8
Michael T. Rock. Pollution Control in East Asia: Lessons from Newly Industrializing Countries. Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, ῎ῌῌ῎, ῍ΐp. 腶腾腶 腨腰腶腾腶腟腨膒腶腾腶腣膬膵膙腖 腆腐腋腴腜腊腪腏腟腤膭腞腤腡腆膸臍腼腥膙腖腙腟膗臵腘腯 GNI 膕腉腡腆腒 GDP 腯腉腀腋膸臍腼腥腣臶臨腴臜腒腗腱腴臊臎 膥腔腰腏腟腢腭腛腝臊腣膸臍腋腠腣膣腢腅腰腊 腊腰腘腒腊腢GNI 腡腯 GDP 腤膖腛腘腞膹臑腑腱腝腉腯腗腱腴膴膈腟膍膆膎腢膫臑腔腰腘腫腢膔膏腂膅腴臓腇腣腊臆腻膠膌腴臓腇腣腊腟腆腇膙腖腋腅腰腒腊腒腠腚腮腞腬腑腤腡臊腣自臶臨腤腙腆腘腆腓腭腇腡腬腣腞腨腘臆腻膠膌膜腴臓腛腘臮臉腤臦腨腛腝腬腨腙腊腡 腯腣膤臋腤臒腰腣腞腗腏腊腮腡腖臊腢腭腛腝自臶臨腤膕腡腰腣腊腟腆腇膸臍腼腥腡膟腛腝腆腎腰腟腏腲腋膬膵膙腖腤腗腇膭腢腤腆腊腡腆腭腡 腣臊腋腠腣腭腇腡膬膵膙腖腈腰腊腤腗腣臊腣膬 膙腖腧腱腥腅腰腢腧膋腊腰腋腗腱腞腤臊腟腧腝腠腇腡腛腝腆腰腣腊腟腆腇腏腟腢腡腰腟 膥腞腌腰膬膵膙腖臉臗臷腤腡腆膰膙臜腔臗臶臠膙腴臜腔臗腡腠腤腅腰腋膬膵 膙腖腐腩臩膝膙腖膡腸膡腡腠臅膒腢 腛腝腉腯腏腱腮腴臉腔腰腏腟腤腒腆腒腊 腒臊腐腟腣膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腣臋腤腠腇腡腛腝腉 腡腖膤臋腋腓腰腣腊腟腆腇膙腖腤膶至腆臫腤腏腣膙腖腈腭腇腟腔腰腬腣腞腅腰膐膑膣腤臚膽膳腞臭腋腽膐腹膊腂膎臭腋腓膥臭腋腷膐膆膇腽腶臭腋臭腋膋膏腂腽腶腟膂腷腣膬膵膙腖腦腣臣腯腟腗腣臻臂腓腝腆腰腗腒腝臌臤臭腞腅腰臭腞臭腊腮臭腨腞腣臚膽膳腊腮膬膵膋 膇腾膌膐膅腣臋腋腡腖腗腱腴膢腔腰腘腫腢 腤腡腢腴腒腡腎腱腥腡腮腡腆腊腴腓腝腫腍腍腛 腝腆腰腶腾腶臬臊腣膬膵膙腖腋腠腇腡腛腝腆腰腊腤膘腤腢腟腮腈腡腎腱腥腡腮腡腆腏腟腤臧腒腘腋臊腣膍膐腺膐腼腴膺腫腝膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腢臻臂 腒腝腆腰臊腟腗腇腞腡腆臊腢腎腰腏腟腤腞腌腡腆 腣腞腅腲腇腊臡腤膉膛膞 臕臯臠腣腶腧organic water pollution intensity of industry 腁腌膷腋 ῍ῌῌῌ 膆膎腣臐腔腰腘腫腢臶腔腰臶膊腶腧腴膮 臨腢腒腝臊腣膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腣臻臂腴膺腫腝腆 p. 腄腀 腜腣膮臨腣腣臁臡腤腅腨腯 臓腳腱腰腏腟腣腡腆臶臠膙腣臗腞腅腰腋膰膙腣臗腢腤腭腍臓腳腱腰腠腚腮腬腭腇腡膻膞腴臜腒腝腆腰腋膋膏腂腽腶腋腽膎腒腢 腍腆臡腋臊腴膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腢臻臂腒腝腆 腰臊腟腩腡腒腝腆腰腣腤臡腢臥腆腘腊腮腡 腣腞腅腲腇膂腷腤臁臡腞腤膋膏腂腽腶腟腅腨腯臋 腤腡腆腋膉膛膞臕臯臠腣腶腧腋臇腆腊腮腞腅腲 膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腢臟腒腝腆腰臊腟膾腡腑腱 腝腆腰臊腣膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腣膺腡膜膘腤膗腢自腞腅腰腋臡腤臸膙腖臱腢膲腴致 腫腝腆腰腘腙 膉腂腾腢膬膵腻膁膇膃膄腸腂膈 腴臜腒腝腆腰腣腞自臃膞腴膩臘腒腝腆腰腣 腞腤腡腆腙腋臡腤腗腱腢腅腨腯膀膉腂膀腴膧 腍腏腟腡腍膓腟腔腰膋膚腢臼臏膟腇膙腖腔腾腣膀膉腂膀腴膧腆腝腆腰腗腏腞臢臢膱腋致腫腥臼腣膬膵膙腖腦腣臣腯腤膢腑腱腰腟腆腇膗膀膣腤膂腷腞腤腏腩腒腡腆腏 腟腴腮腊腢腒腗腱腤腡腖腊腟腆腇腆腦腣腴臙腩腝腆腰 p. ῍῎ῒ腄腀 腘腙腢腜腆腝腣腂膗腵腞膯腜腊腔腛腌 腯腒腡腆腬臒腛腘腈腥膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腢 臻臂腒腘臊腟臻臂腒腝腆腡腆臊腢腎腰腏腟臝膙腖腋腡腆腟腒腝腬臁臡腤膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腷膠 腆腟腆腇腏腟腢腤腕腒腬腡腮腡腆腟臖腇臊腣臮臉腋腗腇腞膬膵腋膑腆腣腤膸臍腼腥腜腨腯自臥膛膦臄膷腋腨腙腊腡腯臥臺腴臛腛腝腆腰腼腥腙腢膿膘腋腅腰腣腞腤膬膵膋膇腾膌膐膅腷膠腆腟腤腕腒腬臀 腈腡腆腏腣腏腟腴臡腤腅腰腢腧腴臞腒腝腆腰腋 p. ῍ῌῒ腄腁 腣臣腯腩腣臔臹腢膙腖腋腅腰腏腟 腴腭腯臥臘腒腝腆腝腆腰腘腒腊腢腗腏腢膙腖腤腅 腨腰腶腾腶膽膳 ῐ῍῎ῌῌ῏124

Pollution Control in East Asia: Lessons from Newly ... Lessons from Newly Industrializing Countries.Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian

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Page 1: Pollution Control in East Asia: Lessons from Newly ... Lessons from Newly Industrializing Countries.Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian

Michael T. Rock. Pollution Control in East

Asia: Lessons from Newly Industrializing

Countries. Washington, D. C.: Resources for

the Future; Singapore: Institute of Southeast

Asian Studies, ����, ���p.

���� ������������� ����������� �������� ������������� GNI �� ���� ��� GDP

������������ !"�# $%�&�'() �*+,-�����.��/*0)����)� ���*# GNI�� GDP�1,��2�345%-6�#$%7���2 ����89�*:4()�;*<�=>?@A��B���C@A����A���0)� ���.DE�F�������� !������G+A�F��#H�B���C@,�IJ�KH,-FH�����LM�N)��# $ �E�O�*+,-�� !�P�)����A���� Q��R�*!,-�S)�� T������$A�*������ "#���.�+A�����$U)��$�������%V%W0)&'��)�# $%��(����V-.A�,-�)����A �*�)��'�X)������JYZ���� )[\*"(Y+# ]\,"(Y+�.�0)�# �����-^# _`a.��# b/0c�.d1e*2,-6�# %E�J() ��3��� ����_����fg�hi?�M�.A�,-6�# �OLM��G)����A���j4k����#5l� ���*6U+A�()F��0)�789�m:no�# ; �p�qirs>9# ;�p�<=#; �p�ti8gq�#; �p� �#; p�f=>q��ut�����v�w�>`�$�xy'9G-�)� $�-z{p�0);�p�; �p�E; pH��m:no�E��fg�hi?�M��O�G# $%|?()�;*��*��S%W�E���9G-@;}},-�)�

����~�������.A�,-�)��AB�*�EU�S%W�E�� ��C����#���i�i��;-# ��fg�hi?*xy�-�)��$A����*�S) ���X����0TA�� D��E��* � � )[ �FGH��I]�J'�# � � organic water pollution

intensity of industry �KL�� ����89�M�CN��()�;*O () \IJ'� �!*�-����fg�hi?�xy'�;-�) �p. ��P����� Q��!������0H�@�%) ���� ]\,�Y+�0)�# C��)[\*�Y+*�+}@�%)� .DEF�G+A���"�-�)�# f=>q��RS�*}�� D������fg�hi?*xy�-�)��`��-�)��C�*�TU���E���0TA� ut�����f=>q��0H�M����# FGH��I]�J'����E�0TA# ��fg�hi?*�V�-�)����5%-�)�����fg�hi?��#W���X*����'�0)�# D���'��� Q*�9�;-�)� ��# ��>�*����g���>�"�-�)��������*Y �-�)������ ��# D��$%*0H�¡�>¡¢} ��}# ���()�Z# "*£¤# ¥[>¦���*)\�¡�>¡¢�-�)� $ �:UW# §§¨��;W£]�����v�w�>`�|?5%)��A�X9�ut��^���� �_E�*�# $%��O���A��v�6U©`-�) �p. ������# �'*�-�`_aª�«�(,X����TFN,�� :UW# ��fg�hi?*xy����xy�-����*�S) �¬�*�������-F# �����fg�hi?b��c���A �*�d­�F�E���®A� ��IJ�$A�# ���¯��������/�H����c}# �°±²��H�����W³´,-�)��/� *µ��0)��# �£]���fg�hi?b��c���d­�F¶U��� � �D��0)&'e·�-�)��p. ���# £]�w�>`�¸¹*���0) �+�� �-�-�)� ���*$ *���0

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124

Page 2: Pollution Control in East Asia: Lessons from Newly ... Lessons from Newly Industrializing Countries.Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian

���� �������� ��� ������������ ����� �� ���� ���� !"#$ %&'()�*+,-�-.-�/.���� ���0��01 23�4� ���-5�6����.5,7� 89�:�;<�=���53�>,?@;<�AB5� !�C7DE5,"#F9�G�H�=-18�I�.�� !J'�KLM&NOPI�7 �� ��QR0S�53T� �.�UV����17�WX Y*�I>Z�5�-��(�[�.� �\&]^ !�����������1 �_ ��`��a_�U�b��\&]^�� ���������=- 0.-�/.���1 c0de.�f9g=-0759�-� hi �jk�]�lm&nop�.�;< hpp. �������k .�U-�3- ���0��01 350� a_�q�5,-�b�� �\&]^���r&s�tu0S �;v w���(xyFz�/.{|5�/9��� !�������� =F(}5,-��� ~�����&n�n&��;�w������� 23��� !����>3�5,-����DV,Z,-�1 8�0.U>,���������x���-1 a_���I�b�de�f9g=-1 de�e���]^� �����b�7���������=-b���9� �� �\&]^����A� v���������� ����.UVb�1 a_ ��I�b��\&]^� !��� {|�.��V�-�� de�� b� ���� ��7�-1 / �\&]^ ��H(a_��5,7S-30>35� 8 ��(��5, 50>31 !OI�� T���/���� 0.-�/.�� ��� (I�/.b>,¡¢,£V,��¤�¥-1 !¦�T�(��� 5� 89b>, !������§¨(��5b�.I�re©%^Q�aª���1 I>Z�5�- Y*�«�7 � ?VS93/.�¥�� ��¬(v­.53®¯°¬("#�.I��_.>,±Q�²³ ¥-¦��>31

h´µ¶·$¸%¹º»�¼¬�� !t¬&k

Resil B. Mojares. Waiting for Mariang

Makiling: Essays in Philippine Cultural

History. Quezon City, Philippines: Ateneo de

Manila University Press, ����, ���p.

“History,” argues American feminist scholar Joan

W. Scott, “is in the paradoxical position of creat-

ing the objects it claims only to discover.” Histo-

rians do not merely make routine decisions

about what to include and exclude, and how to

organize and present their “data” or “material.”

Their decisions are informed by interpretive

practices that determine what is knowable or

arguable in a given discipline�what in effect

counts as history, understood in both its senses

as object of study and as verbal account. Histor-

ical representation is inseparable from the reali-

ty it helps in part to define and structure.

But what are historians to do when there are

few surviving written records, material artifacts,

and other sources on which they can base their

research? The problem of sources poses seem-

ingly insurmountable difficulties for scholars

of precolonial and colonial Philippines already

working within the constraints of their limited

access to archives within and outside the coun-

try, not to mention full teaching loads and time-

consuming administrative work within their re-

spective institutions.

Filipino nationalists of the nineteenth centu-

ry such as José Rizal, when faced with the chal-

lenge of reconstructing a past obscured, over-

shadowed, or distorted by Spanish and American

colonialism, found themselves working with, and

often against, the few documents (written from

the ethnocentric viewpoint of the colonizers)

that survived the ravages of time and circum-

stance. “Recovering” the past was not simply an

intellectual exercise, but a political act which

sought to empower the colonized by positing a

pre-existing “national” identity�however anach-

ronistic that identity may have been, rooted as it

¦ �

125

Page 3: Pollution Control in East Asia: Lessons from Newly ... Lessons from Newly Industrializing Countries.Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian

was in a “Philippines” whose boundaries were

demarcated and substantiated by the colonial

state�and the agency with which to challenge

and dismantle the colonial order, and imagine

and realize a better future.

The �� essays in this meticulously research-

ed and beautifully written book by one of the

Philippines’ preeminent scholars demonstrate,

even as they reflect on, the challenges faced by

nationalist efforts at recovery of the past. The

author’s original training as a literary critic is

very much evident in his exemplary readings of

texts, covering such topics as folklore, travel

narratives, Orientalist scholarship, biographies,

procedures for the canonization of saints, stories

of religious images lost and recovered, colonial

books of conduct, newspaper accounts and

menus of dinner parties, poetry, radio com-

mentaries, and indigenous notions of the “soul.”

In these texts�materials often overlooked or dis-

missed as irrelevant or at best supplementary by

historians�Mojares discerns and delineates a

wider field of socio-cultural meanings and prac-

tices with which both long-ago and recent inhab-

itants of what is now “the Philippines” made

sense of, and acted in, their world.

To understand Philippine culture is to un-

derstand Philippine politics, for it is precisely in

what is taken for granted, in the realm of what is

felt and left unsaid and unthought, in the habits

and minutiae of everyday life, that the workings

of power, accommodation, and resistance are

most visible. Texts do not simply point to an

“out there,” and should not therefore be treated

as mere repositories of “facts.” They encode

assumptions about the way things are and the

way things ought to be, and in so doing illumi-

nate and organize the social, political, and cul-

tural relations that are lived, and sometimes sub-

verted and reinvented, by the anonymous major-

ity.

Several of the essays in fact underscore the

centrality of representation in constructing and

deconstructing a given social order. Mojares

demonstrates how Antonio Pigafetta’s seminal

account of Ferdinand Magellan’s circumnaviga-

tion of the world and ill-fated sojourn in the

Philippines employs rhetorical strategies that le-

gitimize Magellan’s intervention in the power

struggle among local chieftains by rendering his

actions in heroic terms. Pigafetta authorita-

tively presents the Philippines as an object of

knowledge�and of putative colonial expropria-

tion�for European consumption. “What was

important was that the islands had been located,

fixed, and named, and could be verified and

reoccupied again and again. Their very in-

completeness and ‘emptiness’ stirred desire and

offered the motive for their occupation and

possession. . . . The writing on the Philippines

primes it for possession.”

Likewise, books of conduct produced during

the Spanish period reveal how the body of the

colonized had to be policed through regulation of

its appearance and actions. As part of the colo-

nial apparatus for “producing” docile, pliable

indios (“natives”), Christian conversion involved

daily applications of so-called Christian virtues

to the disciplining of mind and body. Yet these

books’ reliance on indigenous vocabularies for

depicting bodily movements that they wished to

proscribe inadvertently exposes the “rich and

persistent materiality” of Philippine cultural ex-

pressions.

In another essay, Mojares shows how current

political commentaries broadcast over the radio

work to delimit the field of political thought and

action through their definition of what political

choices are available, and what constitutes ap-

propriate and inappropriate political behavior.

The irony of the Philippines’ highly touted claim

to having one of the freest mass media systems

in Asia is that the apparently democratic charac-

ter of the media masks the media’s capacity to

������� ��� ��

126

Page 4: Pollution Control in East Asia: Lessons from Newly ... Lessons from Newly Industrializing Countries.Washington, D. C.: Resources for the Future; Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian

subtly discourage real dialogue and discussion.

Mojares raises the important question of

who gets to talk, or whose talk gets heard and

acted upon: “Who, after all, ‘talks politics’? Pres-

idents and dictators don’t, they do it; peasants

and housewives don’t, they suffer it.” He directs

his reader’s attention to the gaps and omissions

in Philippine historiography, the absences that

signal the silencing, extirpation, or exclusion of

ordinary Filipinos. It is not by chance that

Mojares devotes a number of articles to bio-

graphical accounts of “obscure” Filipinos, extra-

polating from these narrated lives the larger nar-

rative of the social world in which they were

articulated.

He painstakingly examines the politics

behind the proposed beatification of Pedro

Calungsod, a Bisayan martyred in Guam in ����.Calungsod entered the historical records only in

the company of the Spanish Jesuit missionary,

Diego Luis de Sanvitores. While the latter’s beat-

ification was aided speedily by the fact that his

life merited full and elaborate documentation in

the Spanish archives, Calungsod’s case has been

plagued by numerous delays due to the paucity

of available biographical data, even as prospects

for beatification remain optimistic in light of the

Vatican’s policy of actively promoting the incor-

poration of local churches in Asia and Africa into

the Roman Catholic religious community. In this

instance, Mojares traces the outlines of a Filipino

life in the margins of a fuller account of a Span-

ish priest’s death.

In another mid-seventeenth century biogra-

phy that he analyzes�the greatly “reduced”

account of a pious ��-year-old named Miguel

Ayatumo, whose truncated life and consequent

lack of history made him an ideal candidate for

divinity�Mojares argues against the tendency

of present-day readers to read and judge colonial

texts in light of current modes of historical repre-

sentation which privilege “background” informa-

tion, psychological depth, and motivation. “The

problem of the Ayatumo vida [life] does not only

say something of changing conceptions of biog-

raphy but of the variant ways in which ‘history’

is comprehended and recorded.”

The power of the text to index history re-

sides precisely in its openness to diverse read-

ings. Moreover, the writing of history can be�and has often been�conscripted in the service of

or against powerful social blocs through its se-

lective inclusion and exclusion of materials. The

story of Mariang Makiling, the eponymous god-

dess incarnated in Tagalog and numerous folk-

tales across the Philippines, lends itself to being

told and retold by people with different, some-

times competing, agenda, across time. It can be

used for didactic purposes to orient its audience

in the social virtues of cleanliness, gratitude,

temperance, and decorum. But it can also be a

tale of paradise lost, of harmony, cooperation,

and reciprocity breached upon the advent of

Spanish colonialism. It can also be a pointed

reference to existing political conditions of

abuses, exploitation, suffering, and severed rela-

tions with nature and among people. The folk-

tale was recast in prose form by Macario Pineda

in the post-war years to serve as a guide for

social action in the service of the newly inde-

pendent nation, and in poetic form by José

Lacaba to chronicle the turbulence and dis-

illusionment of the pre-martial law years.

Circulating stories of the Virgin of Guada-

lupe in Cebu island fish out details from Mexican

sources while anchoring themselves in a specifi-

cally Philippine context. Depending on how the

story is told, the appearance of the Virgin, the

place in which she manifested herself, and the

person to whom she showed herself can poten-

tially generate interpretations which cannot be

contained by the “mission of conversion” for

which they were originally deployed. They

derail the impulse to establish “authentic” ori-

� �

127

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gins by displacing the Virgin from her place in

European Christian iconography and relocating

her within local myths and precolonial sacred

sites.

In the open-endedness of the text, in the

ability of the text to lend itself to being inter-

preted in more than one way, Mojares reads

something of the chimerical nature of Philippine

culture. It is the conscious and unconscious

evasion of absolutes and prescriptions (as much

as submission to them) that ultimately accounts

for cultural persistence, permutation, and trans-

formation. “We are a culture blessed with moves

to avoid the claims of those who say they have

seen the Truth.”

The implications of this open-endedness

extend to Mojares’ idea of the Filipino nation as

process, not product. Mojares critically resists

the impulse to take the nation for granted as a

unit of analysis or as a set of prescriptions dictat-

ing the writing of history. But he also argues

that the incompleteness or “unfinished project”

of nationalist attempts at recovering the past

spurs rather than disables scholarship towards

that end. To the extent that the nationalist

project remains unfinished, there cannot be any

simple solution to attempts at national self-

definition, nor any easy acceptance or rejection

of the nation itself. Reflecting on Peruvian

writer Mario Vargas Llosa’s continued attach-

ment to the country he often violently critiques,

Mojares offers a modest rejoinder: “What Llosa

does not quite say is that it is precisely in this

ambivalence, this gap between hate and love,

that a writer must locate his or her work. It is

the space of haunting where the writer, negotiat-

ing the distance between anger and tenderness,

suspicion and desire, refuses the malignancies of

blind faith and easy self-love but claims, even

against all contrary signs, what Benedict

Anderson calls the ‘goodness of nations.’” For

Filipino scholars who labor under the burden of

their country’s history�the burden of forgetful-

ness, marginalization, invisibility, and non-

representation�this profound ambivalence

about the nation may well be the enabling condi-

tion of their work.

(Caroline S. Hau�CSEAS)

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