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You as a WriterPlanning and PreparationActually WritingPlagiarismWriting HabitsQ&A
A 2
Part of pre-writing and the early writing stages is
realising what kind of writer you are and that
writing for many is not a linear process
• Look at the following slides describing writing
types [adapted from Crème & Lea (2003)].
• Can you classify yourself as one of these types of
writer?
B 3
Can you classify yourself as one of these types of writer?
The ‘Diver’ writer
The ‘Patchwork’ Writer
The ‘Grand Plan’ Writer
The ‘Architect’ Writer
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Divers leap in and start writing early on, to find out what they want to say. Divers start anywhere to see what emerges, before working towards a plan
B 5
Patchwork writers work on segments (perhaps under headings) quite early in the process, and combine them with linking ideas and words later
B 6
Grand plan writers read and make notes, and do not write a plan or much else until they have an almost complete picture of the essay ready in their head
B 7
Architects have a sense of the structure (perhaps before the content) and could produce a complex plan or spider diagram early in the process
B 8
What might be the advantages and
disadvantages of these styles?
Which way of planning is most like your
own?
Can you classify yourself as one of these
types of writer or as a writer do you mix
styles?B 9
Timetables Reading Habits
B 10
• Make a wall/Gantt chart. Be realistic. Identify best work times and keep to a daily writing slot
• Section dissertation/thesis (Bite-size chunks)• Familiarise yourself with deadlines and plan
accordingly• Include time taken for supervisor input (drafts, re-
drafts)
B 11
Look at the following examples of timetables & Gantt charts:
dissertation chart *weekly chart*detailed dissertation chart
Which timetables do you find most helpful? What level of detail do you need?Would these timetables allow you to keep to schedule?
Examples 1 & 2 from Strathclyde University Useful Learning website
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Save literature searches◦ Metalib / internet databasesKeep up to date with new researchRecord of reading◦ Index Cards◦ Endnote◦ Journal◦ Other formats*
A 16
Date readComplete referenceUseful quotes - with page numbersOwn opinions◦ What you think of the reading?◦ How it fits in with your own work?◦ Identifying opinions
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Knowing What to WriteInitial Writing TasksWriting About Existing ResearchOrganising Your WritingWriting ClearlyEditingReferencing
A 19
Requirements of PhD / MSc◦ Departmental expectations◦ Word count, format etc.Look at previous dissertations/theses◦ Postgraduate secretary◦ Organisation◦ Level of writing◦ Content - how many experiments?◦ Don’t panic!
A 20
Other sessions in GSSEInitial Writing TasksWriting about other people’s researchWriting about your own research
A 21
Ideas while reading:Documenting readingSummariesReading & synthesising background theoryCritiques of other researchDrafting & revising proposalsLogging experiments/pilots/observationsSketching plan of work [Gantt chart etc]Explaining sequence of work [in sentences]Sketching structure of thesisSpeculative writing: routes forward in projectDesign for progress or 1st year report
[MURRAY 2002]
B 22
What can I write about -the context backgroundMy research questions/hypotheses are e.g. [50 words]Researchers who have looked at the subject are [50 words]They argue that….[25 words]Smith argues that ….[25 words]Brown argues that ….[25 words]Debate centres on the issue of ….[25 words]My research is closest to that of X in that ….[25 words]
[slightly adapted from Murray 2002]
B 23
To demonstrate to readers and examiners that we are familiar with the field and that we have been selective in reviewing relevant studies To provide an overview of current knowledge in a particular area of application and or/methodologyTo provide a context for our current study and to locate it within a specific fieldTo review other studies criticallyTo highlight a gap in knowledge, areas of application, etcTo justify the use of a particular methodology, area of application, etcTo support to data/facts
B 24
We can either do this by
1. Rephrasing in our own words & adding an acknowledgement. This can be either through:
summary or
paraphrase
This is the norm for most writing in sciences & engineering. It also makes it easier for the writer to comment critically on the source text.
2. Direct quotation & acknowledgement: this method is much less common in science & engineering
B 25
When you’ve paraphrased or summarised another writer, always acknowledge the source. You can do this in two ways:1. Begin the sentence with the author’s surname + year of publication in brackets e.g.Berridge (2002) has demonstrated that statistical analysis can be used …This method emphasises the author you are citing.2. Paraphrase the idea, then give the surname of the author + year of publication in brackets e.g.Statistical analysis can be used to demonstrate… (Berridge 2002)emphasises the study rather than author and can be used when the focus is on studies in your field.[See Andy Gillett’s very helpful UEFAP site. Look under citation and reporting http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/writfram.htm ]
B 26
When reviewing other studies, they need to be integrated into your own text, rather than read as a series of disconnected voices of other researchers [patchwork writing]. So when you refer to another writer, you should begin and end in your own voice, with the middle part consisting of paraphrase or summary of the source and the final part a commentary on the contribution of this writer. However, you will still need to adopt an impersonal scientific style* [See session 1].
Harvey (1998:) outlines 3 basic principles for integrating sources in academic writing: 1. “Use sources as concisely as possibly so your own thinking isn’t crowded out by your presentations of other people’s thinking, or your own voice by your quoting of other people’s voices”To do this paraphrase is more effective than quotation.
B 27
2. “Never leave your reader in doubt as to when you are speaking and when you are using materials from a source.”
Part of your responsibility as a scientific writer is to make the source of any data very clear so that it can be verified.
3. “Always make clear how each source you introduce into your paper relates to your argument (analysis)”
It is poor practice to insert quotations or a series of paraphrases without indicating how each source is used. Use paraphrasing [or (sparingly) quotations, for example, to support data, to illustrate a point, to give an opposing view, to evaluate and criticise a point
B 28
Avoid providing a purely narrative account of other studies. The literature review needs to be constructed logically and you’ll need to find a way of grouping studies. Here are some suggestions for doing so:
Follow a general- to -specific patternChunk studies using a matrix structure, by explaining the overall
structure first before examining a particular branch in detail. Tell the reader when you are returning to the main stem of the branch [signposting]
Introduce each paragraph with a clear topic sentence (beginning sentence of each paragraph). This should make clear the aspect of literature that is being reviewed and the purpose of that aspect of your review.
Each study discussed needs a clear introduction that highlights its purpose or relevance. A possible pattern is:
General idea of studyApplication/relevance Strengths and weaknessesIf relevant, relationship with to the present study
B 29
One of the most difficult skills for postgraduate students is to develop a critical discussion of other writers' work. Dissertation writers and supervisors have commented on the difficulties of 1] clearly distinguishing their critical voice from that of the authors they are reading2] indicating their position in relation to the work they are reviewing.
The next slide gives a list of verbs used to report others writers’ ideas. Select 10 of these that would most commonly used in your fieldDelete verbs that would not be used in your field?Are there verbs you wish to add?
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acknowledges critic ises explor es observes shows admits deals with expres ses points out /to signa ls agrees decides finds predicts states alleges defines focuses presumes studies argues demonstrates highlights proves suggests assumes denies hypothesises proposes tries to
ident ify believes depicts ident ifies provides
evidence for sums up
challenges determin es implies questions underlines claims diagnoses indicates recognis es views classifi es discovers infers repor ts wonde rs comments doubts interpr ets reveals concentrates on
emphasises makes the point
says
concludes establishes maintains seeks to explain
cons iders explains notes seeks to ident ify
You can see from the table that selecting a particular verb involves taking a particular position in relation to other scientists’ ideas. We can grade reporting verbs on a scale i.e. from those that show a strong level of agreement to those that indicate a strongly negative stance.
B 32
found concludes claims shows neglects POSITIVE NEUTRAL NEGATIVE/CRITICAL
Show can be seen as positive as it reports an observation or finding as a proven fact. At the other end of the scale, claimsdisassociates the writer from the position of the author cited. This allows the writer to establish a critical perspective and follow with a counterargument.
reports suggests claims finds attempts to explain
distorts fails to take account of
oversimplifies
concludes lends support to
indicates states
proves contends [that] points out declares neglects to identifies assumes
B 33
Task The table below contains 16 reporting verbs that range from positive to negative. Can you sort these verbs into the categories in table 2?
Table 2 POSITIVE NEUTRAL NEUTRAL TO NEGATIVE
How it is different from writing a paper◦ Length◦ More space for arguments and justification◦ Tell a story over a number of studies
Accumulative◦ Demonstrating competence as a researcher◦ Audience?
Scholars in area, external examiner, supervisor
A 34
Overall Plan◦ A paragraph per chapter outlining the key
points/arguments◦ How each paragraph links together◦ Can be revised◦ Stick it on your office wall
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Chapter plans◦ Experiments
Intro, method, results, discussion
◦ Other chapters (Dunleavy, 2003)Intro (200-1000 words)3/4 main sections (2000-2500 words each)Conclusion (200-1000 words)
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Good structureLogical ◦ Paragraphs single units of thoughtReadability◦ Straightforward language◦ Simple grammar Managing readers’ expectations◦ Relevancy / need to know basis
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Inaccessibility ◦ Too much jargon ◦ Too parsimonious ◦ Long sentences Picking up bad habits
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Good length◦ Approx 150 wordsA ‘topic’ sentence◦ Opening sentence - sets up what the paragraph
is aboutThe main body◦ E.g., argument, justification, elaboration or
analysis.The ‘wrap’◦ Clear, bottom line message
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Interesting opening ◦ High impact
Memorable quotation / striking example / problem or paradox
Framing text◦ Linking opening to main points in chapter◦ 1 paragraph - 4 pagesEffective signposts◦ E.g., First… Second… Finally…
A 40
Subsections◦ Short headings (punchy, 4-8 words)◦ Framing text◦ Brief conclusions
Draw out the main message
Chapter conclusions◦ At least 2 paragraphs long◦ Gather key points (use section conclusions)◦ Outline broader issues◦ Point forwards to the next chapter
A 41
Vital part of writingAccept the fact you have to edit◦ Timetable editing sessions◦ Expect to have to completely rewrite sectionsTime in between writing and editingUsing your supervisor◦ Set up clear deadlines - both ways◦ Ask for clarification
A 42
Different levels◦ Word level
misspellings, grammar mistakes, repetition of words◦ Paragraph level
How different sections link to each other◦ Chapter level
Can your argument be strengthened?Can your links to previous research be strengthened?
Use of external sources◦ Conferences, reading groups, publications
A 43
Some questions to guide editing…◦ Is the chapter structure good? ◦ Are the subheadings appropriate?◦ Is the argument clear and logical?◦ Are your paragraphs linked to each other?◦ Does each sentence say what you want it to?◦ Are there any sentences out of place? ◦ Is the language appropriate?
A 44
References should be listed alphabetically or numerically depending on the conventions adopted by your department. Double check that you have listed all the works you have used in the text.
Some departments specify the style of a particular journal. See your postgrad handbook or website for format e.g.
ES dissertation referencing guidelines:
http://www.es.lancs.ac.uk/studentshome/Masters/dissertations/AuthorRefSheet.pdf
B 45
If you are using the author –year system in the main
body of the text, use the name and date form e.g.
... the texture of rock buns is akin to that of gabbro
(Beaton, 1834), although Craddock (1975) has
argued that they are nearer to diorite, and
examples of Diserens et al. (1979) have been widely
likened to peridotite ..
B 46
Do not include URLs in the text! Simply give the author/body and date as with the citation convention detailed previously e.g.
…Two different Fluxnet (Baldocchi et al. 2001b) deciduous forest sites have been chosen for the illustration of the model development: Harvard Forest, Massachusetts (HF, 1994-1999, Wosfy & Munger 2003) and University of Michigan Biological Station, Michigan (UMBS, 1999-2001, Curtis 2003, Schmidt et al. 2003)…
B 47
Curtis, P.S. (2003) UMBS Forest Carbon Cycle Research. UMBS research. Ameriflux network. UMBS data access. http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/ftp/ameriflux/data/us-sites/preliminary-data/UMBS (data accessed on February 14, 2003)
Wofsy, S.C., Munger, J.W. (2003) HarvardUniversity. Atmospheric Sciences. Forest andAtmospheric Measurements. Data exchange.NIGEC data archive. http://www-as.harvard.edu/data/nigec-data.html (accessedon June 23, 2003)
B 48
Keep an accurate record of all reading using a card index
system or Endnote 9 + in your research journal
Check if a style manual or a particular journal is used as a
model for citation & referencing in your department
The UEFAP website provides a good introduction to citation,
referencing, paraphrase & summary with exercises
http://www.uefap.co.uk/writing/writfram.htm
Try also
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_paraphr.html
B 49
Plagiarism means using other writers’ ideas, words or frameworks without acknowledgement.
It means that you are falsely claiming that the work is your own.
This can range from deliberate plagiarism such copying whole papers, paragraphs, sentences or phrases without acknowledgement to splicing phrases from other writers into your work without acknowledgement.
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From Purdue University http://owl.english.purdue.edu/handouts/research/r_plagiar.html
1. Copying a paragraph verbatim from a source without any acknowledgement.
2. Copying a paragraph & making small changes - e.g. replacing a few verbs, replacing an adjective with a synonym; acknowledgement in the bibliography.
3. Cutting and pasting a paragraph by using sentences of the original but omitting one or two and putting one or two in a different order, no quotation marks; with an in-text acknowledgement plus bibliography.
4. Composing a paragraph by taking short phrases from a number of sources & putting them together using words of your own to make a coherent whole with an in-text acknowledgement + bibliography.
5. Paraphrasing a paragraph by rewriting with substantial changes in language & organisation; the new version will also have changes in the amount of detail used & the examples cited; citing in bibliography.
6. Quoting a paragraph by placing it in block format with the source cited in text & bibliography.[Carroll J. 2000 Teaching News November, 2000. Based on an exercise in Academic Writing for Graduate Students by Swales and Feak, University of Michigan, 1993] on http://www.ilt.ac.uk/resources/Jcarroll.htm Accessed 12/05/2003
B 52
Regular writing sessions - daily?Writing location◦ Office vs home vs library vs otherWriting times◦ When?◦ For how long?Reference as you are going along!
A 53
Worried about feedbackBored and tiredLack of momentumHardLack of rewardsToo high expectationsSizeOther pressures on your time
A 54
Just do something…Talk through problems with supervisorHave a break from writingSet manageable goals
A 55
Thesis in Progress◦http://www.lancs.ac.uk/depts/celt/sldc/courses/tip.htm
Student SupportReading/Research GroupsSeminars and ConferencesInternet Books…
A 56
Dunleavey, P. (2003). Authoring a PhD Murray, R. (2002) How to Write a Thesis.Sternberg, R. (2000). Guide to Publishing in Psychology Journals.
A 57
Alistair Hetherington on Writing Grant ProposalsAnalysis of past dissertations/theses-please read one and look at the questions before next week’s session
B 58
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acknowledges criticises explores observes shows admits deals with expresses points out /to signals agrees decides finds predicts states alleges defines focuses presumes studies argues demonstrates highlights proves suggests assumes denies hypothesises proposes tries to
identify believes depicts identifies provides
evidence for sums up
challenges determines implies questions underlines claims diagnoses indicates recognises views classifies discovers infers reports wonders comments doubts interprets reveals concentrates on
emphasises makes the point
says
concludes establishes maintains seeks to explain
considers explains notes seeks to identify
