INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIAKULIYYAH OF ARCHITECTURE AND ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN

History of Art and Design

Lyana binti Karim1012998

21/09/2010

Table of Contents1. Definition of Art

2. Development of Arti. Prehistoric

a. Paleolithicb. Mesolithicc. Neolithic

ii. Mesopotamian Art

iii. Egypt Art

iv. Aegean Arta. Cycladicb. Minoanc. Mycenaean

v. Greek Art

vi. Persian Art

vii. Roman Art

Definition of Art

Art has long been considered as a skill, dexterity, or the power of performing certain actions in manner that affects the sense of beauty. Based on Aristotle, a Greek artists, theory, art is concern with mimesis (imitation), the presentation of appearance, and gives pleasure through the accuracy and skills with which it depict the real world. In simple word, it means the human effort to imitate, supplement alter, or counteract the work of nature.

Popularly, the term is most commonly used to refer the visual art. Basically, there are many classifications of art such as fine art, performing art, decorating art, and also graphic art.

Fine arts, is a type of art primarily created for the purpose of providing beauty and enjoyment rather than commercial use. It is often intended to be uplifting, though provoking, and life-enhancing for instance, painting, sculpture, architecture, poetry, and other fine writing.

Prehistoric Art – Paleolithic (2 million years ago-13,000 BC.)

Paleolithic or "Old Stone Age" is a term used to define the oldest period in the human

history. The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic - lit. old stone from the Greek paleos=old and

lithos=stone. It began about 2 million years ago, from the use of first stone tools and ended of

the Pleistocene epoch, with the close of the last ice age about 13,000 BC.

Subdivisions of the Paleolithic include the: Lower Paleolithic (Oldowan, Clactonian,

Abbevillian, Acheulean), Middle Paleolithic, the time of the hand axe-industries (Mousterian)

and Upper Paleolithic (Châtelperronian, Aurignacian, Solutrean, Gravettian, Magdalenian). The

Paleolithic is followed by the Mesolithic or Epipaleolithic.

The Lower spans the time from around 4 million years ago when the first humans

appear in the archaeological record, to around 120,000 years ago when important evolutionary

and technological changes ushered in the Middle Palaeolithic.

In Europe and Africa the Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Palaeolithic) is the period of the

early Stone Age that lasted between around 120,000 and 40,000 years ago. It was the time

when early humans gained increasing control over their surroundings and later saw the

emergence of modern humans around 100,000 years ago. Stone tool manufacturing developed

a more sophisticated tool making technique which permitted the creation of more controlled

and consistent flakes. Hunting provided the primary food source but people also began to

exploit shellfish and may have begun smoking and drying meat to preserve it. This would have

required a mastery of fire and some sites indicate that plant resources were managed through

selective burning of wide areas. Artistic expression emerged for the first time with ochre used

as body paint and some early rock art appearing. There is also some evidence of purposeful

burial of the dead which may indicate religious and ritual behaviors.

The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the

Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates

to between 40,000 and 8,500 years ago. Modern humans, who had begun migrating out of

Africa during the Middle Paleolithic period, began to produce regionally distinctive cultures

during the Upper Paleolithic period. The earliest remains of organized settlements in the form

of campsites, some with storage pits, are encountered in the archaeological record. Some sites

may have been occupied year round though more generally they seem to have been used

seasonally with peoples moving between them to exploit different food sources at different

times of the year. Technological advances included significant developments in flint tool

manufacturing with industries based on fine blades rather than cruder flakes. The reasons for

these changes in human behavior have been attributed to the changes in climate during the

period which encompasses a number of global temperature drops. Artistic work also blossomed

with Venus figurines and exotic raw materials found far from their sources suggest emergent

trading links.

Paleolithic Art, produced from about 32,000 to 11,000 years ago, falls into two main

categories: Portable Pieces (small figurines or decorated objects carved out of bone, stone, or

modeled in clay), and Cave Art.

 Portable Pieces Venus of

Willendorf

Statuettes from Kostienki

"The lady in a hood"-Brassempouy

Venus figures from the Stone Age

Upper Paleolithic Female Figurines

 Cave Art Altamira

Lascaux

Barnfield Pit Baile Herculane Krapina Aurignac Meiendorf,

Hamburgian Culture

Prehistoric Art - Mesolithic / Archaic (10,000 - 5,000 BC)

The Mesolithic is the period of middle Stone Age, from about 10,000 - 5,000 BC years

ago. It corresponds to period of primarily nomadic hunting and gathering which preceded the

adoption of domesticated plants and animals.

The term Mesolithic is used to characterize that period in Europe and, sometimes, parts

of Africa and Asia. That stage is usually called the Archaic in the Americas and in the rest of the

world; it's usually characterized by Microliths.

This was a period when humans developed new techniques of stone working. At that

time, people stayed longer in one place and gave increased attention to the domestication.

There is a gap in the artistic activity of people of that epoch. Most of what has survived from

the Mesolithic era is small statuette size works and paintings in shallow shelter caves.

The rich art of the Paleolithic is replaced by a Mesolithic art that is quite different. There

are many changes in style as well as meaning. Upper Paleolithic cave art depicts colored

drawings and expressive features of animals. A full range of color is used. Mesolithic art in

contrast is schematic; no realistic figures are present and only the color red is used. This form is

also found in North Africa and the northern Mediterranean.

 Depictions 

in the open air

- Gobustan,

Azerbaidzan

- Zaraut-Kamar,

Uzbekistan

- Kamennaya

Mogila

- Bhimbetka,

India

 Architecture &

Sculpture

- Lepenski Vir,

Serbia

- Europe's First

Monumental

Sculpture

 Archeological 

Sites

- Lepenski Vir, Serbia

- Jericho in the West

Bank

- Star Carr, England

- Mount Sandel, Ireland

- Skara Brae, Britain's

Orkney Islands 

Prehistoric Art – Neolithic (10,000 - 5,000 BC)

    The Neolithic period, also called New Stone Age,

began when men first developed agriculture and settled in

permanent villages. It ended with the discovery of bronze.

The prime medium of Neolithic art was pottery. Other

important artistic expressions were statuary of the universally

worshiped Mother Goddess and megalithic stone

monuments.

    Free standing sculpture had already begun by the Neolithic, the earliest being the

anthropomorphic figurines, often embellished by animals from the very beginning of the

Neolithic discovered in Nevali Cori and Göbekli Tepe near Urfa in eastern Turkey,

dating to ca. 10th millennium BC. The mesolithic statues of Lepenski Vir at the Iron

Gorge, Serbia and Montenegro date to the 7th millennium BC and represent either

humans or mixtures of humans and fish.

 In Central Europe, many Neolithic cultures, like Linearbandkeramic, Lengyel and

Vinca, produced female (rarely male) and animal statues that can be called art. Whether

the elaborate pottery decoration of, for example, the Želiesovce and painted Lengyel

style are to be classified as art is a matter of definition.

 Megalithic monuments are found in the Neolithic from Spain to the British Isles

and Poland. They start in the 5th Millennium BC, though some authors speculate on

Mesolithic roots. Because of frequent reuse, this is difficult to prove. While the most

well-known of these is Stonehenge, were the main structures date from the early

Bronze age, such monuments have been found throughout most of Western and

Northern Europe, notably at Carnac, France, at Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, in

Portugal, and in Wiltshire, England, the area of Stonehenge, the Avebury circle, the

tombs at West Kennet, and Woodhenge. One tomb found in New Grange, Ireland, has

its entrance marked with a massive stone carved with a complex design of spirals. The

tomb of Knowth has rock-cut ornaments as well. Many of these monuments were

megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that most have religious significance. 

Megaliths

- Stonehenge, UK

- Dispilio, Greece

- Vinca, Serbia

- Oslonski, Poland

- Franchthi Cave

- Çatal Hüyük, Turky

Ancient Art – Mesopotamia (9000 - 500 B.C)

This is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which roughly comprises

modern Iraq and part of Syria. The most ancient civilizations known to man first developed

there writing, schools, libraries, written law codes, agriculture, irrigation, farming and moved us

from prehistory to history. It's giving Mesopotamia the reputation of being the cradle of

civilization. The name does not refer to any particular civilization using that name. It includs

non-Semitic Sumerians, followed by the Semitic Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Over

the course of 4000 years, the art of Mesopotamia reveals a tradition that appears,

homogeneous in style and iconography.

Art became decorative, stylized and conventionalized at different times and places.

Gods took on human forms and humans were combined with animals to make fantastic

creatures. Large temples and imposing palaces dotted the landscape. History and poetry for the

first time was recorded and set down to music. Lyres, pipes, harps and drums accompanied

their songs and dances.

The soil of Mesopotamia yielded the civilization's major building material - mud brick.

Stone was rare, and certain types had to be imported for sculpture. Variety of metals, as well as

shells and precious stones, were used for the finest sculpture and inlays.

1. Prehistoric Period

Mesopotamian art of the period, from 7000 to 3500 B.C., before writing, was fully

developed. Archaeological sites are Hassuna, Samarra and Tell Halaf.

2. Early Dynastic Period - Old Sumerian (From 3000 to 2340 B.C.)

The Sumerians developed pottery and jewellery. A new type of building was introduced

- city-states centers of this epoch are Ur, Umma, Lagash, Kish, and Eshnunna. One of the most

remarkable artifacts remaining from this period is known as The Standard of Ur.

3. Akkadian Period

In the late 24th century B.C. under Sargon I, Akkadians united the whole of

Mesopotamia. Little Akkadian art remains.Significant Akkadian innovations were those of the

seal cutters. The Akkadian cities are Sippar, Assur, Eshnuna, Tell Brak, and Akkad.

4. Neo-Sumerian Period (From 2112 to 2004 B.C.)

The Akkadian Empire fell to the nomadic Guti, who did not centralize their power. This

enabled the Sumerian cities of Uruk, Ur, and Lagash to reestablish their power.

5. Old Babylonian Period

The land was once more united by Semitic rulers (about 2000-1600 B.C.). The most

important ruler was Hammurabi of Babylon. The most original art of the Babylonian period

came from Mari.

6. Kassite and Elamite Dynasties

The Kassites, a people of non-Mesopotamian origin, were present in Babylon shortly

after Hammurabi's death. They adapted themselves to their environment and its art.

7. Assyrian Empire (From 1700 B.C. to 100 B.C.)

It shows different from established Babylonian stylistic traditions both in religious

subjects and secular themes. They built ziggurats for temples. The technique of polychromed

glazing of bricks was used. The Neo-Assyrian period, 1000-612 B.C. is a time of great builders.

Kings adorned palaces with magnificent reliefs. Gypsum alabaster, was more easily carved than

the hard stones used by the Sumerians and Akkadians. Royal chronicles in battle and in the hunt

were recounted in horizontal bands with cuneiform texts. At times mythological figures are

portrayed. Sculptors were at their best in depicting hunting scenes. The art of the late Assyrian

seal cutter is a combination of realism and mythology.

8. Neo-Babylonian Period (626-539 B.C.)

The Babylonians defeated the Assyrians in 612 B.C. and sacked Nimrud and Nineveh.

They did not establish a new style or iconography. Neo-Babylonian creativity manifested itself

architecturally at Babylon, the capital.

 Applied Arts &   Architecture & Relief &

Crafts

- Vase 

Sculpture

- Releif    Sculptures

and Statuette

- Mesopotamian

Ziggurats

Ancient Egypt (3500 - 1000 B.C)

The history of Ancient Egypt, long more than 3000 years, is divided into 8 or 9 periods,

sometimes called Kingdoms. The Ancient Egyptians themselves rather seem to have developed

the notion of dynasties throughout their history. It developed along the river Nile, in Eastern

Africa.

The importance of religion and the respect for death ruled their art. They built mostly

temples, graves and adopted strict canons controlled by the priests. Our knowledge of Egyptian

civilization rests almost entirely on them and their contents since they were built to endure

forever. Conventions of ancient Egyptian believes and culture strongly affected the art. The

Pharaoh (King) considered divine. Representation of the figure presented the most reflexive

view of each part of the body. Preparation for the afterlife was of extreme importance. The

body must be preserved if the soul or ka is to live on in the beyond in a same body. They built

great tombs for their Pharaohs (kings), who were not only the supreme rulers but gods. Tombs

contained everything the deceased might want or need in the afterlife and much of our

knowledge of the culture comes from tomb paintings. After Pharaoh's death, his body was laid

right in the centre of the huge mountain of stone, along with many weapons and food. Even his

servants were buried to help him on his journey to the other world.

1. Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic Period (3500-3000 B.C.)

From about 5000 BC to 3000 BC, Egypt was not a unified nation and that time is known

as the Pre-Dynastic period. Around 3000 BC, Upper and Lower Kingdom conjoined and lands

along the Nile River were united under one ruler and the Dynastic period began.

2. The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 B.C.)

The old kingdom is an important period in political and cultural development of Ancient

Egypt. Centuries of uninterrupted rise, established one of the most powerful cultures of the

ancient world. During this period Hieroglyphic writing reached its sophistication. The

techniques of crafts developed to a high professionalism. King Djoser, builder of the step

pyramid at Saqqara, is the first and most celebrated king of the third dynasty. The works of

Cheops, Chephren, and Mycerinus, the creators of the three pyramids at Giza represents the

peak of achievements in the architectural field. A strong centralized government, as well as a

divine kingship characterizes this period. Towards the end of the period, central authority

disintegrated and the country fell into a state of rapid decline.

3. The Middle Kingdom (2050-1800 B.C.)

The middle kingdom started with the re-foundation of the Kingdom under single

administration by Mentuhotep II. It was an epoch of restoration of the Egyptian culture. The

kings of the following dynasties enlarged their control over the land, promoted the economic

and political development. Egyptian trade flourished, and a developed irrigation system was re-

established. Pyramid building was also revived, but much humbler then in the old kingdom. This

rise was followed by the ultimate downfall and the country fell into the hands of foreign rulers.

4. The New Kingdom (1550-1080 B.C.)

During this period Egypt reached the zenith of its power. Egypt extended further south

in Africa and into the Middle East under these rulers. Tutmosis III was among the pioneers in

the military field. The degree of refinement of this age is clearly manifested in the architectural

heritage. Under the rule of queen Hatshipsut, the artistic revival began. The reigning monarchs

of this period showed a genuine interest in art and architecture. Khenaton, the heretic pharaoh,

reached the peak of artistic innovations with his unique art style that accompanied his religious

reformation.

5. Late Period (after 1080 B.C.)

The late period was a period of deterioration. Kingship suffered a decline in prestige,

and the political and social systems were unstable. Egypt was now ruled from two separate

capitals, one in the north and one in the south. Large foreign colonies developed and Egypt for

the first time opened its borders to the foreigners who settled in the delta.

Architecture

- Giza Pyramids

- Temple of Hatshepsut

- Temple of Karnak

- Temple of Luxor

- Abu Simbel Great rok

   temples

 Sculpture & Relief

- The Memphite Family

of    Nefer-Herenptah

Called Fifi 

- Sphinx of Tuthmosis

III 

- Unfinished Head of

Nefertiti 

- A Triad of Menkaure

Art of Aegean Bronze Age

Cycladic, Minoan and Mycenaean Art (from cca. 3000 - 1200 B.C.)

Aegean Civilization denotes the Bronze Age civilization that developed in the basin of

the Aegean Sea. It had tree major cultures: the Cycladic, the Minoan and the Mycenaean.

Aegean art is noticeable for its naturalistic vivid style, originated in Minoan Crete. No much was

known about the Aegean civilization until the late 19th century, when archaeological

excavations began at the sites of the legendary cities of Troy, Mycenae, Knossos, and other

centers of the Bronze Age.

1. Cycladic culture - Early Bronze Age (About 3000-2200 B.C.)

The Cycladic civilization of the Aegean Sea flourished at about the same time as the

early Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations. That is considered the forerunner of the first

truly European civilization - Greece.

On the mainland their villages have been small independent units, often protected by

thick walls. Over time, the buildings on Crete and in the Cyclads became more complex.Cycladic

culture developed pottery, often decorated with rectangular, circular, or spiral designs. They

also produced silver jewelry. The sculpture produced there was very unique compared to the

art being produced by the Egyptians and Mesopotamians. These sculptures, commonly called

Cycladic idols, were often used as grave offerings. Characteristic of that sculpture is that all

were made of Parian marble, with its geometric, two-dimensional nature, which has a strangely

modern familiarity. The Cycladic artists made obvious attempts to represent the human form.

Therefore, Cycladic sculpture can safely be called the first truly great sculpture in Greece.

2. Minoan Culture - Middle Bronze Age (About 2200-1800 B.C.)

Newcomers arrived in the Cyclades and on the mainland and caused destruction. For

about two centuries civilization was disrupted. New pottery and the introduction of horses at

this time indicate that the invaders were of the Indo-European language family.

Minoan culture developed on Crete, in the 2nd millennium B.C. Impressive buildings,

frescoes, vases, and early writing are evidence of that flourishing culture. Great royal palaces

built around large courtyards were the focal points of these communities. The Minoan empire

appears to have coordinated and defended the bronze-age trade. They maintained a marine

empire, trading not only with the Cyclades and the mainland but also with Sicily, Egypt, and

cities on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean. Minoan religion featured a female snake

deity, whose worship involved the symbolism of fertility and the lunar and solar cycles.

Minoan art is unusual for the time. It is naturalistic, quite different from the stiff

stereotypes of contemporary art elsewhere. The vibrant colors, smooth lines, and sense of

nature make Minoan art a pleasure for eyes even today. Minoan artists broke away from the

two-dimensional expression of figure and created three-dimensional figures. The frescoes are

art of exceptional beauty and their fluidity makes the figures dynamic. The easy pleasure-loving

lifestyle comes across in their art. The Minoan civilization rivaled that of Egypt. From Crete, this

style spread to the Aegean. On the Greek mainland it was modified by geometric tendencies.

Minoan palaces: Knossos, Phaestos, Malia, Zakros.

3. Mycenaean culture - Late Bronze Age (1600-1200 B.C.)

It is believed that the Mycenaeans were responsible for the end of the Minoan culture

with which they had many ties. This theory is supported by a switch on the island of Crete from

the Cretan Linear A Script to the Mycenaean Linear B style script and by changes in ceramics

styles and decoration. The styles on painted vases and weapons that depicted hunting and

battle scenes are more formal and geometric than those of earlier examples, anticipating the

art of classical Greece.

The architecture and art of Greek mainland was very different from the one of Crete.

Mycenae and Tiryns were two major political and economic centers there at the time.

Cyclopean Architecture is the Mycenaean type of building walls and palaces. Palaces

were built as large citadels made of piled up stones, as opposed to the openness of Minoan

palaces. The citadel of Mycenae is an Acropolis - a citadel on raised area. The Lion Gate -

entrance to the Acropolis of the city of Mycenae is an excellent example of this building

practice combined with a corbelled arch - the triangular arch shape that the lions stand within.

Megaron is the fortress palace of the king at the center of a typical Mycenaean city. This

is a characteristic form of Mycenaean palace found at many sites, including Troy. They are very

symmetrical and its basic form is a forerunner of later Greek temple forms.

Tholos tombs are conical chambers with the subterranean burial chambers. The

stonework of the tholos is very much influenced by Egyptian masonry techniques. There are 9

at Mycenae. There were found the gold death masks, weapons, and jewelry at the royal burial

sites similar to Egyptian practice.

Mycenaean civilization mysteriously disappeared shortly after 1200 B.C. most likely, to

widespread fighting among the Mycenaean Greeks.

Mycenaean cities: Mycenae, Tiryns, Troy

 Cycladic

Culture

 Minoan

Culture

- Minoan 

 Mycenaean

Culture

- Proto Greek

Art-Cycladic

- Cycladic Art

by Alan

Petersen

- Art History -

Theraby Alan

Peterson

- Minoan

Palaces

- Knossos

- Phaestos

- Mycenaean

- Mycenaean Art

by John Younger

- Proto Greek Art:

Mycenaean

Greek Art (1100 B.C – 21BC)

Hellenic Greece is ancient civil of Hellas in what encircle mainland Greece with nearby

island, in Aegean Sea, Ionia, southern Italy and Sicily.

Greek Art main themes are simplicity and reasonableness. Greek stated many

permanent themes, attitudes, and form of western culture. Their artist is the first to establish

mimesis as the principle of art. There are specific interpretation about one’s art, for instance, a

nude human figure means ‘man as the measure of living things.”

Greek Art consists of Architecture, Sculpture, Craft, which have sculptural elements, decorative

motive, and various types.

The root lies in Mycenaean culture. They use to built a simple houses of a type that Greeks

continued to build long after. They also have workshop that established a tradition of painted

pottery.

After Mycenaean collapse, Greek artist fell into decline and this was followed by Dark Ages

period.

1. The Dark Ages Period (1100 bc- 750 bc)

It is the period between the fall of Mycenaean civilization and readoption of writing.

The Trojans, lost in a war. Inspite of that, the Greece entered a period of relative

improvement, depopulation, and cultural isolation. The art of writing was lost for most

in the period. During the Dark Ages, Greeks settled in Ionia. Artistants and Athens

produced an abstract style on painting pottery.

2. Period

1. The Archaic period.

After 750 bc, Greek artist increasingly came into contact with ideas and style outside

of Greece. Later, many cities came to be ruled as democracies. The best known is

Athenian democracies. By 6th centuries, they present picture in many respects

different from before such as by the monumental stone sculpture, and vase painting.

They competed each other to show superiority. From this, Persian expended their

empire by winning over the Athens and Greeks.

2. The Classical Period

Greeks began to come into conflict with the kingdom of Persia to the East and at 338

bc, between Pliplip II of Macedonia and the son Alexander defeat the Greeks. Athens

established empire of its own after the war. Rivalry between Athens and Sparta

demonited in the history of 5th Century Greece

During the Classical period, Greek sculptors learn to represent human body in

natural and easily in action or at rest. They also started to potray gods.

Ancient Art – Persia (6th century B.C. to 7th century A.D.)

Region traditionally known as Persia is now called Iran. The term ancient Persia is used

to refer to the period before the advent of Islam in the 7th century A.D. The high plateau of Iran

has seen the development of many cultures, all of which have added distinctive features to the

many styles of Persian art and architecture.

1. Early works

Although earlier civilizations are known, the first archaelogical finds of artistic

importance are the superb ceramics from Susa and Persepolis (c.3500 B.C.). The choice of

biological subjects, simplified into patterns, may be called the formative principle of Persian art.

Much of 4th-millennium Iranian art is strongly influenced by that of Mesopotamia. The 3d-

millennium art of Elam, found at Sialk and Susa, also follows Mesopotamian styles, and this

trend is continued in the less well-known Elam and Urartu art of the 2d millennium.

Beginning at the end of the 2nd millennium to the middle of the 1st millennium a great

florescence of bronze casting occurred along the southern Caspian mountain zone and in

mountainous Lorestan. Probably dated 1200-700 B.C., harness trappings, horse bits, axes, and

votive objects were made in large quantities and reflected a complex animal style created by

combining parts of animals and fantastic creatures in various forms.

2. Achaemenian period (550-330 B.C.)

A unified style emerges. Luxurious works of decorative art were produced. The

Achaemenids evolved a monumental style in which relief sculpture is used as an adjunct to

massive architectural complexes. Remains of great palaces reveal plans that characteristically

show great columned audience halls. The style as a whole and the feeling for space and scale

are distinctive.

In the sculpture is shown ordered clarity and simplicity. Heraldic stylization is subtly

combined with effects of realism. Typical are the low stone reliefs and friezes executed in

molded and enameled brick, a technique of Babylonian-Assyrian origin. The great care lavished

on every stone detail is also found in the fine gold and silver rhytons (drinking horns), bowls,

jewelry, and other objects produced by this culture.

After the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.), there was turmoil in Iran until the rise

of the Parthians (c.250 B.C.). Theirs is essentially a crude art, synthesizing Hellenistic motifs with

Iranian forms.

3. Sassanian Period (A.D. 224 - 651)

Of far greater artistic importance is the the Sassanian art. Adapting and expanding

previous styles and techniques, they rebuilt the Parthian capital at Ctesiphon. There a great

palace with a huge barrel vault was constructed of rubble and brick. Sassanid architecture is

decorated with carved stone or stucco reliefs and makes use of colorful stone mosaics.

Sassanian metalwork was highly developed, the most usual objects being shallow silver

cups and large bronze ewers, engraved and worked in repoussé. The commonest themes were

court scenes, hunters, animals, birds, and stylized plants. The largest collection of these vessels

is in the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg. The Sassanids recorded their triumphs on

immense outdoor rock reliefs scattered throughout Iran, often using the same sites that the

Achaemenids had covered with reliefs and inscriptions.

Roman Art

The definition 'art of the ancient Rome' is usually used to describe art created in Rome but

having no tight cultural connections with the native art of a specific region, being under the

reigns of the Empire. The art came into being in the period from the 6th to the end of the 4th

century b.c., i.e.till the Empire was divided into the eastern and western part.

1. Etruscan art

The eldest stage of the development of the ancient Rome's art is associated with the reigns of

Etruscan kings. Its heyday lasted until the Gaul's invasion of Rome in 390 b.c.

Romans took over many Etruscan skills connected with architecture and the technique of

casting sculptures in bronze. Statues coming from those times were heroes' life-size statues,

statues of leaders dressed in togas or armours. Gods' statues were executed in a similar style

but the material used was baked clay. Painting was represented mainly by landscapes

portraying conquered cities. They were painted on boards that were carried during triumphal

marches.

2. Greek influence on Roman art.

Relevant development of Roman art took place after conquest of Greece, when the capital

of the Empire was overwhelmed by great amounts of works of art from those areas. Roman art

was born for the second time, this time under the influence of the conquered.

3. Roman handicraft

Development of Roman handicraft was also influenced by Greek patterns. Production of vessels

from clay and silver was connected to a great extent with demands of court and particular

bloom of these domains of art took place during the reigns of Augustus and Tiberius. Vessels

were adorned with the relief pattern with mythological and historical motifs. Silver vessels were

made from double thin metal. Their internal part was smooth and the external one was

embellished with an imprinted pattern. In Rome clay vessels were most popular. Vessels,

chalices, bowls, plates were adorned with convex vegetal or figurative patterns whose main

subject was mythology. Patterns were imprinted on the potter's wheel, on moulds with convex

patterns. It was so-called Aretinian ceramics. Ceramics was also produced in provincial areas. It

differed from Aretinian ceramics in the kind of clay and technique of workmanship.

4. Roman painting

Painting from the Empire's times is actually unknown. Some examples of frescoes made in

tombs from the 2nd century were preserved as well as a couple of examples of house interiors'

adornments from the 3rd century, found in Rome and Ostia. We can state on that basis that

two styles dominated: an illusionistic one and a late Roman one. The first one is represented by

pictures of figures with landscapes or architectural elements in the background. The second

one is represented by figurative painting on the neutral background, outlined in red.

5. Architecture of Rome

Architecture of the ancient Rome was initially connected with Rome only, later, as a result of

numerous conquests; it was spread across almost the whole Europe, Balkans, Greece, Asia

Minor, Syria, Palestine and Northern Africa. Roman architecture was formed mostly under the

influence of Hellenic and Etruscan architecture. The first Roman temples were erected during

the reigns of Etruscan kings. In those times Romans learned how to cast bronze, bake

terracotte, they got acquainted with arch constructions and vaults.Romans owe the Corinthian

style to Greeks. But they created the composite style on their own. Romans also invented

cement that was produced from lime and volcano ashes, water and fine stones. It allowed them

to master the technique of producing mortars and plasters. The skill of baking bricks, learnt in

the 2nd century b.c., contributed to a breakthrough in Roman art. There are roads, aqueducts,

sewage installations, bridges, public utility biuldings: curia, basilica, thermaes, circuses

preserved from those times. An example of sacral architecture was unpreserved temple of

Jupiter the Greatest, built in the Tuscan style.The time of the Republic was the time of

development of town planning and architecture. Towns were surrounded by defensive walls

with gates, towers; aqueducts and sewage system had been extended. Rome had been rebuilt.

Necropolises arose along the roads. Mausoleums, e.g. Hadrian's Mausoleum and catacombs as

well as magnificent palaces were built. Use of domes became more common. Public utility

buildings got monumental sizes, e.g. the amphitheatre Coliseum, theatres, Caracalla's

thermaes. Triumphal arches started to arise. Stationary military camps were founded on

conquered areas which was the beginning of numerous towns.

6.Roman sculpture

Roman sculpture was born twice. The first stage was shaped by Etruscan influence and the

second one was the time connected with takeover of many precious masterpieces after

conquests that took place in the 2nd century b.c.The beginnings of development of Roman

sculpture are usually dated the end of the 2nd century b.c. It was produced on demand of

magnates collecting works of art. Copies started to be made to satisfy the still growing demand.

They reflected the originals more or less truely. Initially copies were made in Greek workshops,

later in various towns of Asia Minor, at last in Italy, particularly after discovery of abundant

marble deposits in Carrara.Statues were also copied, the whole groups were made of them,

often imitating single figures. Sculptures served mainly as decoration of interiors and gardens.

Decorative sculpture, whose main subject was mythology, arose from imitating Greek sacral

sculpture. Copyists did not sign their names on it usually. Simultaneously to copyists' activity

two other streams of sculpture were developing: portrait and historical relief.

7. Historical relief

The beginnings of historical bas- relief's development are dated the turn of the 2nd and 1st

century b.c. They showed events that really took place in the recent past. Creators tried to

reflect characters that took part in these events, their real costumes, weapon, gear and

surroundings.Characters were shown on many planes. That helped Roman sculpture to develop

its main features such as keeping to facts (historicism), narratives and illusionism.

The fact that a god figures were shown at all and often in the foreground, were a kind of

contradiction to historicism. They played a propaganda role because they were persuading the

audience that persons shown were right and got necessary support. Historical relief started to

play a particular propaganda role after Octavian Augustus had taken the power. The way in

which Octavian and his family were illustrated was to justify the fact that the power was in his

hands, and allow its succession in the future. That is why his merits were exposed and the

legend about his divine origin started to be created.

Relief became more picturesque during the rule of Flavian dynasty. Sculptors tried to get rich

chiaroscuro and illusion of picture depth. In the times of Trajan bas-relief reverted to classical

patterns by using pattern richness of Greek art. Historical bas-reliefs were mostly exposed on

bulidings, monuments put up in public places.

8.Roman portrait

Roman portrait ranges over two groups of sculpture. The first one means depictions of the

whole figures, put up in order to honour people of great merit for the country. Casts were

made in bronze and posed on public squares, especially on Forum Romanum. Some time later

statues made from stone emerged. It was the way in which portraits of historic and legendary

characters but also of creator's contemporaries were executed. Characters depicted, although

similar to original, were idealized to a large extent.The second group of portraits were busts.

Their form was changing as the time was going by, from head with a part of neck to sculpture

containing a considerable part of torso. This kind of sculpture is believed to come from Roman

practice of taking off wax deathmasks that later started to be copied in stone. Masks were

exhibited during funerals and then exposed in houses. Size of such collection was testimony to

ancient descent of the family. The privilege of taking off the masks and making ancestors'

galleries was given to officials of higher rank. The others, often wealthy citizens or freemen'

successors had no such possibilities. Their portraits in the form of busts were placed in Roman

necropolises. Characteristic feature of these figures as well as portraits made on the basis of

deathmasks is figures' realism, accuracy of features even with some exaggeration in lack of

comeliness.

REFERENCES

1. Cécile Giroire, Daniel Roger, American Federation of Arts, Musée du Louvre, Roman

Art from the Louvre

2. Jean Capart, Egyptian Art, Introductory Studies

3. Jesse Bryant Wilder, Art for Dummies

4. Paul G. Bahn, Prehictoric Rock Art: Polemics and Progress