase in production

resulting from an additional irrigation with the cost of that irrigation.

Similarly, farmers will refrain from unqualified silt clearance and over digging,

once they realize that they are going to pay directly for each cubic meter of silt

removed.

It is hoped that the transfer of responsibility of the O&M of minor canals to

farmers will save both water and money.

Conclusion & Recommendations

(1) Participatory water management is now considered by all parties to be the way for

improved water management in Gezira Scheme. All parties are convinced that it

will save water, reduce cost and improve yields of crops.

(2) The transfer of responsibility for the O&M of minor canals takes time. It should be

done gradually according to the readiness and prepared-ness of farmers in each

minor and in each Block.

23

(3) Intensive & Extensive training of farmers is a prerequisite. This needs the full

support of the Farmers Union & SGB. The financial support of the World Bank

would be of grate help.

(4) The Government should keep the Main System (Dam to Off � takes of minors) in

good shape all the time. It should be ready to supply the required quantities for each

canal according to the contracts with the Irrigation Committees.

(5) The gates of the off-takes of minor canals should be rehabilitated and calibrated by

Government. Irrigation Committees will then be able to check whether they are

getting the contracted water.

(6) The water services charges should be per cubic meter and not per irrigation or per

unit area. This saves water & money. Finally, the process should go: SLOW but

SURE.

References

Adam H. S., Abdelhadi A. W. and Takeshi HATA, Promotion of participatory water management in the Gezira Scheme in Sudan. In: Irrigation Advisory Services and Participatory Extension in Irrigation Management, Workshop Organized by FAO-ICID, 18th Congress on Irrigation and Drainage, 21-28 July, 2002, Montreal, Canada. The full paper is available online as PDF format at; http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/ias/docs /paper18.pdf.

Herve Plusquellec, (1990). The Gezira irrigation scheme in Sudan. Objectives, design and performance. World Bank Technical Paper Number 120. Washinton, D.C. USA.

24

R (1-10-2)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Towards Self-management of Irrigation Systems: Experiences

From Nepal

Prachanda Pradhan∗

Abstract The farmer managed irrigation systems (FMIS) are the examples of

participatory irrigation management. They are built by the collective effort of the

farmers and managed by themselves. They identify among themselves who are the

members of the system. The basis of resource mobilization would be agreed among

themselves and establish the monitoring procedure to check the compliance of the rules

agreed by them. The farmers become effective entrepreneurs and crafters of their rules

in use. The physical capital development allows the social capital formation provided

the farmers actively participate in the process and help build trust among the irrigators.

This process allows the evolution of rule applicable to all members. Social capital,

polycentric governance mode and water users associations based on designed principles

are the foundations of participatory irrigation management.

Social capital can increase organisational productivity and can have better

utilisation of physical and natural capital of the community. Two examples of assistance

to FMIS in Nepal with varied level of farmer participation shall be presented. The active

role of the farmers during assistance program can generate positive results of good

governance system, social capital development and increased productivity of physical

infrastructure as well as agriculture productivity.

In analyzing 102 irrigation systems of Nepal, on the impact of farmer

participation in economic and technical efficiency, physical and agriculture condition, it

is found that the systems with high level of farmer participation perform better. It is ∗ Chairman, Farmer Managed Irrigation Systems Promotion Trust, Kathmandu, Nepal. email:

pradhanp@mos.com.np

25

found that the system with high level participation has good result on economic and

technical efficiency. The physical conditions are considered much better. The

difference of cropping intensity between head and tail is less. The water supply in head

and tail is not much different. On the other hand, systems with low level participation

have poor performance in economic and technical efficiency.

Introduction

Farmer managed Irrigation systems, which have 70% of share in irrigated

agriculture in Nepal, have been performing through the collective action of the member

farmers for many years. Farmers with their collective effort could make irrigation

systems functional even in the adverse condition.

A farmer from Sindhupalchowk district of Nepal once told me that "the irrigation

channel up there can not stand in that fragile terrain only by iron rods and cement

concrete, it is our organization which kept the irrigation channel functioning"

What the farmer is talking about here is the social capital and farmer

organization which have helped better utilize the physical capital like channel and

natural capital like irrigation water. Individuals usually derive the benefit of physical

and natural capital but social capital, in contrast, is expected to produce goods that are

more collective than just for individuals. The mutually beneficial collective action of

farmers makes irrigation system perform better. This mutually beneficial collective

action, in order terms, is the self-management of irrigation systems.

Characteristics of FMIS

The characteristics of such FMIS are (a) direct involvement of irrigators, (b)

effective monitoring and sanctions and (c) holding officials accountable.

In systems managed by the farmers, one finds that equity is the dominant

objective. Equity is more significant than adequacy. The reason for this is that to make

the members feel willing to sustain the organisation, they should feel that every one is

getting a fair share. If water is not sufficient in one season, they should feel that

everyone should suffer the same degree of difficulty. Equity of distribution does not

mean equal distribution to everybody. It means distribution according to a system of

rules, which everybody can understand. Sometimes rules allow different groups to

receive quite different quantities of water, but the users think it is right because they

26

know the reasons for the rules. This is an example of a rule system, which is transparent

and easy to understand to operate and monitor. Abernethy (2000).

Lam describes the characteristics of the agency-managed system as opposed to

FMIS where rule breaking is the norm of the day than rule compliance. �Working in a

bureaucracy, these officials have incentives to design rules so that they are easy to

administer. As a result, rules used in the AMIS tend to be uniform in scope and in their

application to different parts of the system. Rules that are designed upon the sole

premises of easy implementation are likely to be less flexible and less compatible with

local situation. As farmers perceive that the chance of having the rigid rule changed is

slim and complying with the rules might mean a serious crop loss for themselves,

breaking the rules frequently appears to be the only alternative. The management style

of AMIS contributes towards the social capital depletion, discouraging farmers to take

mutually beneficial collective action. Lam (1999).

The typology of irrigation management broadly categories the agency managed

and farmer managed irrigation systems. The self-managed irrigation systems imply the

implementation of management activities of irrigation systems by the irrigators

themselves. They are also called farmer managed irrigation systems. Hence, the self-

management of irrigation systems undertakes �fundamental tasks by irrigators

themselves on the basis of accumulated local knowledge and filling all of the necessary

positions from among the irrigators themselves". The category of self-management of

irrigation systems includes all types of irrigation systems from small multi-individual

and community system that irrigates few hectares to thousands of hectares. The self-

managed irrigation systems can hire technical manpower to help manage the irrigation

systems as well as the employment of irrigators themselves for management.

The trend of natural resource management including irrigation management is

that neither the state nor the free market can be appropriate management structure,

Ostrom (1994). Hence, there has been a growing tendency to see the important role of

the community in managing these resources. The assumption of natural resource

management responsibility by the concerned community is also a form of self-

management, Bowles (1999). There has been change in the trend that the state plays

only facilitating role. The community is considered important effective agency for

natural resource management like irrigation systems.

27

Social capital, polycentric governance mode and autonomous water users

associations based on institution designed principles are the foundations of self-

management of the irrigation systems.

Contributing factor for Self-management

Social capital

Social capital refers to those stocks of social trust, norms and networks that

people can draw upon to solve the common problems. The irrigation organization that

the farmers establish for managing their irrigation systems constitutes a form of social

capital. The irrigation organizations have evolved over period of time for mutually

beneficial collective action through the trust and norms of behavior and reciprocity

among the members of the organization.

Usually, the farmer managed irrigation systems are built by the collective

effort of the beneficiary farmers and manage by themselves. The farmers have to agree

among themselves the mode and method of the construction of the channel for

irrigation. They identify among themselves who are the members of the system. The

resource mobilization, by and large, would be labor contribution. The basis of such

mobilization would be agreed among themselves and establish the monitoring procedure

to check the compliance of the rules agreed by them. The information about the

progress of activities in the irrigation system is shared in the meetings of the irrigator

farmers. . The farmers become effective entrepreneurs and crafters of their rules in use.

The physical capital development allows the social capital formation provided the

farmers actively participate in the process and help build trust among the irrigators. This

process allows the evolution of rule applicable to all members. Active participation in

rule formulation and construction of the canal through labor and cash contribution

would help the development of social capital like trustfulness among the members,

networking and the institutions. Hence the construction of the channel by the farmers

help build social capital as well in the farmer managed irrigation system.

Social capital as Ostrom and Anh, defined is the way individuals relate to one

another to affect their own and others long term benefit (both positively and negatively).

They suggested three broad forms of social capital that are particularly important in the

study of collective action a) trustworthiness b) networks and c) formal and informal

rules and institutions. Hence, social capital can be viewed as an attribute of the

28

individuals and of their relationships that enhance their ability to solve collective action

program.

As Uphoff and Wijayratna put that social capital brings �mutually beneficial

collective action.� (MBCA). They further elaborated the social capital existing either in

structural or cognitive forms. Both forms come from the mental rather than the material

realm. They come from various aspects of social relationships that can be explicitly

described. Under the category of structural social capital, roles, rules and procedures

and precedents and social networks are included. These features facilitate mutually

beneficial collective action. Norms, values, attitudes and beliefs that predispose people

to cooperate are, on the other hand, form of cognitive social capital that are conducive

for mutually beneficial collective action. The value of trustfulness, attitude of solidarity,

and belief in fairness create an environment in which mutually beneficial collective

action become expected and take place regularly.

Social capital can increase organizational productivity and can have better

utilization of physical and natural capital of the community. Appropriate social and

legal environment can help enhance social capital and increase productivity. In the

absence of appropriate social relationships, an incompatible legal system and external

selfish political interference to the community affairs can cause depletion of social

capital, which will result in decreased productivity, and underutilization of physical and

natural capitals

Polycentric Governance Mode

The polycentric mode of governance allows more than one center of decision

making. It becomes spontaneous and not guided or directed. In order to have individuals

creativity expressed and active role to be played by the individuals, it is felt that the

dense network of associational groups help to develop social capital. The collective

strength of citizenship will always conduce more efficaciously to the public welfare

than the authority of the government, Tocqueville (1945). Where the environment for

the citizens to do by themselves would allow the polycentric governance mode. In a

situation where the local-level units alone will not be able to provide goods and

services, co-production of such goods and services are to be encouraged. Where there is

social capital, it is possible to have goods and services provided at the grass root level,

complementary activity would not be possible where social capital does not exist.

29

Water Users Association

It requires the change of the role of the government from implementers to

facilitator. The government takes the responsibility of helping the farmers build up their

management capacity and carry on further improvement activities through the WUA.

The role of the organized group of the farmers becomes important. Hence,

appropriate form of WUA becomes important. Such program helps promote self-

management of irrigation systems.

(a) Farmers Organization as focal point for Self-management The intelligence of the farmers is to be recognized and respected by the

officials. Of course, many farmers are illiterate but not necessarily idiot. We must have

faith on them and help develop their capacity to manage hence, the WUA formation

needs to be carefully handled. It is necessary to the farmer's community to discuss about

WUA. It needs to develop trust among themselves and sense of cooperation.

Reciprocity and mutual understanding among the farmers themselves are important

conditions for proper functioning of WUA. With these conditions, social capital within

WUA develops. This social capital will complement to physical and natural capital to

increase their agriculture productivity. They come only through frequent interactions

among themselves.

(b) Conditions for WUA Formation It will be useful to consider establishing WUA on hydrological basis. These

criteria will make easy to identify the members of the irrigation systems who are water

users. Consequently, resource mobilization for O&M and other purposes will be easy.

List of the water users and size of landholding is to be prepared before the formation of

WUA/ WUG. Based on the list, meeting of members of WUA has to be organized by

the facilitator and inform about the role and responsibilities of the WUA.

Based on water distribution system, sanction for non-compliance, resource

mobilization based on the land holding has to be encouraged and incorporate in the

constitution for the WUA.

(c) Components of Effective WUA While forming the WUA, it will be useful to incorporate the following

components to make WUA effective Ostrom (1999):

• It should have clearly defined boundary of service area.

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• Members should be clear what benefit they get and what obligations they have to

fulfill.

• Collective Choice Arrangement which includes the decision-making in the general

assembly meeting and in the executive committee meetings.

• Regular monitoring of activities affecting the performance of the system.

• Violation of operational rules will be subject to sanction/ punishment.

• Conflict settlement arrangement.

• Government support to organize WUA.

Different levels of organization like secondary canal or block committee and

main committee. There can be several levels depending on the size of the irrigation

system.

Effort is to be made to make WUA as �Self-organizing, self-supporting and

self-governing" entity. Then, it will be able to take the responsibility of managing the

irrigation systems.

Context of Nepal: Natural Resource Management Pattern

Nepal has interesting experiences in natural resources (water and forest

resources) management. In the beginning of 1950�, forest used to be centrally managed

resource.

For centuries, forest resources are considered as one of the major sources of

revenue collection to the government from the contractors who have been given contract

to harvest timber. There was no program of conservation but only exploitation of the

resources. On the other hand, irrigation systems except a few government-constructed

and managed systems, are managed by the irrigators community.

In 1950, centralized management became the practice both in water and forest

sectors. The Forest Nationalization Act, 1957, discouraged the community to manage

forest causing the tremendous depletion of forest resources. In 1980's new legal

arrangements were put in place. Users groups were made active to protect and manage

the forest. Similarly, Nepal has rich tradition of farmer managed irrigation systems

scattered in many parts of the country. By subsequent legal and institutional

arrangements, the autonomy of the grass root institutions responsible for irrigation water

management has been weakened. Forest adopted the decentralized form of management

whereas the irrigation sector took centralized management style.

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Evolution of Legal System Affecting the People's Water Institution

Nepal portrays a rich tradition of community efforts in natural resource

management especially in water resources, forestry, and pastures. Customary norms

have delineated water as community resource with elaborate usufructory rights and

community governance structures for the management and utilization of these resources

by village societies. Apart from these community-based values and norms, state policies

and practices have historically been conducive to reinforce community roles in natural

resource management especially in water sector. The edict of King Ram Shah in the

17th century mandated water resources related conflicts to be settled at the community

level itself, Riccardi (1977). These systems are autonomous and self-governing entities.

Irrigation development in the country remained in the hands of the people for many

years. This tradition has given birth to the construction of irrigation systems by the

farmers and crafting of the institutions by the community appropriate to manage them.

The Focus of the Paper

The following section attempts to look at the factors of self-management in the

irrigation sector in Nepal by presenting two modes of interventions in FMIS. Two case

studies of the intervention strategies to FMIS attempts to analyze the impact on the self-

management capacity of irrigator's community.

A. Experiment in Indrawati Basin for Irrigation System Improvement

The Action Research Program (WECS/IIMI 1990) to identify appropriate

assistance to FMIS was undertaken by Water and Energy Commission Secretariat

(WECS) and with technical assistance of International Irrigation Management Institute

(IIMI) and funding of Ford Foundation. The Action research program was undertaken in

Indrawati River basin. Within the basin area, 119 irrigations systems were identified.

Most of them were farmer managed irrigation systems. Out of the list of inventory,

second short listing was made on the basis of a) water availability, b) land availability c)

potentiality for increasing cropping intensity. All these criteria aim at increasing

agriculture production. The intervention and investment have to impact on increased

productivity. Under these criteria, 19 irrigation systems were selected.

WECS and IIMI decided based on the engineering report for the allocation of

amount of fund to be made available to each system. The second stage of activity was to

32

inform the farmers that their systems have been selected for improvement but their

participation at different stages is required. If the farmers are not participating or not

cooperating the program, it is not necessary that the program will continue in the

system. The continuation of the program is dependent on the continuous cooperation

and participation of the farmers. It was attempted in the Action Research Program to

introduce the flexibility of the allocation of the budget and flexibility in the design of

the structure. Another important aspect in the program was the transparency of the

budget and its use. With such flexibility, participation of the users group became

effective and they can see positive results of their participation both in allocation of the

fund and suitable structure for their use.

There have been frequent interactions among the villagers about the

improvement of the system. The process of interaction is given the name as �Dialogue".

Three Dialogues took place before finalizing the program. Through the "Dialogue", they

get information. In the meantime, they can influence changes in the program and

workout their own activities for irrigation improvement. The term �Dialogue� is used to

have two way communications and establish a system of sharing the experiences

between the farmers and program people.

After helping the farmers to form their water users associations, they were

informed about the amount of fund availability and preliminary cost estimate done by

the engineering group hired by WECs to provide technical help to the water users

associations.

Each system was allocated only minimum amount of fund for system

improvement. The farmers were asked about their first priority work, their second

priority work and third priority work. If money can be saved by changing the type of

work to be done, the fund will be made available to be used in the second priority area

and similarly change in the second priority area, the left over money can be used to third

priority.

The costing and estimates are done on the basis of the Public Works Code of

the District. The labor rate will be fixed by the district administration each year. Hence,

the rate fixed by the government is the basis for the estimation by the engineering firm.

This rate also becomes the basis for awarding the construction contract.

After intense discussion with the engineering group, the farmers decided the

first priority work. They want to do second priority work as well. The fund was limited

and might not be enough. In doing so, they have to have lots of discussion among

33

themselves. They decide the basis of labor mobilization. This is usually based on the

size of land holding that they have in the irrigation system so that everybody has equal

contribution in the system improvement. Similarly, in many places, they want to spend

money in that type of work where they do not have skill like stone cutting along the

canal. For earth cutting, they avoid using fund. Through intense interaction, the

allocation of fund and prioritization of work were done by the users themselves and

agreed the basis to do that. In implementation of the construction work, they trust each

other and undertook activities according to the rule agreed by their meetings.

The farmers through WUA are involved the irrigation improvement program

right from the very beginning. The technical inputs by the engineers were provided to

WUA.WUA, unlike in other projects, did not work for engineers, rather engineers work

for them.

Farmer to Farmer Training Program and Farmer Consultancy

Program

Before the rehabilitation of the irrigation system, Water Users Associations

were formed. Several interactions with farmers were organized about the structural

improvement, water distribution, resource mobilization criteria, organization of water

user�s association, their rules and regulations. Farmer to farmer training programs was

organized. Farmers from these systems were taken to other better farmer managed

irrigation system.

Formation of Water Users Association

In the Indrawati basin program, the formal organization has not been made the

priority of the activity. However, emphasis was put to form WUA which is acceptable

to the community of irrigators not that acceptable to the government. Hence, such WUA

became the driver for self-management of irrigation systems.

B. Intervention by the Government Agency: Example from Second

Sector Irrigation Project (SISP)

Assistance to FMIS has been the regular activity of Department of Irrigation

(DOI). They have been intensified in 1990's. Different donor agencies have contributed

for the assistance program. Among them, the major agencies are Asian Development

34

Bank and World Bank. In 1990s, it was agreed that ADB/Manila will finance assistance

programs to Central and Eastern Region of Nepal and World Bank will provide loan

assistance in Western, Mid Western and far Western Regions of Nepal. For the

presentation of case study, process of intervention in Second Irrigation Sector Project

(NIA/East Consult 1999) (SISP) is selected.

The objective of the SISP is to:

(a) increasing agriculture productivity and

(b) improve the incomes of small farmers on a sustainable basis. The scope of

the project consists of four components;

• Strengthening of Water Users Associations (WUAs)

• Improvement and construction of farmer-managed irrigation systems

• Provision of service, vehicles and equipments

• Agriculture extension activities.

SISP will provide support for rehabilitation and improvement of FIMS on the

basis of farmer participatory and bottom up approach. The farmer�s active role is

considered an integral part of the rehabilitation of FMIS or new construction of the

systems, which will be finally managed by the farmers' group. Hence, the SISP is the

farmer centered assistance program for the rehabilitation of FIMS.

The thirteen steps were suggested for the implementation of the selected sub-

projects in SISP. The role of water users association in each sub-project is given due

recognition.

The FMIS, which is the candidate for rehabilitation, will be assisted by DOI

for registration of WUA in the government agency so that the WUA secures the legal

status. Once the WUA secures the legal recognition, DIO undertakes physical

rehabilitation in collaboration with the WUA of the sub-project.

Approach of SISP on WUA Strengthening Program

SISP visualises the approach of walking by two legs; (a) farmers' institution

development, and (b) infrastructure development. One component should compliment

other component and re-enforce the importance of each other. Institutional development

of WUA is considered as important as those of the quality construction of infrastructure

of farmer managed irrigation systems. Hence, it is perceived that WUA institutional

strengthening and infrastructure building should go together. The sustainability of the

35

rehabilitated FMIS shall depend on the institutional development of WUAs and it

contributes toward self-management of irrigation systems.

District Irrigation Office (DIO) is assigned the responsibility of rehabilitation

in collaboration with WUA. DIO provides information to WUA, help organize general

meeting of the users, assist in drafting of constitution of the WUA, help register WUA

in CDO/ District Water Resources Committee, organize training program to WUA

members, mobilize the contribution of farmers before the start of construction activities.

O&M training, BME training etc. However, such support shall be provided only to

those WUAs, which are the candidates of assistance for rehabilitation. In practice, the

WUA registration is considered important so effort is made to get the WUA registered.

This helps the DIO to enter into Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) with WUA, which

opens the activity for construction through contractors. Interview with the District

Irrigation Officers revealed that WUA capacity building is considered less important

compared to physical construction. Association Organizer (AO) is considered sole

responsible person for WUA strengthening activity. However, they were not

appropriate catalyst to help the cause of the farmer's organization. The position of

Association Organizer (AO) was not even properly recognized in DIO.

Measuring the Level of Participation in the SISP Intervention Process

It is assumed here that the higher level of farmer participation in the

rehabilitation process would help institutionalize the rules and regulation norms and

values among the members of irrigator's community. The lesser the participation, the

institutional development process would be negative and social capital development

would have negative impact. The process of intervention as suggested in SISP will be

enumerated and Pretty�s level of participation will be described. Based on Pretty�s level

of participation, those process will be analysed to assess the level of participation and

contribution toward self-management.

36

Table 1. Comparison of SISP1 Steps, Pretty's2 level of Participation and Social

Capital Development

Levels of participation Steps of SISP Actors Social Capital Passive Participation

1. Officials inform irrigators what they have already decided to do

Step 2. Information dissemination/discussion with farmers take place but decision will be made by officials

Officials

This step doesn�t bring the farmers together. Only farmer leaders will be engaged in discussion

2. Officials ask irrigators for information & decide what they will do

Step 1. Water Resources Assessment (experiences of farmers secured by officials) other information will be collected by the farmers

Officials No input for social capital development

Step 3. Identification of the system for rehabilitation

Farmers apply for rehabilitation

Step 4. Feasibility study by officials

Officials

Step 5. Appraisal & approval Officials

Need expression is there, no interaction among them Official dominated activities would not promote active participation & less opportunity for social capital development

Step 7. Cost estimate & tender document

Officials

Step 10. O&M training to farmers

Officials

3. Officials discuss plans with irrigators & officials decide what they will do

Step 12. Establishment of benefit monitoring & evaluation

Officials designed WUA to do

Active Participation Participation with incentives (benefit received for implementation of plan)

None Contractor implementation No opportunity for give & take

Externally defined objectives (irrigators collect resources & implement the plans decided by the officials

Step 8. Resources mobilization. 15% contribution by the farmers/irrigators

Officials decided & farmers pay/contribute

It could help develop the social capital. It helps develop norms & rules for resource mobilization by users. However, the farmers didn�t have role in deciding total cost so the total cost is imposed on them. In the interest of construction, there would be manipulation of the farmer�s contribution

Step 6. Establishing WUA Officials & farmers

The interactive process of WUA establishment could build up social capital but those rules & regulations are imposed on them & used for registration purpose. They aren�t usually the community gluing factor. Low quality construction brings conflicts

Participation for interactively defined objectives (collaborate with officials to make plans & decisions)

Step 11. Commission (certification of the completion of the project construction)

WUA officials

Self management Step 13. O&M responsibility WUA Follow old system 1 NIA/ East Consult, 1999. 2 Pretty, 1995

37

Impact of Participation on Self-management

Participation of the farmers during rehabilitation is important for institutional

development as well as for good quality physical infrastructure construction. Externally

imposed WUA would not be effective. Usually, the irrigation agency attempts to

introduce �uniform� rules in all irrigation systems without recognizing the diversity

inherent in the irrigation systems. They are different from region to region. Even within

a system, there are differences from area to area. Imposing prototype rules and

regulations of WUA in the irrigators community would take away the opportunity of the

irrigators community crafting institution suitable to their specific situation and

ecological conditions. The level of passive participation allowed in this process would

deny the people the opportunity to make �Collective choice� appropriate to their

condition and environment. Because of low level participation in the process of

rehabilitation and assistance to FMIS, the social capital development does not take

place. If we take the rules and regulations as one of the attributes of social capital

development formation, it is important to see how there rules and regulations as

�structured social capital� have evolved. They have to evolve based on understanding,

negotiations and cooperation among the users. Imposition of prototype rules and

regulations to govern the irrigator's community would not contribute to promote social

capital, which should act as glue to bring together the members of the irrigator's

community and help promote self-management of irrigation systems.

In analyzing 102 irrigation systems of Nepal from Nepal Irrigation Institute

Data Base (NIIS Database) stored in Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis

at Indiana University, on the impact of farmer participation in economic and technical

efficiency, physical and agriculture condition, it is found that the systems with high

level of farmer participation perform better, Joshi et al. 2000. The table given below

clearly shows that the system with high level participation has good result on economic

and technical efficiency. The physical conditions are considered much better. The

difference of cropping intensity between head and tail is less. The water supply in head

and tail is not much different. On the other hand, systems with low level participation

have poor performance in economic and technical efficiency. The physical condition of

the large percentage is not good, water supply between head and tail is different making

scarce supply at the tail end.

38

The SISP steps judged by Pretty�s level of participation, it is clear that SISP

steps have promoted only passive participation. This can be categorized as moderate or

low level participation. The table on result of farmer participation shows the poor

performance of irrigation system with low level of participation.

Table 2. Result of Level of Farmers Participation on Economic and Technical

Efficiency and on physical and agriculture conditions

High level participation

Moderate level Participation

Low level Participation

Highly Economic Efficiency 82.4 (16/19)

31% (21/66)

33% (9/27)

Highly Technical Efficiency 73% (12/19)

13.6% (9/66)

22% (6/27)

Difference between head and tail cropping intensity 2.5% 3.5% 6%

Water supply at the tail end (Adequate and Predictable)

78.9% (15/19)

58.7% (37/63)

26.9% (7/26)

Source: This table is adopted from Niraj Joshi, et al. 2000.� Institutional Opportunities and Constraints in the Performance of FMIS in Nepal.�

Department of Irrigation (DOI) has given importance only to capital

development and less importance to institutional development and social capital

formation. Out of 102 irrigation systems in NIIS database analysis indicates that

�systems with permanent head works are shown to have the lowest scores in all three

dimensions (physical condition, water delivery and productivity. The system with

temporary head works and at least partially lined canals are shown outperform other

systems in terms of the physical condition and effectiveness of water delivery, Lam

1999. In terms of agriculture productivity, systems that do not have lining nor

permanent head works achieve the best.

The study shows clearly that the investment in physical infrastructure alone

does not produce positive results. The formation of social capital compensates even in

weak infrastructure. However, in the absence of social capital, permanent structures also

would be less productive. Therefore, the social capital helps towards the self-

management of irrigation systems. With such management type, the important issue of

equity, participation of the farmers, accountability and transparency are

institutionalized.

39

Towards Self-management of Irrigation Systems

It is to encourage the irrigator's community to take the responsibility of

management of irrigation systems. Since there has been change in the management of

state affairs and less importance to state control of management of public enterprises

and natural resource management, the community of irrigators have proved that they

can manage system through self-management mode.

In order to make self-management effective active participation of the

irrigators, polycentric mode of governance, effective water users associations and social

capital development have to take place.

The two case studies presented from Nepal tell the story that where the farmers

are made active in collective decision �making during rehabilitation or new

construction, they become self-managing systems. In other case, there has been passive

participation and guided WUA during rehabilitation; they became dependent on the

government. They could not assert for self-management.

Hence, deliberate effort is to be made for the promotion of self-management of

irrigation systems during rehabilitation or new construction period. Such arrangement

can achieve the needs of the beneficiary farmers.

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40

Pretty, J. N. 1995. Regenerating agriculture: Policies and practice for sustainability and self-reliance. London (Chap. 5 & 6). Pretty, J. et al. A Trainers Guide for Participatory Learning and Action, London: IIED.

Riccardi, Ted. 1977. Royal Edits of Ram Saha of Gorkha. In: Kailash, a Journal of Himalayan Studies, Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

Tocqueville, A.de. 1945. Democracy in America, Trans. H. Reeves. NY. Alfred. A. Knopt. Uphoff, Norman and CM Wijayrantna. 2000. Demonstrated benefit from social capital: The

productivity of farmer organizations in Gal Oya, Sri Lanka in World Development. Nov. 2000.

WECS/IIMI. 1990. Assistance to farmer-managed irrigation systems: Results, Lessons and Recommendations from an Action Research Project, Colombo. IIMI.

41

R (1-10-3)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Comparison of Farmer Participation for Irrigation

Management in Post-Wars in Cambodia and Japan

Hajime Tanji1 and Takao Masumoto2

Abstract After the 1980�s civil war, Cambodia restarted agricultural development. The

rehabilitation of irrigation facilities and formation of water user associations are

important themes. The state of irrigation facilities and water user associations after the

war in Cambodia was very similar to that after World War II in Japan. However, while

Japan could rapidly improve irrigation projects and form many water user associations,

Cambodia could not. This paper tries to find the differences between these two cases

and solve of the difficulties in Cambodia.

Irrigation facilities in Cambodia

The following descriptions are based on Kawai (2002). After gaining its

independence in 1953, Cambodia worked hard to improve irrigation. The irrigated area

was 29,000 ha in 1955 but had reached 171,443 ha in 1969. The irrigation channel

network, which had been almost non-existent in 1955, reached 1,519 km in 1969. In the

latter half of the 1970�s, the Pol Pot era, large-scale irrigation facilities of 720,000 ha

were constructed by forced labor. But the available area was limited to 240,000 ha and

the remaining 480,000 ha were unfinished or unsuitable.

Based on the survey by the Mekong River Secretariat in 1993 and 1994, only

21% of the irrigation facilities worked perfectly, and 14% did not work at all. Thus 1 Head of Lab. Of River & Coast. National Institute for Rural Engineering, Japan. E-mail:

tanji@nkk.affrc.go.jp 2 Head of Lab. of Hydrology & Water Resources. National Institute for Rural Engineering, Japan, E-mail:

tanji@nkk.affrc.go.jp

42

there remain many dilapidated irrigation facilities that were constructed during the Pol

Pot era. The rehabilitation of these facilities is an important issue.

Comparison of post-war land reformations

Japanese Case

The Japanese case is shown in Table 1. World War II ended in 1945 and only

one year later, the Farmland Reform Law was established and implemented. The law set

one hectare as the upper limit of farmland that could be owned by one landowner. Land

was purchased from big landowners at a cost of 760 yen/10a for paddy fields and 450

yen/10a for upland fields. The value of this money was rapidly eroded by strong

inflation. The land reformation from 1947 to 1950 transferred 1,970,000 ha from big

landowners to landless farmers and the ratio of ownership by big landowners was

reduced from 46 � 48% (before the war) to 9% (after the emancipation of farming land).

Also in 1946, the Land Improvement Law was established and a new system for

constructing and rehabilitation of irrigation facilities was started. In this system, water

user associations play an important role in the design and maintenance of irrigation

facilities. In 1947, Agricultural Cooperative Law was established to help preparing and

sell agricultural produce. In 1952, the Agricultural Land Act established the laws for

agricultural land and production.

Table 1. History of land and irrigation improvement in Japan

Year Law Rules and Actions

1946 Farmland Reform Law Emancipation of Farming Land

1946 Land Improvement Law Selection of Farmland Committee

1947 (Implementation of the above law) Start of Farmland Purchase

1947 Agricultural Cooperative Law

1952 Agricultural Land Act

Cambodian Case Before colonization by France, farmlands were possessed by the rule of

�acquisition by hoe�. This rule meant, if farmland was hoed for three years, the

cultivator would acquire ownership right. If a farmer stopped hoeing for three years, he

would lose the right. After colonization by France, in 1884, the colonial government

43

established a law that allowed private possession of land. This law was applied to some

plantation areas but even at that time, traditional farmland was under the rule of

�acquisition by hoe�.

In 1975, Democratic Kampuchea (Pol Pot Government) was started. During

the Pol Pot era, no private possession of agricultural or other land was permitted. The

Kampuchean government owned all land. The Pol Pot era was ended in 1979 with the

People�s Republic of Cambodia. Under this government, a subvillage unit owned

farmland and cooperative cultivation by a unit was recommended. While this unit,

solidarity group was called Krom Samaki, officially remained until 1989, cooperative

cultivation began reverting to traditional family cultivation several years after 1979 and

Krom Samaki redistributed common farmland of village to private owners, basing the

amount not on ownership before the Pol Pot era but on the number of persons in the

owner�s household. At any rate, Krom Samaki�s new land tenure system was

independent of that before the Pol Pot era.

In 1989, the People�s Republic of Cambodia became the State of Cambodia,

and the constitution was reformed. Krom Samaki was resolved but private land

ownership based on the distribution by Krom Samaki was authorized. In 1992, a new

land law was established that replaced the land ownership rights that had been granted

before 1979.

Table 2. History of land and irrigation improvement in Cambodia

Year Law Rules Governance

Before1884 Traditional Rule Acquisition by hoe Kingdom

1884 Land Law Private possession Colonial Government

1975-1979 No private possession, all land was owned by the Kampuchean government

Democratic Kampuchea (The Pol Pot Era)

1979 Krom Samaki (Solidarity Groups)

Common farmland of a village with cooperative cultivation *

The People's Republic of Cambodia

1989 Reform of the Constitution

Private land ownership based on the distribution by Krom Samaki The State of Cambodia

1992 Land Law Repeal of land ownership rights granted before 1979 The State of Cambodia

1996 Village Development Community (VDC)

*This system was soon replaced by a family ownership system based on the number of persons in the familiy

44

Comparison

Comparing the respective post-war situations of Japan and Cambodia, there are

several similarities. Japan reconstructed irrigation facilities and formed water user

association under this situation. Why this situation could not be a chance for the

reconstruction of irrigation facilities and formation of water user associations for

Cambodia?

After several trials, these projects faced major difficulties in Cambodia. For

example, in the Pol Pot era, many irrigation channels were constructed based on

inadequate technical design.

In historical agricultural development after World War II, the re-construction

of irrigation facilities and formation of water user associations were very important. In

Japan, farmland reform restricted the rights of old large landowners. And promoted land

ownership by all farmers. In Cambodia, land reform was done on the occupancy based

on the allocation by Krom Samaki by the 1989 law. This law allocated farmland based

on the farmer population.

There are also many similarities with farmland reform. But there remained

next questions. 1) What was the effect of the Pol Pot channels? 2) Why couldn�t the

land allocation by Krom Samaki improve land reclamation? 3) What is the difficulty of

the reconstruction and the reformation? These points are discussed in the following

sections.

A Case Study of “Pol Pot” Channels

An example of a Pol Pot channel Figure1 shows the canal layout of the Kandal Stung Irrigation System, which

was constructed in the Pol Pot era. Pol Pot channels were constructed along the

directions of longitude and latitude. The role of elevation in the hydraulic energy

gradient was ignored.

The discharge of the main canal was not constant and could not easily reach

the end of the canal. The situation of the secondary canal was worse than the main

canal. Delivered discharge does not reach the end of the channel due to its bottom�s

high level.

45

Fig. 1. Canal Layout of the Kandal Stung Irrigation System

This channel was partly rehabilitated by the local government. However, only

some parts could irrigate well and the remaining facilities were in poor conditions. In

2000, JICA started an irrigation technology transfer program of the Technical

Engineering Center Project in Cambodia (TEC). This program focuses on the

rehabilitation of the Kandal Stung Irrigation Project.

In 2002, TEC discussed the rehabilitation of the secondary canal. Farmers

discussed the design of the secondary canal. On the design of the secondary canal of 60

cm width, a 2 m-width road for management was attached. Farmers offered the land for

the road without any cost.

Opinions by the United Nations and NGOs

The United Nations and NGOs suggest that the Pol Pot Channels are not worth

reforming. But the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation Department of provinces

had been reforming the Pol Pot channels instead of replacing them.

46

Discussion

Fujita’s study Fujita (2001) made the following points about difficulties of formation of

water users association.

1) Not all users can satisfy the condition that the benefit of participation of the

association can exceed the cost of participation of the association,

2) Free rider problem

These points reflect the following tendencies after the analysis of national

irrigation projects in the Philippines.

The difficulty of forming of water user associations depends on the size of the

association, bifurcation of the water supply between upstream and downstream users,

urbanization of the area, and the existence or lack of water user associations in the past.

In the case of Cambodia, there are two obstacles, One is the insufficient water

delivery system and the other is the lack of experienced organizations.

Remarks by Kawai

Generally, Cambodian traditional village society has no organization except

blood relatives (Amano 2002). In 1956, the Office Royal de Cooperation (ORC) was

established to organize agricultural cooperatives, and 40% of farm families were

members by 1968. After a survey of five communes in Kandal province in 1997, all

farmers agrees to join a water user association if it were established and 97% agreed to

pay money for irrigation (Kawai 2002).

In 1999, the operation and maintenance section was established in the Ministry

of Water Resources and Meteorology Typical hierarchical structure of political

organization of Cambodia consists of provinces (Khet), districts (Sork) and communes

(Khum). Village life is organized in sub-commune (Phum) but this organization has no

political basis.

Pichsaly’s study

The Cambodian jurist, Pichsaly (2002) discussed the land ownership problem.

His main point is focused not on the system of land laws but on the insufficient

47

enforcement of these laws. The law will remain ink on paper when it has no power

without efficient executing system. Therefore time will be need for the solution.

Opinions of JICA’s experts

According to JICA experts in Cambodia, the reasons for the difficulties in

reconstructing and forming the agriculture infrastructure are as follows:

1) Land ownership in not clearly defined in documents, which makes the transfer of the

land ownership difficult.

2) The reorganization of land ownership for new channels is less difficult than the

rehabilitation of the Pol Pot channels. However, in spite of the difficulties,

rehabilitation of the Pol-Pot channels is usually selected, which makes the cost

high.

3) The destruction of human relations by the war is a basic problem. Solution will

require long-term perspectives of documented land ownership and education.

4) In case of the reform project of the Kandal Stung Irrigation System, JICA�s experts

proposed the maintenance of the secondary canal and the farmers agreed to give up

land for the road.

The last point represents very few cases in Cambodia because the situation of

the Kandal Stung Irrigation Project is relatively very good in Pol Pot channels with

respect to the following two points.

1) Technical condition of the Project is relatively good in Pol Pot Channels.

2) The disturbance of land ownership before and after 1979 is relatively small because

the percentage forced to immigrate is small.

Conclusion

Farmer participation in irrigation management in Cambodia still has many

difficulties. One main difficulty is the lack of clear land ownership. But a more basic

problem is the human relations that were destroyed by the war. There are some hopeful

movements for organization, but these will require time to succeed. Therefore, there

will be many directions for the solution. Many kinds of midterm solutions that seem

somewhat unsuitable should be allowed.

48

Acknowledgement

We would like to express our deep gratitude to the JICA experts in Cambodia

who provide invaluable assistance for this study. This research was partially supported

by the two Grant-in-Aids, Revolutionary Researches 2002 of the Ministry of Education,

Science, Sports and Culture, and CREST of Japan Science and Technology Corporation.

Solution will require long-term perspectives of documented land tenure and education.

References

Acker，Frank Van (1999): Hitting a Stone with an Egg? Cambodia�s Rural Economy and Land Tenure in Transition, CAS Discussion Paper No.23, p.69

Amano, Naoko (1999): Cambodia Land Tenure and Structure � World Trend, Asian Economy Institute

El-Ghonemy, M.R. (1999): The Political Economy of Market-Based Land Reform, Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, Discussion Paper, No.104, p.36

Fujita, Masako (2000): Government and Community as a Body for Maintenance of Public Infrastructure � Through the Experience of National Irrigation System in the Philippines. FASID, p.77 (in Japanese)

Hara, Yuto and Naoko Amano (1997): Agricultural and Forestry in Cambodia. Institute for International Cooperation

Japan International Cooperation Agency (2002): The Kingdom of Cambodia - From Reconstruction to Sustainable Development � (English and Japanese Versions). This volume contains Kawai (2002) and Amano (2002) but the English version does not contain Kawai (2002).

Pichsaly, Pen(2002): The Cambodian Land Ownership Issues: A Look at the Current Situation and a Perspective for the Future Improvement. Jurisprudence and Politics, Nagoya University, pp.1-42

Sopital, Chan and Sarthi Acharya (2002): Land Transactions in Cambodia � An Analysis of Transfer and Transaction Records, Working Paper 22, Cambodia Development Resource Institute, p.46

49

R (1-10-4)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Participatory Adoption and Management of Water Utilization

Techniques for Enhancing Agricultural Production

Taley S. M.1* and Kale P. B.2

Abstract The reduction of hunger means "Food security" encompasses adequate food

production in quantity and quality with emphasis on its supply to the needy, whose

buying capacity also needs to be enhanced. The malnutrition in the country has been

exacerbated due to poverty. Even if food is provided, a chronically under-nourished will

not be able to absorb it, because of physical disability. Food security requires

accessibility, affordability and absorbability. However it depends on self-sufficiency.

Water is the most crucial input for growing requisite crops. Adoption of improved

agricultural techniques and better water use efficiency through people�s participation are

the keys for the food security. This paper deals through peoples participation for

integrated management of rain water, surface and ground water based on the research

carried out at Dr. PDKV, Akola (Agricultural University) and action program of

Sinchan Sahyog (NGO), Akola.

1 Project Engineer, Associate Professor, Large Farm Development Project, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh

Agricultural University, Akola, India, Correponding Author, E-mail: smtaley@indiatimes.com. 2 Retd. Professor of Horticuture, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Agricultural University, Akola, India

50

Techniques

(I) Surface Water Management

1. Renovation of Tanks Tanks have traditionally been an important source of irrigation. Proper

maintenance has always been the key for reaping the full benefits of this inexpensive

source of water for irrigation as well as domestic purposes. In earlier days silt settled at

the bed of the tanks was removed by the farmers themselves, since the bed silt was good

manure. The tanks were getting disilted in this process and their water holding

capacities were maintained. However in the recent years when new chemical fertilizers

were introduced, the farmers discontinued the renovation of bed silt from the tanks with

the result their water holding capacities have gradually decreased. Removals of the

vegetal cover in catchment areas of tanks have added to the rapid siltation of the tanks.

The renovation and modernization by desilting, strengthening of bunds, improving of

surplus arrangements, etc, and integrating the tanks with major canal systems, wherever

feasible should form one of the strategies of water conservation.

2. Percolation Tank Sandy or rocky soil provides favourable condition for the success of such

tanks, since water can quickly percolate. This water is stored in the aquifer below. A

large number of percolation tanks have been constructed in Rajasthan particularly in

Ajmer district and in the Deccan plateau. But the area of influence of each tank appears

to be limited to about 2 km2 only. Recharge of ground water can however, take place to

the extent of about 60% of the tank capacity. A cluster of such percolation tanks could

be of considerable help in the development of ground water sanctuaries.

3. Strategies for Improving Irrigation Efficiency Irrigation efficiency has also been very poor in our irrigation systems. In the

drive to expand irrigation, enough attention has not been paid to the need for improving

irrigation efficiency. Much water is lost as it is conveyed from reservoirs through

canals and field channels and also as it is applied to the fields. There is avoidable waste

of water in the conveyance system as well as during field application. The irrigation

efficiency in India is hardly 40%. Even if the present level is increased by 20% to 60%,

the saving of water would be considerable which can be used for extending the

irrigation facilities to additional 50% areas by adopting the improved water

51

management practices like appropriate cropping pattern, Lining of canals, Equitable

distribution, maintenance of irrigation systems, conjunctive use of ground water with

surface water, better irrigation practice, irrigation scheduling etc. Similarly adoption of

sprinkler and micro irrigation system like drip and micro sprinkler are most useful for

achieving higher irrigation efficiencies to the tune of about 70% in sprinkler and 80-

85% in micro sprinkler and 90-95% in drip irrigation. The drip system may apply 20 to

25% less water to the field than conventional sprinklers and 40 to 60% less than simple

gravity systems. Drip also appears better suited for irrigation with brackish water which

is an important feature especially for arid lands. The saving in water on vegetable

crops, cotton and sugarcane varies from 50 to 60% and increase in yield even up to 50

to 60% has been reported. These new and advance technologies can do much to reduce

water withdrawals for agriculture, many are too costly and complex to be adopted under

Indian conditions. Incorporating the principles behind these modern techniques to

technologies affordable and appropriate for the country should be one of our agricultural

research endeavors.

4. Control of Loss of Soil Moisture It has been estimated that at present about 600 km3 of soil moisture is

evaporated. Water loss through evaporation from irrigated farms can be curtailed by

adopting drip system of irrigation and mulching techniques. These techniques also

improve crop yields considerably.

5. Use of Saline Water for Irrigation Evidence is now accumulating that with care and under certain favourable

conditions, saline water can be profitably used for irrigation. This is usually related to

using saline water for raising salt resistant crops and mixing of sweet water with saline

water. For desalinization of irrigation water up to certain extent reverse osmosis process

is also found suitable.

6. Reuse of Irrigation Water Not the entire water applied on the agricultural farms is consumed by

evapotranspiration or percolation into the soil. About 50% of the water flows out of the

farms either as surface flow, or where there is a drainage system is collected by the

drains and reaches an outflow channel. The water drain from agricultural farms can be

pumped back again and reused for irrigation.

52

(II) Rain Water Management

In situ recharge of rain water which calls for land treatments in such a fashion

that the maximum water or rainfall gets infiltrated in the soil profile and it becomes

available to the crop during prolonged monsoon break. This required efforts of every

farmer to go for; Contour cultivation. Contour seeding. Preparing the dead furrows at

specific interval. Establishment of the vegetative contour key lines at specific vertical

interval. Continuous contour trenches (CCTs) and submergence bundies.

The excess runoff even after initiative conservation has to be subsequently

recharged in the soil profile with continuous contour trenches and submergence bundies.

So that minimum runoff leaves the boundary of the field or farm, and there by acting as

a remedial measures for the mitigations of farm pond situation and further more of

reservoir sedimentation. Properly planned watershed management project if

implemented in right direction through peoples participation above measures are likely

to be useful in prolonging the life of down stream reservoirs and combat the means of

siltation.

1. Effect of vegetative hedges and contour

Runoff events recorded during first cycle was 9.28 and 4 with 633.7, 1356.7

and 577.6 mm rainfall during 1987-88 to 1989-90 seasons, respectively. Mean surface

runoff with across the slope sowing (T1), contour cultivation along Leucaena hedge

(T2), and contour cultivation along Vetiver hedge (T3) was 137.86, 97.72, 71.90 mm

respectively. Respective mean runoff from these treatments was 16.10, 11.42 and 8.40

per cent. Reduction in surface runoff due to Vetiver on contour (T3) and Leucaena on

contour (T2) over across the slope sowing (T1) was 47.8 and 29.1 percent, respectively.

Similar Vetiver hedge recorded lesser mean surface runoff by 26.4 percent over

Leucaena hedge. Statistical analysis of percent runoff over events during different

seasons indicated significant difference in surface runoff due to treatments. Pooled

analysis over 41 runoff events during three seasons indicated the superiority of

Vegetative hedges over across the slope sowing. However, differences in mean percent

surface runoff between T3 and T2 were not significant.

Results related to surface runoff for second cycle (1990-91 to 1993-94)

indicated that the surface runoff along the slope sowing (T1) was 170.93 mm (18.54%),

the highest, followed by Leucaena hedge on contour (T2) 106.45 mm (11.55%) and

53

Vetiver hedge on contour (T3) 78.69 mm (8.54%). Thus the reduction due to T3 and T2

was 53.9 and 37.7 percent, respectively. Vetiver hedge (T3) also recorded reduction of

26.1 percent over Leucaena hedge. Statistical analysis of percent runoff for different

seasons as well as pooled data over three seasons (34 events) indicated significant

reduction by Vetiver hedge and Leucaena hedge over along the slope sowing. Similarly

Vetiver hedge on contour recorded significantly lesser runoff than Leucaena hedge.

Mean rainfall recorded during 6 seasons was 888.9 mm resulting in 75 runoff

events. Surface runoff over 75 events indicated 51.3 and 33.9 percent reduction in

surface runoff due to Vetiver and Leucaena hedge, respectively over across/along the

slope sowing. Vetiver hedge on contour further recorded 26.3 percent reduction over

Leucaena hedge.

1.1 Soil loss (shallow soils) The mean annual soil loss per hectare was 11.49, 6.23 and 3.30 tones per

hectare with across the slope sowing (T1), Leucaena and Vetiver hedge on Contour (T2,

T3) respectively. Decrease in mean annual soil loss with contour systems with Vetiver

hedge (T3) and Leucaena hedge (T2) as compared to across the slope sowing was 71.20

and 45.78 percent, respectively. Vetiver hedge was observed to be more effective than

Leucaena hedge indicating 47.3 percent further decrease. During the second cycle

maximum soil loss was from along the slope (T1) treatment (12.6 t/ha) followed by

Leucaena hedge on contour (6.24 t/ha) and Vetiver hedge on contour (1.73 t/ha). The

reduction in annual soil loss per hectare recorded over T1 by T3 treatment was 72.28

percent and by T2 was 46.47 percent. Land treatment with Vetiver hedge on contour

recorded further decrease of 48.2 percent in annual soil loss over Leucaena hedge on

contour treatment.

Soil loss per hectare recorded from 75 runoff events during 6 seasons was

observed to be 53.2 tones with T1, 28.71 tones with T2 and 15.11 tones with T3

treatments, indicating annually 8.87, 4.97 and 2.52 tones per hectare soil loss with these

treatments. Thus reduction in mean annual soil loss, due to Vetiver hedge (T3) and

Leucaena hedge (T2) was 71.59 and 45.97 percent as compared to across/along the slope

sowing. Vetiver hedge on contour was observed to be better as evidenced by 47.39

percent reduction in soil loss over Leucaena hedge. Soil erosion index for T2 and T3 was

observed to be 0.54 and 0.28 in comparison with across/along the slope sowing (1.0).

54

1.2 Economic yield (shallow soils) Yield data indicated that contour cultivation favourably influenced the crop

yield. Mean grain yield recorded in T1, T2 and T3 was 15.22, 16.96 and 19.52 q/ha

during first cycle and 12.26, 13.39 and 14.01 q/ha seed cotton during the second cycle.

Increase recorded by contour cultivation along vetiver and Leucaena hedge was 28.6

and 11.4 percent in grain yield in the first cycle and 14.27 and 9.21 percent in seed

cotton during the second cycle over across the slope sowing respectively.

1.3 Runoff (medium deep soils) Data indicated that the mean surface runoff for across the slope sowing (T1),

Leucaena hedge on contour (T2), Vetiver hedge on Contour (T3) and Graded bund

system (T4) was 255.05 mm (25.05%), 196.89 mm (19.34%), 156.72 mm (15.39%) and

163.19 mm (16.03%) during the first cycle respectively. Reduction in mean surface

runoff by T3 and T2 over T1, treatment was 38.55 and 22.8 percent respectively. Vetiver

hedge (T3) further recorded 18.2 percent decrease in surface runoff over Leucaena

hedge (T2). During the second cycle mean surface runoff from dibbled cotton crop was

221.18 mm (13.45%), 149.83 mm (9.11%), 111.86 mm (6.8%) and 182.49 mm

(11.09%) with T1, T2, T3 and T4 land treatments. Reduction in mean surface runoff

recorded by Leucaena hedge (T2), Vetiver hedge (T3), and Graded bund (T4) over along

the slope sowing was 32.26, 49.4 and 17.5 percent, respectively. Reduction in mean

surface runoff due to the Vetiver hedge (T3) was 25.3 and 38.7 percent or Leucaena

hedge (T2) and Graded bund system (T4). Statistical analysis of percent runoff over

runoff events in different seasons indicated significantly lesser runoff by Leucaena (T2)

and Vetiver barrier (T3) than across the slope sowing (T1) and Graded bund (T4) during

both cycles. The difference in mean runoff due to vegetative barrier treatment was not

significant in the first cycle. However, during the second cycle runoff reduction due to

Vetiver hedge (T3) was significantly smaller than Leucaena hedge (T2).

1.4 Soil loss (medium deep soils) Mean annual soil loss with across the slope treatment (T1) was maximum

(14.36 t/ha) followed by Leucaena hedge (T2) to the tune of 7.55 t/ha and minimum 3.88

t/ha was with Vetiver hedge on contour (T3). Graded bund system (T4) recorded 11.25

t/ha, soil loss although the runoff events in September and October 1988 could not be

monitored for this treatment. Reduction in soil loss due to T2, T3 and T4 over across the

slope sowing was 47.6, 72.9 and 21.7 percent respectively. Vetiver hedge land treatment

55

recorded a decrease of 48.6 percent in annual soil loss as compared to Leucaena hedge

treatment. During the second cycle annual soil loss tones per hectare was 5.43 for T1,

3.39 for T2, 2.23 for T3 and 3.66 for T4. Reduction in annual soil loss over along the

slope (T1) by Vetiver hedge was maximum (58.9%) followed by Leucaena hedge

(37.6%) and Graded bund system (32.6%). Vetiver hedge on contour recorded 39.1 and

34.2 percent decrease in soil less than Leucaena hedge and Graded bund system

respectively. Total soil loss over 61 events was 53.95, 29.40, 16.10, 41.05 tones per

hectare for T1, T2, T3 and T4 treatments respectively. Thus the decrease in soil loss due to

Vetiver hedge (T3) was maximum (70.2%) followed by Leucaena hedge (T2) with 45.5

percent and Graded bund system (T4) with 23.9 percent. Decrease recorded by Vetiver

hedge was more effective and reduction over Graded bund and Leucaena hedge was to

the extent of 60.8 and 45.2 percent. Similarly Leucaena hedge also observed to record

28.4 percent less soil loss over Graded bund system.

1.5 Economic yield (medium deep soils) During the first cycle mean increase in grain yield of sorghum hybrid with T3,

T2 and T4 was 28.84 q/ha (14.5%), 27.42 q/ha (8.8%) 25.75 q/ha (3.3%) over T1 (25.19

q/ha) respectively. During the second cycle, mean increase in seed cotton yield with T2,

T3 and T4 was 27.96, 38.03 and 26.77 percent increase over along the slope sowing.

2. Effect of agro-horticulture and silvipasture systems on continuous

contour trenches (CCTs) layout

Data pertaining to the surface runoff and soil loss recorded from Agro-

horticultural (MW1) and Silvipasture (MW2) system over 7 seasons (1988/89�1993/94)

is given in Table 1.

2.1 Surface runoff The total seasonal rainfall during 1989-90 and 1991-92 was below normal and

there was no runoff from both micro watersheds MWI and MWII with perennial

plantation system on CCT layout. Maximum runoff was recorded during 1988-89

followed by 1990-91. Mean surface runoff from Agro-horticulture (MWI) was 3.89

percent and from silvipasture was 3.85 percent. During normal rainfall years (1992-93

and 1993-94) runoff was seen to be collected in dugout/farm ponds.

56

Table 1. Runoff and soil loss from the agro-horticultural and silvipasture systems.

Surface runoff (mm) Soil loss (t/ha) Season Rainfall

(mm) Events MW1 Agrohorticulture

MW2 Silvipasture

MW1 Agrohorticulture

MW2

Silvipasture

1988-89 1356.7 4 80.0 82.3 0.08 0.12 1989-90 577.6 - - - - - 1990-91 1120.6 3 60.0 61.7 0.10 0.25 1991-92 393.00 - - - - - 1992-92 835.0 2 35.3 25.2 - 0.30 1993-94 810.0 2 23.0 27.0 - 0.10 Mean 848.8 1.8 33.1 32.7 0.03 0.13

2.2 Soil loss Soil loss from both systems was very low as the runoff collected in

dugouts/farm ponds from CCT layout and vegetation developed on trenches and water

ways carrying the runoff was clear (without sediment/silt). During 1988-89 and 1990-91

season there was visible contribution from base flow to the dugout/farm ponds. The

CCT�s in Silvipasture are intact and sedimentation is negligible. However, in Agro

horticulture system the trenches are seen to be silted mainly due to cultivation on

contour strip for raising crops. The capacity of trench system in Agro-horticulture is

reduced however, vegetative system inform of trees, crops, Vetiver hedges at every 4th

trench and grass strips developed over a period resulted in perfect system for uniform

in-situ rain water and soil conservation there by drastically slowed down the process of

sedimentation/siltation from the treated areas of the watershed or the catchment of

reservoir/lakes.

3. Rain water harvesting structures

3.1 Dugouts The excess runoff even after initiative conservation has to be subsequently

recharged in the soil profile with suitable means like recharging dugouts so that

minimum runoff leaves the boundary of mini watershed. The magnitude of this runoff

is high and accounts for about 16% of annual rainfall. This works out to the quantity of

water about 1600 m3/ ha. The runoff of water so stored shall not only recharge ground

water level but also may be available for recycling at later stages either through dugout

or through shallow bores during subsequent period. For this purpose small dugouts can

be prepared at appropriate sites in the micro watersheds or individual holding. It is

57

expected that for recharging of about 1600 m3 of water available from 1 ha can be

accounted for in an area of 200 m2 with average depth of 2 m on the assumption that

there will be about 4 runoff events. This works out to about 2% of the area under

dugout. There may be other options of water recharge like (1) water spreading (2)

recharging through small pits, (3) connecting runoff to wells and other surface water

bodies. The choice of a particular method is likely to be governed by geologic and soil

type considerations.

3.2 Shallow bores Low agriculture productivity, its instability and income can be effectively

answered only by providing each holding of farmer with some source of irrigation

water. Even small quantity of water, if supplied through modern irrigation method, can

increase the production and income to a considerable extent. The Dr. P.D.K.V. model

of irrigation to the small and marginal farmers which consist of relatively shallow bores

of 100 to 150 cm diameter to the depth of 8-40 meters supplemented with drip irrigation

can support the horticulture garden of one hectare with hardly a discharge of 20 litres

per minute (1pm). Even bore of lesser capacity discharging 10 lpm can support

horticulture and other crops in the same proportion. It has been estimated that with an

average holding size of 4 ha if efforts are made to recharge runoff on his own holding as

mentioned above, can store in the underground 1.5 times quantity of water required for

supporting 1 ha perennial garden throughout the year with the help of drip irrigation

system. Thus if these strategies of in situ moisture conservation and recharge of ground

water through excess runoff is adopted by the farmer by bringing 25% of his holdings

i.e. 1 ha out of 4 ha of his own holding under drip irrigation. The trend of depleting

ground water can be reversed and every farmer involved in rainfed agriculture can be

benefited.

Conclusions and Recommendations

1. Each field need to be considered as micro-watershed for developing rainwater

management layout.

2. Vegetative hedges on contour in the centre of field and outlet point can be

developed appropriately.

3. On arable cropped lands with very shallow, shallow medium deep and deep soil

cover, contour cultivation along vetiver hedge at 1 m VI is recommended to achieve

58

higher crop yield and in-situ rainwater and soil conservation. Many times it is

difficult to maintain 1 m VI because of variation in size of fields and their

alignment owned by the farmers. Hence it is recommended to develop 1 to 2

vetiver hedge on contour in the field (at 60-75 m) and a short L shaped and/or

diagonal hedge with grass strip at outlets points of the fields.

4. In silvipasture system, one or two lines of pits (30 × 30 cm2) can be taken up on

contour strips between two benches in order to increase plant density. Similarly the

bunds of parent material along the bench should be used for seeding stylo hamata,

which emerges and grow well in first year and allows other grasses to grow and

develop over a period.

5. 2% of the catchment area should be kept under farm ponds/Dugout

6. 25% of the total area can be brought under horticultural plantation by providing

drip irrigation and the water from shallow bore, located closer at the down stream

of the farm ponds/Dugout.

7. Development of good perennial vegetation systems on degraded lands is possible

with CCTs layout.

8. In each field, one to two contour guide lines are necessary to lay down CCTs at

horizontal interval of 5 to 6 m.

9. Adoption of CCT layout at 5-6 m horizontal interval (H.I.) resulted in 96% in-situ

rainwater and soil conservation uniformly over the entire toposequence.

10. Fruit species custard apple and zyzaplus (Ber) observed to grow well and early

productive.

11. Hardwickia binata tree on trenches and Stylo hamata and Siratro on bunds and

strips found to be a good combination for silvipasture system.

12. Option for utilization of degraded class IV lands need to be oriented towards either

development of perennial plantation systems on CCT layout or cropping with

vetiver hedge on contour.

References

Bharad, G.M. and others. 1993. Watershed Management Research. Watershed management research unit, Dr. Panjabao Deshmukh Agricultural University,Akola M.S.(India):1-50. Bulletine No.PKV/WMR.

Chittaranjan, S. 1981. Rain water harvesting and recycling. Indian J. Soil Cons. 9(2,3): 100-106.

Patil, P.P. and Bangal, G.B. 1987. Effect of Field soil conservation practices on soil erosion and runoff. Indian J. Soil conservation 15: 72-76.

59

R (1-10-7)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Semi-natural canal renovation & its effects on O&M

HIROSE Shinichi∗

Abstract This paper is addressing the adoption of a semi-natural design of a particular

kind applied to the riverbed of the Gente River, which flows through Takaoka city of

Toyama Prefecture, Japan.

In the remodeling of irrigation and drainage canals, for the purpose of efficient

water use and canal maintenance, concrete has been widely used for lining.

Unfortunately, this has frequently resulted in adverse effects on the natural water

environment in and around these channels, incurring the impoverishment of local bio-

diversity. On this account, amid the general public�s enhanced awareness of the natural

environment, there has been a growing interest in semi-natural canal designs, which

serve both the preservation of aquatic life and the reduction in the burden of O&M. This

interest has locally led to the increasing use of such designs in canal rehabilitations. But

we scarcely know of any quantitative research concerning the effect of this kind of

technology impact on aquatic life and on O&M.

This paper aims to clarify, in quantitative terms, the effects of the semi-natural

technology on the O&M of the Gente River. The study is based on several follow-up

surveys that have been conducted with respect to �man-hours for water-weed removal�,

�the farmers� evaluation of the canal condition� and �the water level�.

* Professor Dr., Dean, College of Technology, Toyama Prefectural University, Japan. E-mail: hirose@pu-

toyama.ac.jp

60

I. Outline of the Gente River

1. Natural condition The Gente River flows north through the northernmost part of the Shogawa

alluvial fan, from EL.10 to EL.20. Fairly clean thanks to an abundant supply of

underground flow, the stream abounds in aquatic animals and plants.

We have so far recognized 17 species of aquatic plants that inhabit this river.

Of these, the predominant species are sparganium and ranunculus. The former, on

whose stem pungitius sinensis likes to nest, is already listed as a semi-endangered

species in the red date book. The existence of the latter plant in a stream is generally

thought of as an index of the cleanness of its water flow.

Toyama Prefecture

ShogawOyabega

Gente River

Japan SeaN

Fig. 1. Location of the Gente River

2. A semi-natural canal renovation A stream used as a drainage canal, the Gente River is 3,000 m in length, 1/500

in bottom slope, 4.1～5.1 m in bottom width and 10.33～18.25 m3/s in design capacity.

The revetments of the canal were once renovated using dry block masonry, but the soil

bottom was left intact, with the result that there was no abatement in the rampant growth

of waterweeds. However, between 1995 and 2001, in a water environment improvement

project sponsored by the local government, the bottom of the river was renovated again,

using a semi-natural design. Specifically, 80.8% of the bottom was lined alternately

with flat blocks and cobble-filled blocks. This construction design was adopted for the

61

dual benefit of facilitating waterweed control and minimizing damage to aquatic life

(see Fig. 2).

Units in mm

berm

earth

slop

e

75 600 6005100

frame block

dry block

cobble

900900900900900 450

900

900

0 0

9090

75

flat block

Serv

ice

road

Fig. 2. Design plan of the semi-natural bottom lining

II. Man-hours for waterweed removal

1.Conversion formula for weeding man-hours

The first survey is conducted in order to determine how th

rehabilitation works had affected farmers� man-hours input into the weedin

the canal, undertaken by the six rural communities along the canal, respon

maintenance. Waterweeds removal is their most labor-consuming maintenan

securing drainage efficiency (Fig. 3 & Photo 1).

For a precise evaluation of the change in man-hours spent on w

standardized the three relevant factors of canal length, bottom width and m

100 m, 5.1 m and 20 persons, respectively. Then the combination of the s

factors is converted into weeding man-hours, using the following conversion

T� = T × (100/L×5.1/B×P/20) × 60(min)

62

e riverbed

g work for

sible for its

ce work for

eeding, we

anpower at

tandardized

formula:

Where; T� is the converted weeding man-hours, T is the real weeding time

spent (by a community), L is the real length of the canal part weeded (ditto), B is the

real bottom width at the part weeded (ditto) and P is the real manpower provided (ditto).

Ｌ=1450m

B=5.1m

L=350m

B=4.4m

Ｌ=1150m

B=4.1m

Suwasano

L=600m

(1999)

Kamisano

L=420m

(1999)

Nisito-

hezo

L=430m

(1998)

Kita-

kurasin

L=350m

(2000)

Juni-

tyojima

L=400m

(2000)

Yanagi-

jima

L=750m

(1996)

Water level survey area

Ｌ＝890 ｍ Flow

Fig. 3. O&M sections covered by the communities

2. Change in man-hours Based on the data obtained, we compared the averaged weeding man-hours

spent on the rehabilitated canal over the years with those spent on the pre-rehabilitation

soil-bottomed canal. The comparison revealed that man-hours input had been reduced

by 20% on average. Section or age-wise, the greatest reduction was 46% for the two-

year old Junityojima Community section, while the smallest reduction was 1 % for the

four-year old Nishitohezo Community section (Fig. 4).

63

Photo 1. Weeding before the renovation

0102030405060708090

100

beforerehab

2-year average

after

beforerehab

2-year average

after

beforerehab

2-year average

after

beforerehab

4-year average

after

beforerehab

3-year average

after

beforerehab

3-yearaverage

after

Yanagijima Junityojima Kitakurasin Nishitohezou Kamisano Suw asano

man

-hou

rs in

put (

min

)

Reduction ratio　　 7.7% 46.2% 15.9% 1.0% 25.4% 29.5%

Reduction ratio on average 19.9% (76→60min）

Fig. 4. Weeding man-hours spent on the canal

3. Discussion Obviously, what made the weeding of the soil-bottom canal labor-consuming

were the sediment and the rampant growth of the weeds. The rehabilitation reduced the

weeding man-hours by 20% on average. However, it was only for a while after the

rehabilitation that the bottom-lining turned out to have had a notable effect in reducing

weeding man-hours. However, with the passage of time, waterweeds have been restored

and consequently weeding man-hours are virtually back at the per-rehabilitation level.

64

III. Canal condition

vey We conducted our second survey via a questionnaire in order to find out about

lving the canal condition. Immediately after the

commun

, we broke all the responses down into three

categorie

The processing of the data (see Fig. 5) has revealed that, regarding O&M, there

(8%→33%) and a decrease in negative

evaluatio

1. A questionnaire sur

the perceived changes invo

ities-wide weeding work, we sent a questionnaire to the superintendents of the

2～4 year-old bottom-lined canal sections, asking them for their opinions on: (1) water

level and velocity, (2) footing, (3) waterweeds, (4) fish, (5) garbage, (6) sediment, (7)

water quality and (8) canal condition.

From the feedback, ignoring exceptional responses and treating similar

evaluations as being of one category

s of affirmative, neutral and negative evaluations on O&M and on the

ecosystem.

2. Evaluation of the canal condition

was an increase in affirmative evaluation

n (79%→46%). One affirmative response concerning post-renovation O&M

refers to greater ease in weeding, brought about by the concrete stabilization of the

canal-bottom. As for the ecosystem, there was no change to speak of in their evaluation.

One affirmative evaluation concerning the ecosystem refers to the fact that waterweeds

have been restored with the passage of time.

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%

after

before

after

before

Ratio of evaluation

affirmative neutral negativeO&M

Ecosystem

8.4%12.5%

79.1%

33.4%20.8%

45.8%

37.5%29.1%

33.4%

37.5%33.4%

29.1%

Fig. 5. Evaluation of the canal condition

65

3. Discussion rmative evaluation regarding O&M is mainly attributable to the

increased

ict or trade-off between technological

improve

IV. Water level

1.Water level survey ter level of the Gente River was also investigated. The

rehabilit

he surveyed area was selected on a straight, turbulence-free section M1～M4

(800 m

easurement had been started in 1996, the year

immedia

An affi

facility of weeding work, enabled by the concrete stabilization of the canal

bottom and by the consequent suppression of the growth of waterweeds due to a

decrease in sedimentation. Regarding the ecosystem there was virtually no change in

evaluation. This lack of negative evaluation is attributable to their awareness that a

gradual resumption of sedimentation was bringing back a favourable environment for

the aquatic ecosystem. Sedimentation had been hindered for a while due to a rise in flow

velocity, induced by the riverbed stabilization.

Generally, there is apt to be a confl

ment of O&M and conservation of the ecosystem. The questionnaire responses,

however, revealed that the present semi-natural canal works have brought an

improvement in O&M, with eventually little adverse effect on the ecosystem.

Thirdly, the wa

ation resulted in the suppression of waterweeds and greater efficiency in

weeding.

T

long), and at M1. At the uppermost point of this section, the water level is

measured at every hour (Fig. 6).

In fact, water-level m

tely before the start of the bottom-lining. The bottom-lining was executed

piecemeal during winter each year, in 1997 for M1～ ～M2 (260m), in 1998 for M2 M3

(340m), and in 1999 for M3～M4 (200m), respectively.

66

Fig. 6. Survey area

Completed

March /97

Completed

March /98

Kizu diversion

weir

Kizu irrigation canal

Water level Water

Water level Water temperature Air temperature Precipitation

Completed

March /00

271 m 353 m 266 m

M2 M3 M4M1

Completed

March /99

2. Change in the annual average water level The average water level for 1997, immediately after the rehabilitation of

section M1～M2 at M1, was 49.5 cm. It was 29.3 cm lower than it had been in 1996, the

year before the rehabilitation (78.8cm). However, after 1997, the average water level

has been rising each year. By 2002, the average had reached 78.0cm, which was nearly

equal to what it had been before the execution of the bottom-lining (Fig. 7).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

Wat

er le

vel (

cm)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000Pr

ecip

itatio

n (m

m)

annual precipitation(kizu) annual average water level(M1)

up streamof M1

2006.5 2268.0

2725.5 2495.5

2012.5 1923.0

2579.0

78.8

49.5

53.4 53.862.8

84.0 78.0

duration of construction

M3~M4M2~M3M1~M2

Fig. 7. Change in the annual water level (1996～2002)

67

3. Change in the monthly average water level Every year, the average monthly water level registered a steep drop

immediately after the weeding. For example, the average water level in July 1999 was

55.5 cm. Weeding was executed on the last Sunday of the month. The next month the

water level was down to 39.2 cm. However, in November of the same year it recovered

to 49.6 cm. Similar results were observed for the other years (Fig. 8).

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

1998/1 3 5 7 9 11 1999/1 3 5 7 9 11

Wat

er

leve

l (c

m)

0

200

400

600

800

1000

Pre

cipitat

ion (m

m)

monthly precipitation(kizu) monthly average water level(M1)

Duration of weeding

Fig. 8. Change in the monthly average water level (1998～1999)

4. Discussion During the pre-rehabilitation period of the soil-bottomed canal, rampant

waterweeds had lowered the stream�s flow velocity, which in turn led to higher water

level. Immediately after the renovation, the water level dropped due to drastically

lessened waterweeds and consequent smoother flow. However, with the restoration of

waterweeds, the water level has been rising each year. Five years after the rehabilitation,

the water level has even recovered the pre-rehabilitation level.

Looking at the fluctuation in the water level within a year, the weeding

activity, conducted by the communities at the end of July, resulted in a drop in the water

level in August. This drop had a favorable implication especially for drainage efficiency

68

in the typhoon season. However, about four months after the weeding the water level

was back at the pre-weeding level because of the restoration of the waterweeds.

V. Conclusion

This paper has dealt with a follow-up evaluation of the remodeling of the

Gente River. The rehabilitation was executed using a new type of semi-natural design,

intended to balance the efficiency of the canal in water use and drainage with its eco-

friendliness. The new design involved lining 80% of the canal bottom with concrete.

The surveys on the effects of the rehabilitation on O&M have revealed the following:

Immediately after the rehabilitation, there was a visible decrease in aquatic

plants, accompanied by a big drop in the water level of the canal. This enhanced its

drainage efficiency and also served to reduce man-hours spent in weeding the canal

bottom. With the resurgence of aquatic plants, both the water level and the man-hours

have been reverting to the pre-rehabilitation levels. Many farmers, however, have given

affirmative evaluations of the rehabilitation with respect to M&O, because they

appreciate the fact that the concrete-stabilization of the canal bottom has facilitated their

weeding work.

69

R (1-10-8)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Farmer Field School System in Training on Water

Management in Sudan

Ahamed Hassan Mohamed∗

Abstract The farmer field school (FFS) system for training of farmers is based on the

participatory approach and was developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization

(FAO) of the United Nations in the South East Asia for the promotion of the integrated

pest management programs. In Sudan, the FFS system was introduced in 1993 in

atypical IPM project and proved to be an effective instrument in technology transfer of

different aspects for rural development. Encouraged by that previous experience, the

FFS system was again adopted in a pilot project entitled "Raising productivity through

broadening farmer choice in farm system and water management" initiated and

sponsored by the FAO. The project was implemented in Abdel Hakam area in the

Gezira Scheme (GS) during July 2000 to August 2002. The IPM Research and Training

Centre (IPMRTC) of the Agricultural Research Corporation (ARC) and the Extension

Department of the GS carried out the training in the project. A training curriculum,

based on the needs of the farmers was developed with emphasis on water management

issues and formation of water users association. Training of trainers of extensionists and

subject matter specialists (TOT) was conducted and around 350 farmers were enrolled

in 12 FFSs attending weekly training sessions. The training through the FFSs improved

knowledge, attitudes and practices of the farmers in irrigation water management and

consequently increased their yields. Also through training in FFSs they were able to

develop irrigation committees and water users association (WUA) in the way to transfer

water management from the GS administration to their WUA. ∗ Assistant Research Professor, Head. IPM Research & Training Center, Agricultural Research

Corporation. Wad Medani, Sudan, E-mail:

70

Introduction

The Gezira Scheme Started in 1925 is the largest and most important gravity

irrigated scheme in the Sudan. Its area is 0.9 million ha, divided into about 120.000

tenants (each holding 9 ha at average) and the Scheme Possesses lengthy canalization

network of 12500 kilometers for the minor canals only. Following prescribed or

rotation, cotton, sorghum, groundnuts, wheat, forages and vegetables are grown by the

tenants. The Sudan Gezira Board (SGB) is responsible for management and services

including irrigation water management. While the Ministry of irrigation is responsible

for Sennar Dam and the operation and Maintenance of the upper reaches of the

irrigation system (main and major canals), the SGB is responsible for operation and

Maintenance of the minor canals up to the field out let pipes. In recent years, faced with

financial difficulties the SGB became unable to timely perform the needed maintenance

of the irrigation system. The system deteriorated by silt deposition, aquatic weeds

infestations and structural damages,. The water flow in the system and the scheme

significantly reduced and consequently crops intensity and productivity were markedly

decreased.

Missions from the world Bank and FAO visited the scheme reported that a key

element in making any improvement in the productivity of the scheme is through

restoring the water flows and devolution of more responsibilities in land and water

management to the tenants coupled with participative approach in training and

extension. With that vision, in the years 2000-2002, the FAO initiated and funded a

project entitled ' Raising productivities through broadening farmers choice and farming

system and water management" the project was executed by joint collaboration between

FAO, SGB and the Agricultural Research Corporation (IPM Research and Training

Centre) in Abdel Hakam block (area 500 ha, total length of minors 50 km, total number

of tenants 671) as a pilot site. The farmer field school (FFs) system was adopted for

participative training and extension in the project.

FFSs and Training on Water Management

Originally, the FFs system was developed by the FAO in the South East Asia

in 1980s associated with integrated pest management (IPM) programs. In Sudan, the

FFs system was introduced in 1993 by the FAO/ARC IPM project funded by the

Netherlands and subsequently FAO-TCP financed. Later, the IPM-FFSs curriculum was

71

broaden to cover a wider range of training subjects, including on farm water

management. Based on that previous experience with FFSs and encouraged by the

results obtained, once again the FFS system was used in the project at Abdel Hakam.

Participatory approach in extension and training is the essence of the FFs

system. The participants of the FFSs are involved in all training activities from planning

to execution. The system reinforces group learning, group action and strengthens the

linkages and interactions among the farmers, researchers, and extensionists. Also, the

system aims, to satisfy the priority needs of farmers and makes an emphasis on learning

by doing. The FFS creates an environment in which farmers are motivated to gain more

knowledge, skills and positive attitudes and be effective communicators able to solve

their problems. More over the FFs system is of lower cost compared to the conventional

extension systems.

In the pilot project of Abdel Hakam, the FFSs were more oriented to work in

training on water management. Twelve FFSs were established along 12 minor canals.

About 350 farmers (tenants) were enrolled in these schools (20-50 participant/school).

Farmers sharing the same off-takes of irrigation minor canals were organized in each

school. Weekly training at a fixed time for about 3 hours through out the season was

conducted. The school sites were under trees in the field where the training topic of the

week was discussed then the participants moved to the field for practical application.

The field staffs of SGB from extensionists and subject specialists were the trainers and

FFS organizers eighteen of them were trained on the FFS system and facilitation of

training on winter management and other subjects related to the project. The training of

trainers (TOTs) was in the IPM Research and Training Centre by master trainers from

the ARC, Ministry of Irrigation, University of Gezira (U of G) and SGB.

A consultative method was followed in developing the training curricula and

that was through farmer's seasonal planning, monthly meetings of the FFS organizers

and master training workshops (MTWs). The MTWs were convened mainly to review

the training needs and they preceded the TOTs.

Twice a season (early and mid season) MTWs (for one day) and TOTs (for 4

days) were held. During the 2 years of the project, 7 MTWs and 7 TOTs were carried

out. From 140 net training hours in the TOTs, 47.5% was on water management topics

and 18% was on extension (FFS participatory approach orientation, farmers

organizations, developing leadership etc.) and the rest of training time was for other

72

aspects in plant and animal production. The topics of water management in the

curriculum are provided in Appendix 1.

At the field level, over 900 training sessions were held in the FFSs and most of

the training time was for water management issues. Supervision and monitoring visits

to the FFSs were arranged twice a month by a team included the national consultants,

training team leader and manager of Abdel Hakam block.

A long with training, the farmers committees for irrigation management were

established at each minor canal from the FFSs participants, and in further steps the

water user association was formed, the rules and regulations of the committees and

association were worked out. Also the agreement of the transfer of management of the

minor irrigation system was drafted.

Farmer seasonal planning (FSP) and farmer committee training (FCT) were

also distinct activities in farmer training. In the FSP, seasonal work plans were defined

by the FFs participant and in the FCT special training was provided to the irrigation

committee members.

Results of the FFS Training

A survey of knowledge, attitude and practice (KAP survey) conducted to test

the impact of the FFS training indicated that knowledge, attitudes and practices of

farmers with respect to water management have been improved.

The analysis of cross relations between knowledge, attitudes, practices of

farmers and their personal characteristics i.e. age and education showed that the increase

in farmer�s knowledge, attitudes and practices did not depend on age or education of the

farmers. This indicates the advantage of the FFS approach in minimizing the known

varying effect of different personal characteristics on extension methods.

Through training the farmers were enabled to establish their water user

committees along the minor canal, to form their water user association and put their

regulatory and legislative frame works. Although the transfer of management of the

minor canals to the farmers is waiting, the irrigation committees effectively contributed

to the maintenance of the minors e.g. canal bank strengthening, replacement and

maintenance of regulators etc.

Finally due to the participatory training on water management and other

subjects, the cropping intensity at Abdel Hakam was increased to 67%instead of 33%

and productivities of crops also increased. In the second year of the pilot project the

73

yields of cotton and sorghum were 2450 kg/ha and 3.3 tons/ha respectively and higher

than the yields of the pre training year (952 kg/ha and 1.4 ton/ha), also they exceeded

the average yields of the scheme in the same year (1872 kg/ha for cotton and 2.3 ton/ha

for sorghum.

References

Alsaffar A. A; A. A. Abdelrahman and C. M. Beije. 1997. The Need for Farmer Field Schools in the Sudan. In: Integrated Pest Management in Vegetables. Wheat and Cotton in the Sudan: A participatory Approach (Edt. Z. t. Dabrowski)/ FAO/ARC IPM Project. ICIPE Science Press. Nairobi. Kenya. Pp 43.45.

Mohamed, A. Hassan and Mohamed S. A. 2002. Training activities in the project "Raising Productivities Through Broadening Farmer's Choice and Farming System and Water Management. (ARC Training Contract). TCO/SUD/0065 FAO-Gezira Scheme and ARC, July 2002 - August 2002. Final Report. IPM Research and Training Centre, ARC, Wad Medani, 59 pp.

FAO. 2002. Gezira Scheme Raising Productivities through Broadening Farmer's Choice of Farm Systems and Water management. TCP/Sud/0065 (A). Project document. 11pp.

Appendix 1. List of training subjects on water management in

FFSs at Abdel Hakam Pilot Project

1-Water user's association: Organization, Objectives and responsibilities of farmers.

2- Crop water requirements.

3- Environmental hazards associated with irrigation water.

4- Maintenance and Operation of irrigation canals.

5- Impact of water stress and excessive irrigation on crop productivities.

6- Impact of Agric. Inputs and cultural practices on irrigation.

7- Calculations of water requirements for the summer season crops according to sowing

dates and areas.

8- Comparison between water requirements and canal carrying capacities in the critical

period 25 Sept- 14 Oct.

9- Impacts of sedimentation and weeds on small canals carrying capacities.

10- Water management along small canals and Abu XX

11- Measuring water discharge in small canal and Abu XX and estimation quantities of

irrigation water for Hawasha (unit land/farmer).

12- Cross sectioning canals to measure quantities of sedimentation.

13- Options and constraints in crop choice with respect to water requirements.

74

14- Stoppage of irrigation in summer crops and prewatering in winter crops.

15- Water distribution along minors and Abu XX.

16- Water levels in the minors.

17- Canal maintenance (summer maintenance): disilltation-measuring, acceptance

certificate and costing.

18- Field channels preparation - Abu XX and Abu VI and cross ridging.

19- Irrigation committees and water management.

20- Organization characteristics of successful water user associations.

21- Irrigation management transfer agreement.

22- Handing over procedure of irrigation system.

23- Identifying the needs for irrigation canal maintenance and setting priorities.

24- Development of by-laws for WUA.

25- Water requirements in relation to the agricultural plan.

26- Replacement of pipes and installment of Abu XX gates.

27- Maintenance of intermediate regulators.

28- Types of drainage required.

29- Weeds and their control

30- Water management and equitable irrigation water distribution.

75

R (1-10-9)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems,

Water Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Role of Remote Sensing Technology on Monitoring Large

Irrigation Project in Gezira, Sudan

KIYOSHI Torii1∗, Takeshi Hata2, Abdelhadi A. W3., Akio Tada2 and Anil Mishra4

Abstract The Gezira irrigation project in Sudan was started with pump irrigation in a

small area around 1910 and was extended gradually. Sennar dam was built in 1925 with

a reservoir capacity of 0.6 km3 to support the Gezira irrigation area of 300,000 Feddan

(126,000 ha) for cotton plantation under the financial support of U.K. Completion of

Roseires dam in 1966 has secured further 2.7 km3 water and expanded the irrigation

area to 2,100,000 Feddan (882,000 ha). The irrigation system is supplying as much as

354 m3/s of water from Sennar dam in two main canals. The total length of the Main,

Branch, Major and Minor canals has reached 261, 651, 1652 and 8,119 km,

respectively. The canals being bare ditches without a lining have little water leakage

because the soil is clay. Although there is no salt accumulation due to good water

quality in the Blue Nile, a large quantity of floating silt contained in the water

precipitates in the canals where the flow velocity is slow raising serious problems. To

develop a monitoring system for such a huge irrigation project, it is recommended to

apply the remote sensing technology. A set of public domain data which includes USGS

GTOPO30 DEM data for the study region together with the remotely sensed satellite

images of the Gezira Scheme were evaluated with field observations made with GPS.

The observations and evaluations are presented in this paper.

1 Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto, Japan, Corresponding Author, E-

Mail: torii@kais.kyoto_u.ac.jp 2 Kobe University, Department of Agricultural & Environmental Engineering, Kobe, Japan. 3 Agricultural Research Corporation, Agricultural Engineering Research Program, Wad Medani, Sudan. 4 Graduate School of Science & Technology, Division of Regional Environment, Kobe University, Japan.

76

Introduction

Sudan is the largest country in Africa with an area of 2.5 million km2. The total

area currently irrigated in the Sudan is estimated at 4.5 million feddan (1.9 million ha).

About two thirds of the irrigation requirements in Sudan are satisfied from the Blue

Nile, a major tributaries of the main Nile. The Gezira Scheme is the largest irrigated

Scheme in Sudan and covers an area of 800,000 ha. It is irrigated by gravity from

Sennar Dam, the construction of the dam was completed on 1925. The Blue Nile is the

source for the water supply for the Gezira Scheme.

Fig. 1. Map of Sudan in Africa

The whole Gezira irrigation area is flat with a gentle slope from South to North

and from East to West, thus providing an ideal situation for gravity flow. The irrigation

network comprises main, major and minor canals with a total length of about 10,000

km. From the time of establishment to the early 1970�s, cotton was the main crop and

sorghum as a secondary crop. From the mid 1970�s intensification and diversification

added groundnuts, vegetables and wheat (Adam et al., 2002).

The original irrigation system comprised the Gezira main canal to serve

approximately 300,000 feddan of cultivable land. Subsequent extensions were carried

out in the past and now it is one of the single largest irrigation schemes in the world. It

was designed with the main objective of producing cotton, a single cash crop

77

(Plusquellec 1990). Cotton, wheat, groundnut/sorghum are now cultivated in a four-

course rotation, including fallow. For many years the Gezira scheme has been the

backbone of the Sudanese economy and currently it contributes around 40 (?) percent of

the total GDP.

The Gezira plain is located in the triangle land between the Blue and the White

Nile south of Khartoum. The land holds the best conditions for water delivery systems

with a general slope of 15cm per km towards the White Nile (Plusquellec 1990). The

soils are also uniform, mainly Vertisols that crack widely, and have clay content of 50-

60%. Movement of water in the soil is very slow.

The climate of the region is arid and semi-arid. There are three distinct

seasons, short rainy season from July to September, a dry winter season from November

to February, and a hot summer from April to June. The rest of the months are

transitional.

Hydraulic structures in Gezira scheme

Sennar Dam

Sennar dam is located near Sennar town 357 Kilometres upstream of

Khartoum. Sennar dam has 80 sluices capable of passing average flood flows and upper

spillway openings to pass the peaks of excessive floods. The dam was built to store and

divert irrigation water for the Gezira scheme.

Conveyance and distribution system

The irrigation system comprises twin main canals running from the headworks

at Sennar to a common pool at the cross-regulator at Km 57 (Plusquellec, 1990). They

have a joint maximum discharge of around 31 mcm/day (Hamad, 1993). The

distribution system includes (Plusquellec, 1990):

2 main canals of total length of 261 Km with conveyance capacity ranging

from 168 and 186 m3/s at head works to 10 m3/s at the tail end.

• 11 branch canals of total length of 651 km

• 107 major canals of total length of 1652 km.

• 1,498 minor canals of total length of 8,119km.

• 29,000 water courses of total length of 40,000 km.

78

• 350,000 field channels of total length of 100,000 km.

Canal regulators

The control structures are designed to maintain a constant upstream level and the discharge is controlled

by manually operated means.

Moveable Weirs

Moveable weirs are installed as head and cross-regulators on major canals and

at most head regulators on minor canals.

Escapes

The Gezira scheme is characterized by a very limited capacity for escape of

surplus water. Very large areas on the periphery of the scheme have no escape

possibility at all (Plusquellec, 1990). Use of Remote Sensing Technology

Field survey

A set of public domain data which includes USGS GTOPO30 DEM data for

the study region together with the remotely sensed satellite images of the Gezira

Scheme were evaluated with field observations made with GPS. The obtained images

and spatial analysis are discussed below.

Fig. 2 shows the tracking record by GPS when we made a field survey in the

Gezira area, Sudan. It shows the travelling route from Khartoum, the capital, to Wad

Medani and survey route in the project area. The accuracy is less than 10 m.

These observation and collected data were helpful for geometric correction of

satellite images. In Fig. 3 accuracy of the technique is examined by overlaying the GPS

image with the satellite image. The roads on the satellite image coincide well with the

GPS track.

79

Fig. 2 The route investigated by the field survey

Fig. 3 Overlaid image of Landsat 7 ETM+ image and GPS-collected data

80

Fig. 4. On-the-spot photograph of diversion channel (diversion works)

Fig. 5. Enlarged image of the diversion works in irrigation canal, Landsat ７

ETM+ 173-50 image, taken on Dec. 11, 2001

81

Fig. 4 shows the on-the-spot photograph of the diversion works in the canal

network. Fig. 5 shows the satellite image of the spot showing an important diversion

works in the complicated canal network. These results show the possibility of

performing image analysis by comparing on-the-spot photographs with satellite images,

which are corrected geometrically to fit the data obtained by GPS. Spatial analysis of the level data

Fig. 6 shows the DEM given on a mesh of about 1 km grid supplied by USGS.

This map includes the Arabian Peninsula to Egypt, Sudan and Kenya. The Gezira

Scheme in Sudan, is indicated by a small rectangle.

Fig. 7 is the canal network plotted from a Landsat ７ ETM+ image. As it is

unconceivable that the canal surface has a big inclination, the height of each point

relative to its neighbors can be obtained by providing accurate surface gradient.

Fig. 6. DEM image obtained from USGS

82

Fig. 7 Extraction of coordinates for the canal network from the corrected

satellite image

Fig. 8 is the contour lines obtained by integrating the data in Fig. 6 and those

based on Fig. 7 and processing it by spatial statistics. This has permitted estimation of

the contour in Gezira area, Sudan, nearly in its proper shape. The estimated levels were

415 m near the sluice gate and 385 m at the canal end and Fig. 8 was produced giving

levels to the points along the canal. Fig. 9 is the 3-dimensional expression of Fig. 8.

Thus, it was possible to reproduce the topographical environment of the spot quite

accurately by one field survey.

Analysis of remotely sensed images and the availability of public domain data

formed an important component in this study, further analysis of which would provide

better monitoring techniques for the Irrigation systems. We hope that more realistic

analyses will be performed by overlaying these DEM data and satellite images in future.

83

Fig. 8 A contour map produced from USGS DEM and the geometrically

corrected satellite image

84

Acknowledgement

For this statistical analysis, Surfer 8 and ARC/GIS 8.2 were used. We express

our gratitude to Professor K. C. Cheng (Kyoto University guest professor) for his

guidance in the application of these software and spatial statistical processing and Mr.

Kiyoyuki Yaota (a doctoral course student) for his cooperation in data processing.

Thanks are also due to the staff of the Agricultural Research Corporation and Gezira

Scheme for their cooperation and hospitality during our visit to the Scheme. The DEM

data were downloaded from USGS homepage. Satellite images were also purchased

from USGS and ERDAS Imagine and RSI software were used for their processing.

Reference

Hussesin S. Adam, Abdelhadi A. W. and Takeshi Hata 2002, Promotion of Particpatory Water Management in the Gezira Scheme in Sudan, Workshop organized FAO-ICID, Montreal Canada

Herve Plusquellec, 1990. The Gexira Irrigation Scheme in Sudan, The World Bank, Washington, DC.

Hamad OE. 1993. Optimal operation of a reservoir system during a dry season. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Department of Civil Engineering. 1-227.

85

R (1-10-10)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Developing a Hydrological-GIS Data Base System in the Blue

Nile Basin: A Support for the Irrigated Agriculture

Anil Mishra1*, Takeshi Hata1, and A.W. Abdelhadi2

Abstract Though the river Nile in the North-Eastern Africa is one of the most studied

river in the world, flow gauge dating as far back as 620 AD have been collected from

the river, very little information about the Blue Nile catchment and its hydrology are

available, especially in its upper basin within Ethiopia. The Blue Nile originates in the

highlands of Ethiopia, as do other two major tributaries of the Nile, the Atbara and the

Sobat. About 80% of the Nile's water originates in Ethiopia and mainly drain towards

downstream through Blue Nile. The down stream states of Egypt and Sudan are heavily

dependent on irrigated agriculture for food/cotton production, and use 94 % of the

available Nile water. Pressure on Nile resources is likely to increase dramatically in the

coming years as a result of high population growth rates in all riparian states, and

increasing development-related water needs in Ethiopia. This part of the study focuses

on the Blue Nile river basin flowing through Ethiopia and Sudan.

Sharing of information, improvement on monitoring, research and mainly

establishment of hydrological system database are essential steps in order to improve

knowledge on Blue Nile water and its resources. The size and complexity of the Blue

Nile, together with the lack of hydrological data, is therefore a severe constraint to the

application of sophisticated hydrological models. The establishment of global databases

of geographic, climatic and other physical parameter is one of the exciting, new

1 Division of Regional Environment, Department of Global Development Science, Kobe University,

Japan.

E-mail: mishra@ans.kobe-u.ac.jp 2 Agricultural Research Corporation, Agricultural Engineering Research Proram, Wad Medani, Sudan

86

developments in Geographic Information Systems. Public domain datasets have become

increasingly available on the Internet. These data are free, easy to obtain, and often

more up-to-date than those from local sources. These data sets can be used as inputs to

establish hydrological database for such basins. In this study a GIS- hydrological data

base for the Blue Nile catchment is developed and it is hoped that the data base system

might help in managing Blue Nile water to fulfill irrigation and hydropower needs.

Introduction

The Nile basin, 3 million km2, covers about 10% of the area of Africa, and

2.3% of the world�s land surface area. Its tributaries are united in the Sudan and flow

through a virtually rain free desert into the Mediterranean Sea. The Blue Nile is by far

the largest tributary in terms of water flow. Its share of the water that reaches Aswan in

Egypt is 55%. The other tributary, which also originate from Ethiopian Highlands,

Atbara brings 12% of the water, whereas the contribution of the longest arm, the White

Nile, which also includes contribution from Sobat (Ethiopia) is around 33%.

Table 1. The contribution of the main Nile tributaries

Source Average annual flow (Km3) Contribution (%) Blue Nile (Ethiopia) 50.1 55.5 Atbara(Ethiopia,) 10.6 11.73 White Nile including Sobat (Equatorial lakes region 7- countries, + Ethiopia)

29.6 32.77

Sources: Shahin 1985, Klot 1994, Sutcliffe and Parks 1999

The Blue Nile River originates at Lake Tana, in the Ethiopian Highlands. The

highland plateau has been deeply incised by the Blue Nile tributaries. Much of the

plateau is above 2600 m, with several peaks up to 4000 m or more. Lake Tana is a

natural lake with a surface area of about 3150 km2 and is fed by a number of streams.

From Lake Tana the Blue Nile flows in a southwestern direction for 35 kilometers until

the Tissiasat Falls where it drops 50 meters. Below the falls the river enters a canyon,

which deepens progressively downstream, in places the Blue Nile flows 1300 m below

the level of country on the either side. At the foot of the plateau the plain slopes

gradually westwards down into Sudan from a height of about 700m. The Blue Nile

provides a vital source of freshwater to the downstream riparian users, Sudan and

Egypt. However, only a few studies on its upper basin within Ethiopia have been

87

conducted and the information available on the climatic, hydrologic, topologic, and

hydraulic characteristics of the river and the basin is incomplete (Gamachu, 1977;

Conway 1997). Thus the hydrologic assessment of the upper Blue Nile is dependent on

downstream measurement. The Blue Nile is characterized by severe seasonality and

about 70% of the runoff occurs between July and September. Peaking in August, after

which the Blue Nile start to fall as rain water supply to the river begins to decline

(Mishra et al., 2003a). Flow in the river rises again in March-May because of equatorial

spring rains on the southern tributaries.

Sennar

El Deim

EthiopiaSudan

300km 0km

N Lake Tana

Khartoum

Fig. 1. The Blue Nile basin and its tributaries

Lake Tana outflow is only 7.7 % of the flow at Roseires dam in Sudan and the

difference between the peak month in August at Roseires/El Deim and in September at

the outfall of Lake Tana shows the relatively slight effect of lake storage (Sutcliffe and

Parks, 1999). The average annual rainfall over the Blue Nile basin is about 1600 mm,

which increases from about 1000 mm near Sudan border to about 1400-1800 mm over

the parts of the upper basin near lake Tana (Sutcliffe and Parks, 1999). The seasonal

distribution of runoff varies considerably owing to differences in the seasonality of

rainfall and catchment physiography. These runoff patterns reflect the variation in

rainfall distribution in the basin (Conway, 2000). The topography of the catchment is

88

derived from the US Geological Survey�s 30 arc second resolution HYDRO1K

(GTOPO30) Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The delineated upper Blue Nile

catchment is shown in Figure 1. The catchment area is about 175, 000 km2.

Water resources management in the Blue Nile Basin

The hydrological data required for water resources planning depend on the

type of development. The development of water resources within the Blue Nile Basin is

to a large extent dominated by irrigation and hydro-electric power; while water demand

for domestic and industrial purposes is by comparison smaller. The Blue Nile course in

Ethiopia is mostly in an inaccessible and poorly mapped area. Irrigation dominates the

consumptive use of the Blue Nile waters in Sudan. About two thirds of the irrigation

requirements in Sudan are satisfied from the Blue Nile. The aim of the Sudanese

authorities is to maximize irrigation, hydropower and water supply while minimizing

sedimentation within the framework of 1959 River Nile water agreement between Egypt

and Sudan. Several attempts have been made to forecast the Blue Nile low flow for this

purpose (Abdelhadi et al. 2000, Mishra et al., 2003a, 2003b). There are two reservoirs in

the Sudanese territory along the Blue Nile, Roseires and Sennar, with a combined

storage capacity of 3 km3. The reservoirs are operated in series. Operating rules have

been developed to minimize sedimentation and to optimize hydropower production in

terms of water availability and irrigation demands (Hamad, 1993). The problem is

complex because energy demand increases during the recession time and doesn�t

coincide with irrigation releases (Sutcliffe and Parks, 1999). The water stored from the

previous season in the two reservoirs is essential for irrigation and for hydropower

generation. Since the combined capacity of the two reservoirs falls short of the total

requirements the gap has to be supplemented from the natural river flow during the

recession time. Preceding flood information holds indispensable information about the

foregoing hydrological processes (Mishra et al., 2003a). The length of flow volumes

and low flows are both important for water resources assessment. The need for flood

estimates for design and operational forecasting purposes makes high flow measurement

necessary (Sutcliffe and Lazenby, 1996). As available information on the rainfall and

water balance within Ethiopia is limited, establishment of hydrological system database,

research, monitoring and sharing of information are essential steps in order to improve

knowledge and management of the Blue Nile water.

89

Hydrological- GIS database for the Blue Nile Basin

Computer simulation models have been used extensively for analyzing river

systems. However, many of these models are limited in application to the particular

river basins and require the collection of large amounts of data. The size and complexity

of the Nile, together with the lack of hydrological data, is therefore a severe constraint

to the application of sophisticated hydrological models. Despite the numerous data

problem, Nile countries have the greatest need for models that enable them to better

manage their common natural resources. The establishment of global databases of

geographic, climatic and other physical parameters are one of the exciting, new

developments in Geographic Information Systems. Based on Hydrological-GIS

(Geographical Information System) database, modeling framework for basin boundaries

can be implemented in a grid-based model. Grid-based hydrological models may be

integrated with Global Climate Model (GCM). GIS have recently been used in deriving

raster and vector representation of watersheds and rivers for hydrologic modeling. GIS

based approaches have also been used for deriving hydrologic parameters from grided

representation of the earth. GIS thus provides an ideal environment for developing and

parameterizing large scale routing. From the use of DEM (digital elevation model),

hydrologic features of the terrain (i.e. flow direction, flow length, stream network and

drainage areas) can be determined using any GIS software. This study aims to

contribute to this goal by establishing a Hydrological-GIS data base system for the

upper Blue Nile Basin.

Data sets from public domain

Data sets from public domain are free, easy to obtain, and often more up-to-

date than those from local sources (Lacroix et al., 2000). These data can be used as

inputs in to hydrological models.

- USGS HYDRO1K DEM data HYDRO1k is a geographic database developed to provide comprehensive and

consistent global coverage of topographically derived data sets, including streams,

drainage basins and ancillary layers derived from the USGS' 30 arc-second digital

elevation model of the world (GTOPO30). The HYDRO1K is a hydrologically

corrected version of GTOPO30 DEM, which is available for downloading from the

USGS website: http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/gtopo30/hydro.

90

- Global climate data Global data sets of mean monthly temperature and precipitation interpolated to

a 0.5 by 0.5 grid are available from University of Delaware. These data are from the

"Global Air Temperature and Precipitation Data Archive" compiled by D. Legates and

C. Willmott. These monthly precipitation estimates were previously corrected for gage

bias. Data from 24,635 terrestrial stations and 2,223 oceanic grid points were used to

estimate the precipitation field. The data can be downloaded from

http://climate.geog.udel.edu/~climate.

- Water holding capacity data Global estimates of �plant-extractable water capacity� have recently become

available on a 0.5° grid (Dunne and Willmott, 1996). As used in this study, the term

plant-extractable water capacity is equivalent to available water-holding capacity. Grid

water-holding capacity estimates can also be obtained from FAO. Values in the grid are

compiled in the CD-ROM Digitized Soil Map of the World (FAO).

The GIS based water balance and water transport models

A macro- scale grid based model has been developed and organized as a set of

interacting components of water balance and water transport sub models together with

the Digital Elevation Models (DEM). The catchment of the upper Blue Nile Basin is

represented by a digital elevation model HYDRO1K (GTOPO30) from which the

stream network is derived. Using climatic and topographic data from the public domain

a simple water balance model was used to generate monthly surplus for each 0.5o x 0.5o

grid. A fraction of precipitation is extracted and declared runoff, before remaining

precipitation is passed to the soil. The runoff for each grid is then routed directly from

its source of generation to the outlet, the approach is also known as source to sink

(Olivera et al., 2000). Thus for the upper Blue Nile 58 sources and one sink at Roseires

El Deim are identified. The model was verified by comparing simulated flows with the

recorded monthly flows at the outlet of four sub-catchments and the total simulated flow

with the recorded monthly flow measured at the outlet of the catchment at El/Deim

station located near Sudan Ethiopia border. Thus for the upper Blue Nile catchment a

GIS- hydrological data base and a grid based water balance and water transport model

was developed using data sets from the public domain. Further extension of the study

into the whole Blue Nile and Nile basin remains a scope for future research.

91

El Deim station

Fig. 2. Upper Blue Nile watershed with 58-source and sink at El Deim

Conclusion

Increased competition for water will be amongst the most important issues of

the next few decades. Similarly, water scarcity for agriculture and the resulting problem

of food security must be addressed. Establishment of the proper set of Hydrological-GIS

(Geographic Information System) database, which can query both the hydrological and

geographic information of the Nile Basin, will be a milestone in developing long-term

cooperation and better integration of common issues: �to achieve sustainable

socioeconomic development through the equitable utilization of, and benefit from, the

common Nile Basin water resources�, which is also a motto of Nile Basin Initiatives.

The study is an attempt to model the upper Blue Nile basin using data set only from the

Internet. The GIS based Hydrological data set and the model will be a useful decision

support system for water resources planners, managers, stake holders and policy makers

which will be eventually helpful for better management of scarce water resources.

92

References

Abdelhadi A. W., O. E. Hamad and Takeshi Hata 2000. A Recession forecast model for the Blue Nile River. Nordic Hydrology, 31 (1). Pp 41-56.

Conway D. 1997. A water balance model of the Upper Blue Nile in Ethiopia. Hydrological Sciences Journal 42: 265-286.

Conway D. 2000. The Climate and Hydrology of the Upper Blue Nile River. The Geographical Journal 166: 49-62

Dunne KA. Willmott CJ. 1996. Global Distribution of Plant-extractable Water Capacity of Soil, International Journal of Climatology, 16, 841-859.

Gamachu D. 1977. Aspects of climate and water budget in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University Press

Hamad OE. 1993. Optimal operation of a reservoir system during a dry season. Ph.D. Thesis. University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Department of Civil Engineering. 1-227.

Lacroix M. KiteG. And Droogers P. 2000. Using Datasets from the Internet for Hydrological Modeling: An Example from the Menderes Basin, Turkey, IWMI Research Report No. 40.

Olivera F. Famiglietti J. and Asante K. 2000. Global-Scale flow routing using a source - to- sink algorithm, Water Resour.Res. No. 36 (8) 2197-2207.

Klot N. 1994. The geopolytics of the monopolized division of the Nile Waters. Water Resources and Conflict in the Midle East. Routledge London.

Mishra A, Hata T, Abdelhadi AW, Tada A, and Tanakamaru H,. 2003a. Recession flow analysis of the Blue Nile River. Hydrological Processes, Special issue: Japan Society of Hydrology and Water Resources, Vol. 17

Mishra A, Hata T, Abdelhadi AW. 2003b. Models for recession flows in the upper Blue Nile River. Hydrological Processes, (Accepted).

Shahin MMA. 1985. Hydrology of the Nile Basin. Developments in water Sceince, 21, Elsevier, Amsterdam.

Sutcliffe JV. Parks YP. 1999. The Hydrology of the Nile. IAHS Special publication No:5. Sutcliffe JV. Lazenby, JBC. 1994. Hydrological data requirement for planning Nile

management. In: The Nile: Sharing a scarce Resource (ed. By PP Howell & JA Allan),163-192. Cambridge University Press, UK

93

R (1-10-11)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Participatory Management of Irrigation System and Water

Utilization: Experiences from India

Goyal1* S. P. and Ashwani Kumar2

Abstract In recognizing the key role played by irrigation in a country's agriculture and

thereby the economy, the paper focuses on various efforts made in India. The

participatory management of irrigation system is a strong tool to achieve a fair level of

water use efficiency, which currently is neither satisfactory nor sustainable.

The introduction of Participatory Irrigation Water Management Approach and

its implementation in many countries of the world, can undoubtedly heap large benefits

on the agriculture sector everywhere. India, a country whose economy rests on

agriculture, is also striving hard to adopt this approach to put its water resources to

maximum beneficial use after taking into account the ground realities, viz. the capability

of water-users and the financial resources.

India has an ultimate irrigation potential of 139.9 million ha (CWC, 2000)

while its arable area is 162 million ha (ICAR, 2002) albeit having a population of 1027

million (India, 2002), 60% of whom are involved in agriculture. The availability of

surface water per capita stands at 1869 m3 (India, 2002). The gross irrigated area in

India stood at 59 million ha in the year 1999, the highest in the world. It is estimated

that by the year 2025 the food production must be increased to 315 million tons as

against the current cereal production estimated at around 230 million ton (ICAR, 2002).

1 Deputy Secretary, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 48 Nyaya Marg, Chanakyapuri,

New Delhi � 110 021 Ph. 011-26116837 or 26115679, Fax: 011-26115962. E-mail: icid@icid.org. 2 Project Coordinator, All India Coordinated Research Project on Application of Plastics in Agriculture,

Central Institute of Post Harvest Engineering and Technology, PO: PAU, Ludhiana-141 004. Ph.: 0161-

2808673, Fax.; 0161-2808670. E-mail.: pcapa@satyam.net.in or ciphet@satyam.net.in

94

As the demands from other water consuming sectors are also increasing, the agricultural

sector will have to tailor its approach by producing more with less water, and unless it is

done the desired increase in production may remain illusive. The participatory

approach to the management of irrigation system can lead to an upgraded water-use

efficiency and can thus play a vital role in ensuring food self sufficiency and security.

India's Planning Commission, in fact, has already recognized its importance and has put

the subject on priority by actively promoting this concept in the Irrigation Sector in the

States who are the controllers of water resources in the State. The States are thus

intensely seeking the participation of the users in the exercise of improved water

management before taking next step for the transfer of irrigation management.

Irrigation has been practiced in India for centuries albeit with old irrigation

systems that were designed on traditional perceptions. Some irrigation practices were

established during the British rule. 'Warabandi,' a system prevalent in northwestern

states of India (Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan) although has some in-

built ingredients of a participatory approach where government agencies carry out the

core activities yet a whole hearted participation of the users and/or even private sector is

aimed at.

The launch of the command area development programme in India in the

seventies helped in carving out a path towards participatory management by

encouraging farmers to unite and constitute Water User Associations (WUA). By the

end of the year 2000, a total of 23626 of such outlet associations covering an area of

9.14 million ha on major, medium or minor irrigation systems had come into existence

in 14 major states of India. The programme faces some impediments like lack of

legal/statutory support, lack of active participation of the water users, lack of financial

resources and most importantly a lack of political thrust which is vital for success.

The experiences in India however indicate that besides nursing the mission to

implement this PIM approach some basic requirements will have to be met with.

Preamble

India is a vast country having a total geographical area of 329 millions ha,

seventh largest in the world with a population of 1,027 million in 2002 (India, 2002)

standing second in the world, the first being China. The land area is 297 million ha

(seventh) with an arable area of 162 million ha (second) while its irrigated area 59

million ha (ICAR, 2002) is the highest in the world. Total actual irrigation potential

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already developed in the country is estimated to be nearly 106 million ha (India, 2002).

A large part of its active population of 437 million around 263 million or 60% (ICAR,

2002) are involved in Agriculture. It has the highest livestock in the world and

produces milk to the extent of 77.180 million tonnes the highest in the world.

The progressive increase in net irrigated area from 1910 to 1997 is given in

Table 1. In the year 1900 the total irrigated land in India was 13.3 million ha. It was

19.3 and 23.5 million ha in 1921 and 1945, respectively; indicating the development of

irrigation was very slow during this period. After the partition of the country in 1947,

India was left with only 19.4 million ha irrigated area. At the beginning of the first five-

year plan in 1952 AD the total irrigated area was 22.6 million ha. After the development

of irrigation in the subsequent Five-Year Plans, it was 92.70 million ha in 1998. The

ultimate irrigation potential of India is estimated to be 139.90 million ha.

All the irrigation systems have to focus on the management of water below the

outlet which is of vital importance that apparently has long been neglected in India.

Generally, the farmers in the head reaches of Canals, not knowing the implications of

excessive water application in the fields are tempted to draw excess water. They not

only suffer by way of low production and unintended damage to their lands but also

deprive other farmers of due share of their water located in the tail reaches. It is now

recognized in India that unless farmers are actively and wholeheartedly involved in the

operation, management and maintenance of irrigation systems to start with, the

objective of increased utilization and/or production may not be effective and nor

sustainable in the long run.

The policy of Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) in O&M of the

Irrigation System is being advocated in India for the last two decades. Water User

Associations (WUAs) are being set up in various States who are to be supplied and

charged for irrigation water in bulk volumetric quantities, the Water rates are to be

accordingly laid down so as to recover at least the maintenance cost. These WUAs, in

turn, would be responsible for distribution, operation and maintenance of the secondary

and tertiary portions of the distribution network below the head of a distributory or a

minor up to the farm gate. Such an arrangement may also include autonomy to farmers

for utilizing their acquired water in any manner suited to them. The procedures are

being simplified to enable mutual adjustments in distribution of water, if necessary at

user levels.

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Table 1. Net irrigated area in India from 1910 to 1991

(M ha = Million Hectare)

Area irrigated from Period Govt. canals

M ha Wells M ha

Other sources

Total (All sources) M ha

Irrigated area as % of sown area

1910-11 1915-16 1920-21 1925-26 1930-31 1935-36 1940-41 1945-46 1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1995-96 1996-97

4.4 4.1 4.4 4.6 5.0 5.6 6.0 6.4 8.29 10.37 11.52 15.29 16.90 17.12 17.35

4.0 4.7 4.7 4.8 4.8 5.2 5.4 5.3 5.9 7.3 11.9 17.7 24.2 29.7 30.83

6.1 6.9 6.9 6.8 7.3 7.2 7.6 7.7 6.7 7.0 7.0 5.8 6.3 6.6 7.0

14.5 15.7 16.0 16.2 17.1 18.0 19.0 19.4 20.9 24.7 30.4 38.8 47.4 53.4 55.14

17.9 19.0 17.4 17.1 17.6 18.6 19.2 19.1 17.4 18.2 22.8 31.8 33.7 36.5 38.02

Source1&3: Irrigation Commission (1972) & Agricultural Research Data Book (1998 & 2002)

Under the Command Area Development Programme, one of the objectives was

to encourage the farmers' participation also in construction activities such as land

levelling and land-shaping, construction of field channels and equitable distribution of

water amongst land holdings that are generally small.

Legislations have been enacted by the Governments in various states of India

for encouraging Participatory Irrigation Management. The Irrigation acts in force are

being changed to pave the way for grant of necessary legal strength to the users. The

results of the Pilot studies carried out in India are reported to be encouraging. The

process however needs to expand covering the entire country for optimizing the

utilization of the water resources.

India in its various agro-climatic zones stands at number three in production of

cereals in the world. India also stands second in the world in production of vegetables

and melons. To maintain the lead, India has to emphasize the need of inducting changes

in the irrigation/agricultural activity. This would also reveal that despite the medieval

irrigation system the total agricultural production stood at 230 MT in the year 1999.

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On the other hand the population growth in India is a slippery factor that

warrants a sharper approach for irrigation management particularly when the production

level is targeted at 315 million tonnes by the year 2025. It is felt that harnessing water

resources to bring more cultivable area under irrigation may be necessary. More so

when the water demands in other water consuming sectors are also growing up. It is felt

that the management of irrigation systems has unfortunately not received due and

deserving attention and this lack of sharp focus on water distribution and maintenance

aspects has resulted in sub-optimal utilization of irrigation potential which has been

developed in the country to an extent of 106 million ha (India, 2002) as well as in

equitable distribution of water and low water use efficiency.

It is imperative that India should be looking out for improving its conditions to

attain economic strength. The need is not only to expand irrigation in more areas but

also to improve the yield of crops per unit area, an objective that can be met with by

resorting to participatory irrigation management. The Strategy

To properly adopt a strategy that is commensurate with the ground realities, the

following conditions were taken into consideration.

Major irrigation systems in India have been traditionally designed on the

principle of extensive irrigation; extending benefits of irrigation to as large an area as

possible even with low annual cropping intensities as are scientifically perceivable now.

The irrigation water supply is not designed to meet the full and unrestricted

requirements of cropped areas, crops and cropping patterns and consequently actual

irrigation intensities are much different from those envisaged in the project design.

Inadequate control and near absence of rotational canal schedules and 'Warabandi' in

many new schemes render the designed water supply further deficient. The farmers in

head reaches draw large quantities of water; particularly true in schemes where phased

development was implemented largely on account of insufficient funds. While CAD

programme focussed on augmentation of on-farm facilities by way of construction of

field channels and drains, the problem of water distribution and improvement in water

use efficiencies remained un-addressed. Inadequate maintenance, particularly, of the

older irrigation systems resulted in reduction of canal capacities and higher seepage

losses ultimately resulting in deficient water supply. The reasons for the malady have

been identified as follows:

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• The current low water pricing policies coupled with low recoveries led to insufficient

revenue collections from irrigation systems and made it difficult for the Governments

to channelise sufficient funds for proper upkeep of irrigation systems, what to say of

modernization and expansion. The problem is compounded by the fact that funds

provided for O&M are mostly used in salaries of the work charged establishment.

• There are no incentives to economize on water use or disincentives for wasteful and

excessive use at the farm level. Absence of night irrigation in many new schemes

especially led to excessive return-back of irrigation water acquired at high cost.

• Management of irrigation systems are deemed to be more a Civil Engineering job on

completion with focus on maintenance of dams and canals and less on the water

economics which need to be managed optimally.

• The per unit area cost of irrigation infrastructure has been rising due to various

policy changes like construction of channels from 100 ha block to 5-8 ha block at the

project cost, adoption of more rigorous criteria for project formulation for

conforming to the norms laid down by funding agencies and also for taking

rehabilitation measures for affected persons etc. Dearth of better construction sites

as compared to earlier phase also incurs additional cost. Thus the method of

spreading resources coupled with construction delays also raise the cost. This, in

turn, has worsened the situation, given the growing shortage of public funds as well

as competing demands of other sectors.

The deterioration of country's existing irrigation infrastructure and

management therefore demand a hard look at the issues to initiate policy changes and

measures such as farmers participation and private sector involvement for the overall

improvement of the irrigation sector.

The Participatory Irrigation Management

The major cause for the inefficient management of irrigation infrastructure was

felt to be the lack of involvement of the water users in the whole exercise and until a

major shift in the style of management was made, the needed improvement in either the

service to the users or the increase in productivity could continue to be a far cry. The

involvement of users at the decision making levels permits them to synthesize the

personal goals of a farmer with that of the National goals of maximum beneficial use of

the scarce water resource. It would also inculcate the spirit of togetherness and

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ownership. Entrustment of day-to-day operations and maintenance is more likely to

prompt them to realize the cost of water and hence to bear the cost of improved

services. Involvement of users in the entire activity would also provide recluse to both

the parties viz. the users themselves and the Government agency(s). These benefits

have been broadly summed up as below:

• Assured rights of water users by way of delivery of allocated supply of water to the

farmers' organizations.

• Access to information about the availability of total shareable water and schedules of

water supply, prompting better and responsive Government water distribution

agencies on collective approach of water use.

• Greater participation in decision making vis-à-vis O&M of the main system.

• More efficient, reliable and equitable distribution of the available water to farmers

amongst themselves enabling flexibility in adopting improved crops and cropping

systems suited to the ground conditions.

• Greater venues for rehabilitation of the infrastructure at the tertiary level.

• A better comprehension of the value of water in economic terms.

• Solution of local conflicts through social pressures.

• Empowerment of the Farmers' Organizations.

• The Government irrigation agencies at large are also liable to be benefited due to:

• Elimination of supply of water to individual farmers at large number of points and at

remote places.

• Freedom to focus on improving the running and maintenance of the main and

secondary systems due to transfer of responsibility of operation and maintenance of

the lower (tertiary) systems.

• Realization of the importance of improved services and thereby the perceptions on

pricing of water.

• Analyzing and identifying field problems requiring research and development.

• The benefits of the PIM are perceived to improve the irrigated agriculture scenario at

the country level in following terms:

• Conducive to improvements in water use efficiencies through better water

distribution as well as pricing.

• Improved management of physical infrastructure and natural resources of land, soil

and water.

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• Picking up research and analysis objectives.

• Status of implementation.

Even though the involvement of the water users was always an integral part of

the CAD programme of mid-seventies, it albeit received due attention only from 1992

when the PIM gained importance with a gradual realization that a holistic and

participatory approach was required for the implementation of the programme. Under

the PIM, the main objectives to be achieved have been identified as under:

• Improved agricultural production by expanding the irrigated area, improving crop

yields, cropping intensity and crop diversification through improvements in service,

water use efficiencies and water conservation.

• Improved generation and creation of revenue for better maintenance of the systems

and resource mobilization for irrigation facilities.

It is however felt that it is in the last two decades (1982-2002) that the PIM

concept in India passed through three distinct phases. Starting from 1975 until 1985, the

emphasis was the setting up of outlet based Farmers Organizations, besides construction

of on-farm physical infrastructure. During the second phase (1985-90), the emphasis

shifted to experimentation with PIM. A number of pilot projects were started and

developed all over the country. The Government of India, Ministry of Water Resources,

World Bank and USAID assisted these pilots while Non Governmental Organizations

(NGOs) played a catalytic role in mobilizing farmers and sustaining the pilots. The third

phase from early 1990s has seen the emergence of Water User Associations (WUAs)

who take the responsibility for inducting improvements in the physical infrastructure,

and management of the tertiary systems (minor/distributory level) in case of Major and

Medium Irrigation Projects.

The promotion of Participatory Irrigation Management with full involvement

of Farmers' Organizations was sought to be put at the centre stage in the formulation of

country's Ninth Five-Year Plan strategies (1997-2002) that aims at:

• To restore and modernize old irrigation systems executed long ago.

• To introduce rational pricing of irrigation water, initially to recover the cost of O&M

and then to encourage higher levels of water use efficiency.

During the Ninth plan period (1997-2002) about 2000 pilot projects were

planned, envisaging coverage of all minors of at least one distributory of a given system

in the pilot.

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Notwithstanding the setbacks during the exercise the overall progress in

promoting users involvement in the management has been significant by way of

evolution of approaches for overcoming bottlenecks or the very setting up of WUAs as

well as introducing certain policy measures in several Indian states.

The Task Force constituted by the Indian Planning Commission for

formulating the approach for the 10th Five Year Plan (2002-2007) reported in 2001 that

the total number of water user organizations in 14 major Indian states numbered 23626

covering an area of nearly 9.14 million ha.

Some of the broad revelations during the implementation of the programme are

summarized here.

The State of Andhra Pradesh enacted "A.P. Farmers' Management of Irrigation

System Act" in 1997, resulting in organization of 9800 WUAs. The majority of

Associations however pertains to Minor irrigation schemes. In case of Major and

Medium irrigation schemes the Associations were set up at sub-distributory or minor

canal level. The State adopted the policy of entrusting the execution of development

works to the Water User Associations. Significant initiatives of farmers involvement in

overall canal management have been observed. Functions like realization of water

charges and annual maintenance of physical systems are gradually being taken over by

the farmers organizations. The State Government has issued orders on sharing of water

charges among the various farmers organizations and the irrigation department. The

O&M expenses are henceforth to be borne by the farmers' organizations relevant to the

physical systems under their jurisdiction.

The State of Assam launched the PIM recently where 286 WUAs were formed.

The State adopted the policy of making the system fully functional before handing it

over to the WUAs.

Other states such as Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West

Bengal too have taken strong legal or administrative measures to make the programme a

success. On the other hand, the Central Government also has been pursuing the subject

and organised various international, national, conferences and chalked out other

measures for creating an awareness and providing full help in overcoming the teething

problems being faced in states particularly the measures for legal support, or in

overcoming universal resistance to change, lack of motivation, and ameliorate

deficiencies in water supply or lack of maintenance of irrigation systems to ensure the

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sustainability of the water users organization (WUA). The most ticklish being the

institutional and legal changes so as to keep the bureaucratic influence away from the

WUAs. The experiences in this respect are discussed below.

The constitution of India allows the States to have legislative jurisdictions on

water resources where the irrigation management is accordingly regulated by the States

through Irrigation Statutes. The Central Government of India, in order to help

appropriate steps and assist the State Governments for overcoming the legal sensibilities

got the issues examined to identify "necessary amendments" in the irrigation acts in

force in a state resulting in a model act. Some of the important features of the model act

for empowering the WUAs are summarized below:

• The Model Act would empower the Government to declare specific areas for

handing over the management and distribution to Water User Associations (WUAs),

The Act would also recognize that WUAs would be voluntary bodies created by the

users and registered under Co-operative Act or Societies Registration Act, and that

the jurisdictional area of a WUA would be decided by the proposed WUA members

and agreed to by the irrigation officials.

• There would be a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Government

and WUAs specifying terms and conditions of water deliveries, water rates, etc.

• WUAs, being autonomous organizations, would raise their own financial resources.

• Government would restore/rehabilitate the physical system before the management

transfer to WUAs.

• Water allowance and/or quotas would be notified and incorporated in MOU.

• Water would be supplied on volumetric basis and water rates would be related to

quantities supplied and not on crop area basis.

• Wherever WUAs would be formed, it would be binding on the Department to install

measuring devices.

• WUAs would enjoy freedom of choice in following cropping pattern within the

allocated quotas.

• WUAs would be vested with the powers of canal officer as specified by the

Government for the smooth working of WUAs.

• WUAs would be empowered to decide water charges for their members and/or non-

members.

• There would be a joint inspection of the system before handing over.

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The Model Act also provides for the hierarchical structure of a PIM, i.e. a

federation of WUAs at Distributory and Branch level and an Apex Body at the Project

level.

A major constraint in achieving the desired targets of PIM has been the funds

as there is no specific scheme for funding the PIM Initiative even though it has excellent

potential for improving the performance of the irrigation sector as a whole. The Water

User Associations (WUAs) formed under funding support of CAD programme tend to

become inactive once the government support is withdrawn. Moreover, the CAD

programme does not cover the old irrigation systems of Punjab, Haryana, Western UP,

Northern Rajasthan and some others where canal rotation and Warabandi have

contributed largely to successful management of irrigation, but where failure to charge

more realistic rates for water has led to insufficient repairs, and maintenance of canal

networks. As the funds provided under CAD programme were basically meant to help

bridge the gap between the created irrigation potential and the utilized, the programme

concentrates on on-farm works below the outlet with none or least insistence on taking

up of the responsibilities for the management of the water distribution or O&M of the

system. Even in States where initial objective of formation of WUAs has been achieved

through legislation, funds are a big constraint in undertaking restructuring and

rehabilitation of systems and other needed actions for PIM as per provisions of the Acts.

It is therefore felt that an enlarged central scheme be launched to cover any irrigation

system having a CCA of 500 ha or more and where the farmers show their readiness to

take the responsibility for managing transferred system in a more effective and viable

manner.

It is also being felt that the Governments should take further steps to enable a

better role for the water users. It has been felt that in case of Major and Medium

Irrigation Projects, the Government's role in O&M of tertiary system below the minor

should end after the turnover. The Irrigation Department should however continue to

discharge its primary responsibility of delivering water at designated points in

accordance with the predetermined and properly disseminated time schedule, beyond

which the WUA may take over the management.

A rethinking should be done at the Government level to consider

improvements in the existing water distribution system and also implement policy

reforms by way of a change in the planning and implementation of new schemes. The

new schemes should be designed to meet the present day needs of intensive agriculture

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based on bulk supply of water to WUAs. Simultaneously, a system of Rotational Water

Supply and Warabandi on existing system coupled with night irrigation should be

implemented with the consent of the farmers along with necessary modifications in the

physical infrastructure and other regulatory measures.

The Indian experiences also point out that the Non-Governmental Organization

can play a major part in brining up the WUAs which is also identifiable.

Role of NGOs

Experience in India, as also other developing countries like Philippines,

Mexico indicates that organizing of farmers can be easily and better done by NGOs who

are generally not connected with the irrigation supplies and are voluntary. The NGOs

working in areas have better understanding of rural problems, can talk with farmers

freely on all irrigation related problems and suggest solutions and get farmers' trust

rather quickly.

Suggestions for Accelerating PIM

Initiating a new programme Even though the need of farmers' participation in the maintenance and

management of irrigation systems has been recognized as an effective tool to improve

water use the progress of implementation for various reason, has been rather slow

except in a few states.

Adoption of the PIM programme on voluntary basis through extension

motivation has been experimented now in India for about 20 years. The response from

farmers has been rather luke-warm so far and it is apparent that most of them do not

perceive enough advantage in taking over the management. Unless the Government(s)

fixes target dates by way of withdrawing from water distribution and maintenance of the

system, the programme is not likely to pick up with the desired momentum. The

farmers should be made to understand that unless they unite and organize a WUA in

advance to take over the water management, irrigation supplies may get suspended after

the deadline dates. On the other hand, the State Government(s) must correspondingly

ensure that proper plans and arrangements are made matching the deadline dates.

It is also deemed necessary to modify the irrigation design practices or

introduce necessary physical controls and other measures to suit the demand driven

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water needs of the areas. Improvement in water distribution by adopting rotational

canal schedules and Warabandi, particularly enforcing night irrigation to eliminate

direct and back return of water to drains and encouraging better on-farm water

application techniques are deemed to be some of the measures requiring planning,

specially for the new schemes. Farmers' participation can then greatly help in

implementing the above measures for improving water use efficiencies.

Promoting PIM and Irrigation System Turnover The Irrigation System Transfer or Turnover functions should ideally take place

when the farmers' organizations have matured to takeover responsibilities of running

and maintaining the system. While Participatory Irrigation Management can be

immediately implemented at all the tiers of the farmers' organizations, the turnover of

assets should begin with the lowest of the farmers' organization. The irrigation

management, the O&M and finally the transfer of the tertiary physical systems below

"minor" level in case of Major/Medium projects should be considered for transfer to the

farmers' organizations. In case of Minor Irrigation schemes the entire physical assets

can be considered for transfer. The roles and responsibilities of the farmers'

organizations and the Government(s) for Participatory Management and Assets Transfer

should be clearly spelt out in the MOUs to be entered between Irrigation Department

and the farmers' organizations.

The Government should consider extending one time assistance for essential

maintenance at the time of takeover by the Water User Associations. In the following

years, the WUAs will have to generate their own resources. To enable the WUAs in

fulfilling the responsibility of maintenance and sustenance, the Government should

consider allowing them to realize the water charges and retain 50% of the realized

amount. Wherever the distributory level organizations also exist, an additional 20% of

amount realized could be made available to the Federation of WUAs while the

Government(s) may retain 30% for maintenance of the systems above the minor.

Presently different modalities are followed in different States for this purpose.

Revision of Water Rates Pricing too has a major impact on the success of the irrigation systems and

importantly on the very use of resource itself. Since large scale developments of water

resources for irrigation involve huge expenditure and irrigated agriculture is moving

from the early sustenance plane to commercial plane, it is necessary that water be

recognized as an "economic good" and the users be persuaded to pay for its use. This is

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also necessary to ensure allocative economic efficiencies in different competitive uses

of water and also to use 'Price' as a mechanism to reduce wastage.

The Government(s) are therefore advised to seriously consider an increase in

water rates for which political will must be mobilized to achieve the ultimate and

desirable aim of financial and operational efficiency. In case one time jump of prices of

water is not considered feasible a hike could be implemented through annual increases

in a time bound manner reaching a level of full O&M cost recovery within a period of

about 3 years. The ultimate objective should be to recover at least 10% of the capital

cost too besides the full O&M. The possibility of setting up of a Water Price Regulatory

Mechanism State on the analogy of the Energy Pricing Authority could also be mooted.

Summary and Conclusions

The above enumerated discussions reveal that attempts are vigorously being

mode to adopt "Participatory Irrigation Management" in India that is something short of

"Irrigation Management Transfer" perhaps owing to low financial resource at the

command of water users as well as in view of the capabilities and know-how at that

level. The programme has gained importance in only about two decades and the

achievements are encouraging, if not large. India has inherited the irrigation systems

and the procedures for maintenance and operation from an era where the very objective

of irrigation water-supply was different, when it was considered necessary to cover as

large an area as possible for sustenance of the peasantry and the people. The design

procedures, then catered to these objectives and the existing infrastructure is currently

suited to those needs.

Nonetheless efforts are being made and problems are being identified. The

legal authority of running an irrigation network is enshrined in the Government(s) and

to delink the two has to have a legal structure. Happily the basic necessities for

organizational and procedural changes are being thought out. This paper amply covers

the role of various players which can be conducive to bring about appropriate

methodologies for carving out approaches for a successful implementation of the

Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) as a first step.

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References

1. Government of India � Central Water Commission (CWC), 2000, Water and Related Statistics, Information Systems Organisation, Water Planning and Projects Wing.

2. Government of India � Planning Commission, 2001, Report of the Working Group on Private Sector and Beneficiaries Participation for the Formulation of Tenth Five Year Plan (2002-2007).

3. India 2002 : A reference annual, Compiled and edited by Research, Reference and Training Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.

4. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), 2002, Agricultural Statistics at a Glance, Directorate of Economics Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India.

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R (1-10-12)

Proceedings of the International Workshop on Participatory Management of Irrigation Systems, Water

Utilization Techniques & Hydrology

A Session of the 3rd World Water Forum, Theme: Agriculture, Food & Water, March 2003

Sustainable Participatory Water Management: Experiences in

Bangladesh

Bari M. F.1*, Kiyoshi Torii2 and Islam M. N.3

Abstract Beginning in 1960s substantial physical infrastructure has been constructed to

provide flood protection to about 5.0 Mha and irrigation to 4.0 Mha out of 7.6 Mha of

irrigable land. But the realized benefits fall far short of potentials. The root cause of

problem was the conditions that lead to inadequate operation and management and the

related issues are budgetary, socio-economic, institutional, and complexity and conflict

that characterize most public-sector projects. The objective of this paper is to

characterize the participatory water management (PWM) initiatives and evaluate

respective contribution in the evolution of a sustainable PWM. The initiative of

participatory approach began first in the mid 1970s continued through 1990 with

programs to promote beneficiary involvement and inter-agency coordination for

improving project performance, and ensure sustainability through adequate operation

and maintenance. Several parallel initiatives were taken separately and jointly with

involvement of several organizations, notably the Department of Cooperatives, Water

Development Board, Agricultural Extension Services, Rural Development Academy,

etc. Varied forms of beneficiary participation models were tried calling Water Users

Association by different names. But much of the results were not replicated. Two types

of irrigation systems, surface water based large-scale (gravity canal) irrigation and 1 Department of Water Resources Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology,

Dhaka 1000, Bangladesh. E-mail: bariatbuet@yahoo.com: Bari@wre.buet.ac.bd. 2 Faculty of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan. E-mail: torii@kais.kyoto-

u.ac.jp. 3 Local Government Engineering Department, Aargaon, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, Dhaka, Bangladesh. E-

mail: nislam48@yahoo.com

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groundwater based small-scale (tubewell) irrigation projects required different

approaches. Yet the FCD systems require management approach that differs from that

for irrigation systems.

In mid 1990s renewed efforts were made under the Flood Action Plan studies,

Guidelines for Peoples Participation were formed and pilot projects undertaken to

further improve participatory water management. Meanwhile the National Water Policy

was formulated in 1999 with emphasis to strengthen participatory process based on

Guidelines for Participatory Water Management, Cooperative Law and formulated

byelaws as necessary. Currently water sector reform programs are underway with the

objective to improve performance of the water management systems and ensure

sustainability, through improved operation and maintenance, appropriate institutional

reforms, and required physical improvement of water sector infrastructure. Experience

shows that the most important requirement for success and sustainability is a

satisfactory O&M arrangement with assured sources of funding (including cost

recovery) and efficient operating mechanisms for assured service delivery. The other

important requirement for sustainability is substantial stakeholder participation

providing a major role for WMAs in design, implementation, and O&M. Accordingly

one of the main emphases of the water sector reform has been on management transfer

of water schemes to Water Management Associations (WMAs). Along these lines

participatory water resources management development are underway now. Some

ongoing activities are also discussed.

1. Introduction

Water resources planning and management activities in Bangladesh started in

the 1960s and as such relatively new compared to developed countries. Since then

physical infrastructures for mitigation of flood, facilitating drainage and providing

irrigation have been constructed, but still the realized benefits fall far short of potential.

Currently the quest for sustainable development is a key issue in water resources

management. The paper begins with a brief discussion of water resource development

pattern and nature of water management problems encountered. Then it tracks the

initiatives and process of development of participatory water management. Current

activities to improve the performance of water management systems in Bangladesh are

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also summarized. Finally the conditions and requirements for a viable and sustainable

participatory water management system are mentioned.

Initiatives to develop water resources first began after devastating floods in

1954 and 1955. The first necessity was to provide protection against flood by

constructing embankments along main rivers and in the coastal area so that agricultural

and other economic activities could proceed in a protected environment. Separate

government organizations were created to plan and undertake development activities

relating to water (flood mitigation, drainage and irrigation), agriculture (seeds, fertilizer,

and irrigation), water transport, water supply and sanitation, etc. Agriculture is still the

main consumer of water, accounting for 58.6% of water demand; in stream-use 40.7%

for navigation, salinity control and fisheries, and 0.7% for domestic and industrial use.

(Ahmad, Q.K, 2000). Nearly 75% of the population is dependent on agriculture, which

contributes only 30% to the national GDP.

The first Master Plan for water resources development was formulated in 1964

and recommended for development of agriculture and irrigation through implementation

of about 58 large-scale flood control and drainage (FCD) and flood control, drainage

and irrigation (FCDI) projects by 1985. The main recommendations of the Master Plan

were to:

• Ensure that 4.9 million ha be flood free out of the 8.75 million ha of cultivable land.

• Expand irrigation facilities to 3.1 million ha by the end of the planning period.

• Install pump stations if drainage and irrigation by gravity is not possible.

• Use low lift pumps until the construction of barrages on the Ganges and the

Brahmaputra Rivers.

• Use groundwater for irrigation in some areas of the country

Due to long gestation period of large projects, the IBRD Land and Water

Sector Study (1972) recommended focusing on quick yielding, less capital intensive and

more labor-intensive projects considering land and water as integrated water resources.

It also emphasized on drought management in the southwest and northwest parts of

Bangladesh. In parallel with large-scale systems small-scale FCD/FCDI type projects

were also constructed between 1975-95. So far Bangladesh Water Development Board

(BWDB) under the Ministry of Water Resources is the main agency for water resources

development. In 1996 the Local Government Engineering Department under the

Ministry of Local Government, Rural Development and Cooperatives initiated small-

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scale water resources development sector project (SSWRDSP) to support the local

government institutions in implementing small-scale flood control, drainage

improvement, water conservation and command area development subprojects at union

level (lowest administrative unit). Each subproject covers 1,000 ha or less. Between

1960 and 1990 land and water development facilities were in place to provide flood

protection to about 5.0 million ha and irrigation to 4 million ha of total irrigable area of

7.6 million ha.

2. Nature of Water Management Problems

Depending upon functions the water use and control projects in Bangladesh

may be classified into two main types: (1) flood control and drainage (FCD) systems,

and (2) flood control, drainage and irrigation (FCDI) systems. Apart from this large-

scale irrigation systems, there are small-scale systems and known as minor irrigation

which are based on utilization of groundwater using tubewells and surface water using

low lift pumps, and non-mechanized traditional and indigenous systems. Of the total 4.0

million ha of irrigated area, FCDI system covers 0.45-1.0 million ha, minor irrigation

system 3.45 million ha and the traditional system 0.10 million ha. PWM in case of

irrigation involves two types of systems- large-scale public sector projects, and small-

scale private sector projects.

In Bangladesh, FCD systems are the most common type of water management

system (WMS). Among about 500 projects completed by the Bangladesh Water

Development (BWDB), more than 70%-80% are classified as FCD. The Local

Government Engineering Department (LGED) has implemented 280 subprojects under

the small-scale water resources development sector project (SSWRDSP), of these 45%

are FCD. As of 1992, 440,000 (5% of the NCA) ha were under large-scale gravity

irrigation, while some 3.4 million ha (37% of the NCA) were protected by FCD (Khan,

1993). As expected nature of problems, water management issues and approaches are

different for each WMS. But first the historical development of PWM starting with

beneficiary involvement to current form of participatory water management is discussed

in the next section.

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3. Initiation of Participatory Water Management

For long the FCD/FCDI projects could not be as productive due to lack of

adequate operation and maintenance (O&M). Many studies were undertaken since mid

1970s to understand the reasons for poor project performance and the main reasons

were:

• Projects were declared complete as soon as physical construction was completed.

• Absence of efforts toward organizing beneficiaries and stakeholders and command

area development (CAD) comprising such activities as construction of field channels,

land leveling, provision of seed, fertilizer and irrigation.

• Concerned agencies took no interest in O&M of completed projects, rather were

interested in construction of new projects.

• Lack of incentive for good management and meeting target yields and lack of

accountability for failures to achieve targets.

To overcome the poor performance of FCDI projects, starting in 1970s through

1990s various forms of beneficiary participation models were suggested and

experimented by experts and institutions from home and abroad. This marks the

beginning of involvement of beneficiaries in O&M work. Prior to that participatory

rural development program was initiated by Bangladesh Rural Development Academy

(BARD) in 1970s. In the planning of early implementation projects (EIP) people�s

participation was introduced; information on local needs and views were collected

through exchange of opinion with local people and then planners developed and

recommended solution to the perceived problems. Similar participation was introduced

in a small-scale local project called the Delta Development Project in 1981. This

involved settlement of the landless in the reclaimed land of Char Baggardona of

Noakhali district. The beneficiaries were organized to participate in the planning,

implementation and O&M of FCD projects. These are some initial and isolated attempts

towards PWM.

Notable among other early initiatives, especially for large-sale systems are the

CAD work and on-farm water management in the GK Irrigation project in the 1980-90s

by international consultants, institutes and researches and studies to improve

management of selected FCDI projects (BUET, 1990). Success was limited and results

could not be replicated. When only O&M models proved inadequate, rehabilitation of

projects were thought to be the remedy. The System Rehabilitation project was 113

undertaken by BWDB in 1992. One good aspect of SRP was that BWDB used SRP as

vehicle for development of Guidelines for Peoples Participation (GPP) in combination

with initiatives taken under the Flood Action Plan studies as discussed next. Other

agencies were there to work on such guidelines, necessitating for a uniform guidelines

for participatory water management, necessitating for a uniform guidelines for

participatory water management.

4. Uniform Guidelines for Participatory Water Management

Flood Action Plan (FAP) studies during 1990-95, supported by some 15

foreign aid donors, also concentrated on the development various guidelines, such as for

people�s participation, project assessment, and environmental impact assessment. The

spirit of this initiative to use participatory approach was consistent with the country�s 4th

Five-Year Plan (1990-95), which argued for participation in every sector as a way to

advance the national goal for poverty alleviation and decentralized participatory local

level planning as a general principle of national development. The guideline for

people�s participation in water management projects was published as official policy in

March 1993 (Hanchett, 1997). The Ministry of Water Resources in effect introduced

participatory water management (PWM) in 1994 with the circulation of the Guidelines

for People�s Participation (GPP). These guidelines envisaged the building of institutions

consisting of beneficiaries and otherwise affected people as well as officials of different

departments and agencies active in project. The main thrust was that the people should

be involved in the development and management of water development projects from

the beginning to ensure that the project would address people�s need and priorities. The

PWM was experimented in BWDB projects such as System Rehabilitation Project

(SRP) and Compartmentalization Pilot Project (CPP). People�s Participation is essential

in each stage of project/scheme - identification (reconnaissance and PRA), feasibility

study, design, implementation/construction, O&M, monitoring, and evaluation.

Guidelines were also prepared by the LGED in 1997 to involve local people in small-

scale water resources development sector project (SSWRDSP).

Revision of Guidelines In 1996, a strategy and action plan was approved by MOWR for the revision of

the Guidelines and donors in the inter-ministerial (wrap-up) meeting. The revision of

guidelines was based on review of the experience gained so far with their

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implementation, contribution from organizations and who have been engaged in the

implementation or debate on people�s participation in water development projects and

input of professionals. The Bangladesh National Water Policy (NWPo) was formulated

in 1999and serves as an important instrument in further developing and implementing

IWRM. One of the objectives is to facilitate broad participation in water management.

In response to this policy objective, in 1999 the Ministry of Water Resources constituted

an Inter-agency Task Force for the formulation of Guidelines of Participatory Water

Management. A draft was prepared by the Task Force and reviewed by professionals

and stakeholders. The Executive Committee of the National Water Resources Council

(ECNWRC) approved the guidelines in 2000. According to these guidelines, the

stakeholders of participatory water management comprise local stakeholders, water

management organization, local government institution, NGOs/community level self-

help group, private sector service providers, implementing agencies and other public

sector agencies. People�s participation is suggested in each of 6 stages of any

project/scheme: identification/pre-feasibility study, feasibility, planning, design and

stakeholders institution building, implementation and trial operation, O&M, and

monitoring and evaluation.

5. Practice of Participatory Water Management

As mentioned above nature of water management problems and as such

requirements of PWM varies depending upon project type - FCD or FCDI system. The

most recent Guidelines of Participatory Water Management approved by the

government in 2000 recommended institutionalization of stakeholders participation to

make PWM �meaningful and sustainable�. Implementation agency will sign agreement

with the WMO only after registration within the framework of the Cooperative Societies

Act, 1984 and Cooperative Societies Rules, 1987 as amended time to time. The

registration will require until the GOB frames separate rule for registration of the WMO

for PWM, which has been proposed. The 2000 Guidelines recommended three types of

WMO to be formed considering the size of project or subproject or scheme. These are

Water Management Group (WMG), Water Management Association (WMA) and Water

Management Federation (WMF). PWM entails the participation of government agencies

as partners of water management stakeholders in managing water management systems

(WMS) and consists of joint and transparent decision-making in various tasks such as

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operation planning, maintenance planning, resources mobilization, and implementation

and monitoring. PWM should identify and clarify management conflicts. It should

attempt to reach a consensus on an optimal water management scenario for all parties.

The type of institutional arrangements required to facilitate PWM is a question that is

inherently political in nature.

PWM in Irrigation System

The requirement, nature and performance of PWM in private minor irrigation

systems and public-sector major irrigations systems differ substantially. PWM in large

systems has not been successful for reasons like (i) lack of reliability of service

delivery, (ii) lack of accountability of agency for failure to deliver services, and (iii)

growing reluctance of beneficiaries to pay for services which are not assured. Issues

relating to pricing of irrigation water and cost recovery still remain to be addressed.

According to national minor irrigation census, 1996-97 of the total area under

minor irrigation, 2.1 million is irrigated by 630,000 shallow tubewells (STW), 0.7

million ha by 25,000 deep tubewells (DTW) and reminder by low lift pumps (LLP).

Participation and management of SST and LLP based schemes are easier and better

since these involve around 10 ha land and few farmers. DTW schemes cover larger

land area involving more people and, consequently management and participation has

been problematic. Like large-scale systems, performance of these tubewell irrigation

schemes has not been satisfactory. In the mid 1980s irrigation management programs

(IMP) were undertaken to improve management of tubewell irrigation systems, but

without much success. Poor layout and construction and maintenance and consequent

water losses in the canal system and institutional constraints were identified as major

reasons of the poor performance. Recently, it is suspected that groundwater tables are

falling (as much as 1.2 m per year) in many parts of the country due to excessive

withdrawal by tubewells, low recharge, poor management and land use change raising

the question about sustainability of groundwater based DTW and STW irrigation

projects. PWM is crucial in irrigation projects area for the awareness of these impending

limits to water availability, environmental sustainability, more income and employment

generation as well as judicious use of the groundwater resources.

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PWM in FCD System

The model of �users� organizations� as proposed in the first version of the

GPP, and as is common in irrigation systems, has proven to be inappropriate in the

context of FDC systems. The principle of �user�s organization� is that people organize

themselves to pursue a common goal, which can only be achieved by interacting with

each other. The main problems and limitations in instituting PWM in FCD systems are

as follows:

• Interests with regard to water levels to be maintained are very conflicting between

farmers and other stakeholders in FCD systems,

• The extent of benefits strongly vary from one place to the other, depending on

elevation and distance to infrastructure in both FCD and irrigation systems,

• The unit of management in FCD systems is usually larger than in irrigation systems.

It is very difficult to organize WMO with direct participation of all or a majority of

users at this level, and

• FCD systems cater to diverse interests, such as those of fisheries, agriculture,

transport sector, households, etc. Involving these different categories of stakeholders

may not be effective.

• PWM entails that stakeholders and the agency jointly manage the WMS. For joint

management to work in practice it is necessary to formulate clear roles and division

of duties and responsibilities, while the right of each party needs to be clearly

defined.

In view of these, the management strategies that will ensure participation of all

categories of stakeholders still need to be developed. PWM is essential prerequisite for

improving the performance of publicly managed FCD system. PWM need to answer:

• Who are the water management stakeholders,

• What is there is to be managed, and

• What type of institutional arrangements is needed to make PWM possible and

meaningful.

FCD systems include two clearly distinguishable components (embankments

and water conveyance) in FCDI systems include three components embankments, water

conveyance and irrigation). In 2000 guidelines, WMG is introduced at the lowest level

for each hydrological or social unit (village). Stakeholders with contradicting stakes in

the water conveyance system may benefit from flood protection and/or irrigation water 117

availability. Accordingly, management structures for the water conveyance function

need to be different from flood protection or irrigation function. Therefore, institutional

framework needs to allow for the separate management. At present FCD systems are

more or less �people managed� rather than being managed in a participatory manner.

Small powerful groups serving interests control operation in FCD systems. Maintenance

is largely controlled by state. The performance of FCD systems often remained below

expectations. Moreover, they have several major negative impacts: loss of fisheries

resources, interruption of navigation, degradation of soil fertility, exacerbation of

drainage problems. Involving people from the beginning is fundamental for formulating

informed policies on how to improve water management in FCD. As such the

development phase of a FCD project is extremely important for PWM. The

management of a FCD system has become increasingly complex. FCD systems in

Bangladesh can be classified into haor systems, coastal plain polder systems, deltaic

plain polder systems, beel systems and floodplain systems. These five types of FCD

systems are quite distinct from each other and can readily be identified in the field. The

characteristics give a fair indication how PWM requirement can be varied important.

6. Water Sector Reform Program

With increased awareness about environmental impacts and based on lessons

learnt the main thrust in the period since 1995 has been on the water sector reform and

policy formulation. Participatory water management received further impetus under the

water sector reform programs started in 1998 with participation of World Bank, Asian

Development Bank and other donors. This stressed the need for development of a

national water policy, institutional reforms aiming at improving capacities and

efficiencies of water-sector institutions and facilitating participation of stakeholders and

Water management Associations (WMAs). The National Water Policy (NWPo) was

formulated in 1999 to guide development and management of water resources in a

comprehensive manner with both public and private participation. In order to

operationalize the directives given by the NWPo, meanwhile a national water

management plan (NWMP) has been prepared. This is a framework plan within which

related organizations are expected to plan and implement respective projects and

activities in a coordinated manner.

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Experience has demonstrated that the most important requirement for success

and sustainability is a satisfactory O&M regime with an assured source of funding

(including cost recovery) and efficient operating mechanisms. The other important

requirement for sustainability is substantial stakeholder participation in the design of the

physical infrastructure (to take into account the multi-varied and sometimes divergent

interests of the various stakeholders), and their continued involvement during O&M.

The institutional reforms in Bangladesh were supported under the Water Sector

Improvement Project (WSIP, 1998) to promote sustainability. These include: (i)

formation of WMAs and management transfer of small local infrastructure to these

WMAs; (ii) participatory priority-setting mechanisms for rehabilitation/improvement

and O&M of medium and large schemes; (iii) decentralization of decision-making and

transfer of medium-scale schemes (1000 ha or less in size) to Local Governments,

represented by LGED; and (iv) institutional improvements including progressive

movement towards financial self-sustainability of the various water sector institutions.

Water Sector Improvement project was initiated in 1998 with the objective to improve

the performance of the water management systems in Bangladesh and ensure its

sustainability, through improved operation and maintenance, appropriate institutional

reforms (specifically the redefinition of the role of Government), and required physical

improvement of small-scale and medium-scale water sector infrastructure. Along these

lines both BWDB and LGED are implementing respective programs and projects.

LEGD efforts are directed to develop participatory water management in schemes of

size 1000 ha or less and that of BWDB in larger schemes. SSWRDSP, which is being

implemented by LGED since 1996, is described briefly in the following section

7. PWM in Small-scale Water Resources Development Sector Project

During 1996-2002 the under SSWRDSP 280 sustainable stakeholder-driven,

small-scale water resources management systems were developed paying special

attention to the poorer section of the population (NHC & Associates, 2002). Two major

components were participatory water resources development and institutional

strengthening of the sector. The first component consisted of three stages of the

subproject cycle: (i) identification and feasibility investigation, (ii) design and

institutional establishment, and (iii) construction and first year O&M. The second

component included activities related to capacity building, training, and generally

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strengthening the framework within which small-scale water resource systems are

established. Within this framework related component, a number of areas of activity are

included. These include support to LGED in managing the Project, preparing district

level water resources strategies, improving operation and maintenance systems,

providing training to Project stakeholders at various levels, gender aspects and poverty

reduction. The district-level strategic planning of small-scale water resource systems are

required to avoid conflicts with other projects and conform to regional plans of the

NWMP (National Water Management Plan, 2001).

The second phase of the Project became effective in November 2001 and will

continue through 2009 with the aim aims to develop about 300 similar small-scale water

resources management systems. It has been stated that the Project was designed in a

manner that would resolve weaknesses that became apparent in implementing the first

Project. The weaknesses were related to: (i) properly carrying out all the activities

associated with the three stages of the subproject cycle, (ii) defining increased roles for

local government institutions in line with Government policies, (iii) identifying

subprojects from within the framework of clearly defined strategies and perspective

plans, and (iv) supporting the implementation process by conducting sound financial,

social, and technical audits. Two types of activities were carried forward from the first

Phase of the Project. The first of these comprise activities relating to training in both

agriculture and operation and maintenance. The second set of activities are needed to be

carried on to provide longer-term support to those water management associations

established under the first Project and comprise monitoring as well as management-

related training for management committees as they are newly elected.

8. Concluding Remarks

The quest for improved performance of the water management systems and

sustainability has been a key issue in water resources management in Bangladesh since

1970-80s. Based on major lessons from previous and on-going water resource projects

in Bangladesh institutional reforms have become a central theme of projects, which

address major institutional issues - providing a major role for WMAs in design,

implementation and O&M, including management transfer wherever appropriate. This

is thought to be a better approach than adding on institutional reforms to a construction

project. Users' involvement in design, implementation, and O&M is essential for

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sustainability. It has also been argued that better O&M, willingness to pay, and

sustainability can be achieved through appropriate institutional structures including

operational and financial autonomy, rather than through merely increasing user-charges.

Moreover recent approach of water resources development has been using a program

(sector) approach rather than a project approach to increase flexibility to respond to

local conditions. Public consultation should take place to incorporate local knowledge

and ensure acceptability of proposed designs. Flood control and drainage schemes have

additional management complexity, conflicting interests among diverse groups, and

require taking into account impact on fisheries and transport, in addition to agricultural

impact. Yet wherever possible, users should be made directly responsible for O&M. An

appropriate legal framework should be established which should provide for

organization of WMAs, collection of user charges and for imposing appropriate

sanctions for non-payments. Creating positive organizational culture, accountability and

providing quality services are necessary.

So far major initiatives in water sector, be it construction, rehabilitation, study

or reform has been donor driven. Financing of public sector projects in the country

seems to be a continuing problem as cost recovery is difficult and government finance is

often limited. Thus at the end efforts are made to judge sustainability issue in terms of

criteria suggested by leading thinkers. These are: technical assistance is most successful

when it helps people learn to do things for themselves in the long run; the basic nature

of success for both the national systems for development and community management

systems it creates is sustainability, the ability to perform effectively and indefinitely

after donor assistance has been terminate; and sustainable development is more likely to

occur if each of the key participants recognizes and assumes its appropriate role and

shoulders its share of responsibility.

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Chowdhury,Y.A.1988. Institutional Analysis: BWDB and BADC. Vol. V: Institution. UNDP/ASR, Dhaka.

Early Implementation Project (EIP), 2000. Learning Lessons: 20 Years of EIP Experience, EGIS, MWR. Dhaka.

Hanchett, S. 1997, Participation and Policy Development: The case of Bangladesh FA, National Conference on Participatory Water Management, GOB, Ministry of Water Resources.

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Khan H. R. 1993, Water Development Activities and Their Impacts on Wetlands, in Freshwater Wetlands in Bangladesh: Issues and Approaches for Management, Nishat et al (eds.), IUCN, Gland, Switzerland: 23-32.

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