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PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Lecture 7, Monday, September 7, 2020 Dr. Anosh Joseph IISER Mohali

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

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Page 1: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

PHY401: Nuclear andParticle PhysicsLecture 7,Monday, September 7, 2020

Dr. Anosh JosephIISER Mohali

Page 2: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of NuclearPhysics

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 3: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1896: Discovery of radioactivity

Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted byphosphorescent materials.

He was intrigued by Roentgen’s recent discovery ofX-rays...

and looked for X-rays in Uranium salts.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 4: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

But, as it has on numerous other occasions inphysics, the unexpected happened.

Becquerel discovered that these salts emit a new formof radiation,...

different from both phosphorescent light and X-rays,which he called Uranic rays.

This marked the beginning of the field of nuclearphysics.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 5: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1898: Separation of Radium by Marie and PierreCurie; Discovery of α, β and γ rays

Becquerel went on to do research in atomic physics,...

Marie Curie was interested in his discovery of theUranic rays.

She began to investigate them systematically.

Soon afterwards, her husband, Pierre Curie, joinedher in this research.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 6: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

Their studies led them to propose that the radiationwas emitted from single atoms.

These ideas, based on the not yet fully confirmedtheory of atomic structure of the elements, led them tothe discovery of new elements Polonium and Radium.

They showed that other elements besides Uraniumemitted such rays, and coined the term radioactivity.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 7: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1911: Rutherford scattering - Nucleus as a centralpart of an atom

An observation of unexpectedly large angle backscatterings when alpha particles hit a gold foil ledRutherford in 1911 to the theoretical picture of anatom.

Rutherford’s atom was made up of a nucleus of Zpositive charges and also A − Z pairs of positive andnegative charges surrounded by a sphere of Zuniformly distributed electrons.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 8: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

Discovery of the atomic nucleus would havefar-reaching impact not only in physics, but also inwar and politics.

Rutherford’s nuclear model pointed the way to thenew world of modern physics, but it was Niels Bohrwho opened its door.

In 1913, Bohr constructed a dynamical model of thehydrogen atom...

with an electron circulating a hydrogen nucleus,(which later acquired the name proton) in stable orbitscalled stationary states.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 9: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

By allowing the electron to emit light only when itjumps between these stationary states, Bohr was ableto explain the known energies of light emitted byexcited hydrogen atoms.

Bohr’s model was soon developed by others into amathematical formulation called Quantum Mechanics.

This theory and Einstein’s theory of relativity providethe conceptual basis for the theoretical description ofall physical phenomena known to us today.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 10: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1913: Soddy and Richards introduce the concept ofnuclear mass: isotopes are born

1915: American chemist William Harkins notes thatthe mass of a helium atom is, in fact, not exactly fourtimes that of a proton.

It is slightly less.

He states that the excess mass has been converted toenergy via Einstein’s E = mc2 and that this is thesource of nuclear energy.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 11: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1919: Rutherford carries out first transmutation ( He+ N → p + O )

By 1920, there were only six elements missing fromthe periodic table, which at that time ended withUranium (Z = 92).

All six missing elements would be discovered in thenext 30 years.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 12: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1923: Use of radioactive tracers in biology (Georg vonHevesy)

1928: Theory of alpha decay by Gamow

One of the early successes of quantum mechanics wasits explanation of alpha decay.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 13: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

The idea is that the α-particle, held inside the nucleusby a potential barrier caused by the positive nuclearcharges, cannot escape from it, according to classicalphysics.

However, quantum mechanics does allow theα-particle to escape by “tunneling” through thebarrier,...

with an energy-dependent half-life consistent withexperiment.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 14: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 15: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1929: First cyclotron (Ernest Lawrence)

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 16: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator.

It accelerates charged particles outwards from thecenter of a flat cylindrical vacuum chamber along aspiral path.

The particles are held to a spiral trajectory by a staticmagnetic field and accelerated by a rapidly varying(radio frequency) electric field.

Lawrence was awarded the 1939 Nobel Prize inPhysics for this invention.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 17: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1930: Pauli predicts neutrino; Dirac predictsantimatter

Pauli proposed that the deficit between the maximumand the actual energies of the emitted electron iscarried away by a new particle called a neutrino.

This postulate was readily accepted when Fermisucceeded in explaining the continuous β-spectrumwith its help.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 18: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1932: Discovery of the neutron by Chadwick;Discovery of positrons by Anderson

English physicist James Chadwick bombardsberyllium with α-particles to knock out freeneutrons,...

and thus becomes the first physicist to detectneutrons directly.

American physicist Carl Anderson is studying cosmicrays when he notices some tracks on his photographicplates that look exactly like electron tracks except thatthey are curving in the wrong direction.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 19: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

He realizes that that he has discovered apositively-charged electron.

That is, the anti-electron predicted by Dirac.

Anderson calls the new particle a positron.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 20: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1934: Fermi theory of beta decay; Baade and Zwickypredict neutron stars

1935: Yukawa predicts nuclear (strong) force throughmeson exchange

Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa proposes that theneutrons and protons in atomic nuclei are heldtogether by an intensely powerful force which he callsthe strong force.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 21: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

Working with the Dirac theory, he realizes that thefundamental forces must be carried by quanta...

i.e., they cannot exist as classical “lines” of force.

The only way for such quanta to exist and still becompatible with classical physics is if they “steal” theirenergy by popping in and out of existence...

so fast that conservation of energy is not violatedbecause it is masked by the Heisenberg UncertaintyPrinciple.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 22: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

In other words, the Uncertainty Principle applies evento empty space.

How do you know it’s truly “empty” when...

the Principle won’t let you measure its energy exactly?

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 23: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

Yukawa predicts that the strong force is “carried” bywhat he calls an “exchange particle”.

From the known sizes of atoms, and by assuming thatthe exchange particle usually moves near the speed oflight, he calculates that it should have a mass about200 times that of the electron.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 24: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1936: John Lawrence treats leukemia withPhosphorus-32

1938: Stars are powered by nuclear fusion (Gamow,von Weizsacker, Bethe): p-p and CNO chain reactions

1939: Nuclear fission (Hahn, Strassman, Meitner,Frisch); Bohr, Wheeler explain fission

Austrian physicists Otto Hahn and Lise Meitnerbombard Uranium with neutrons and discover nuclearfission.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 25: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1940: McMillan and Abelson produce a new element,Neptunium ( n + 238U → 239U →239Np →238Pu)

McMillan received the Nobel prize in 1951 for this.

1942: First self-sustaining fission reaction (Fermi);Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1): World’s first artificial nuclearreactor.

1942: Manhattan project (Oppenheimer)

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 26: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1945: Atomic bomb

After World War II, many countries developed bothnuclear weapons and nuclear power plants.

In a nuclear power plant, a nuclear reactor creates acontrolled nuclear fission chain reaction.

This produces heat, which is used to heat water,creating steam.

The steam then drives a turbine, which is connectedto an electric generator.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 27: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

Nuclear energy is controversial because it is asustainable energy source, however, ...

it uses dangerous materials, and accidents can havelong term and tragic consequences.

This was highlighted by the Chernobyl accident of1986 and the Fukushima Daiichi accident of 2011.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 28: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

These problems do not occur with nuclear fusion, asnone of the materials are radioactive.

This can be achieved with the isotope Helium-3, butHelium-3 is too rare on Earth to be useful.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 29: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1947: π meson discovered (by studying cosmic raytracks)

1948: Big Bang nucleosynthesis (Alpher, Bethe,Gamow).

Electricity generated at the X-10 Graphite Reactor inOak Ridge.

This was world’s second nuclear reactor.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 30: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1949: Nuclear shell model (Mayer, Jensen)

Nuclear shell model is a model of the atomic nucleuswhich uses the Pauli exclusion principle to describethe structure of the nucleus in terms of energy levels.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 31: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1951: Nuclear collective model (Bohr, Mottelson,Rainwater)

In addition to individual nucleons changing orbits tocreate excited states of the nucleus as described bythe Shell Model, there are nuclear transitions thatinvolve many (if not all) of the nucleons.

Since these nucleons are acting together, theirproperties are called collective, and their transitionsare described by a Collective Model of nuclearstructure.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 32: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1952: Hydrogen bomb (Teller, Ulam);

Hoyle resonance predicted. Hoyle said, in effect, “sincewe exist, then carbon must have an energy level at 7.6MeV.”

The anthropic principle has been cited to explain thefact that nuclear resonances are sensitively arrangedto create large amounts of carbon and oxygen in theuniverse.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 33: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1954: Proton therapy at Berkeley

1956: Experimental evidence for antineutrino (Reines,Cowan).

1956: Prediction and discovery of parity violation (Lee,Yang, Wu)

The beta-decay process is caused by an interactioncalled the weak interaction.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 34: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

Studies of weak decays in nuclear and subnuclearprocesses would eventually lead T. D. Lee and C.N.Yang in 1956 to the idea that weak interactions violateparity symmetry.

That is, the idea that the mirror reflections of certainphysical phenomena do not exist at all in nature.

This picture was experimentally confirmed in 1957 byC. S. Wu and others.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 35: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1957: Stellar nucleosynthesis (Burbidge, Burbidge,Fowler, Hoyle)

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process involvingnuclear reactions through which fresh atomic nucleiare synthesized from pre-existing nuclei or nucleons.

The first stage of nucleosynthesis occurred in the hot,early universe (right after the Big Bang), with theproduction of H, He, and traces of Li-7 (primordialnucleosynthesis).

As a predictive theory, it yields accurate estimates ofthe observed abundances of the elements.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 36: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1958: Nuclear superconductivity (Bohr, Mottelson,Pines)

1961: First PET scan at Brookhaven

Positron emission tomography (PET) is an imagingtechnique that uses radioactive substances tovisualize and measure metabolic processes in thebody.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 37: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1964: Quarks proposed (Gell-Mann, Zweig)

1967: Discovery of neutron stars (Hewish, Shklovsky,Bell)

1969: intrinsic structure of the proton (SLAC)

Deep inelastic scattering.

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 38: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1972: Color charge and quantum chromodynamics(Fritsch, Gell-Mann)

1977: Discovery of the bottom quark (Fermilab)

1978: Discovery of the gluon (DESY)

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 39: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

1982: Chiral symmetry on the lattice (Ginsparg,Wilson)

1983: Discovery of W and Z intermediate vectorbosons (CERN)

1995: Top quark discovered (Fermilab)

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 40: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

2001: Neutrino oscillations (Super-Kamiokande, SNO)

2002: Element Z = 118 produced in Dubna

2005: Quark-gluon liquid of very low viscositydiscovered at RHIC

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 41: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

A Brief History of Nuclear Physics

2010: Construction begins on the InternationalThermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) fusionreactor

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 42: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

Quiz 1

Please write your answer in the Zoom chat window, asa private message to me, in the following form:

Your Name - Your Reg. Number - Your Answer

Quiz Question: What are the names of the quarks thatbelong to the third generation?

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali

Page 43: PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics · 2021. 2. 19. · A Brief History of Nuclear Physics 1896: Discovery of radioactivity Henri Becquerel studied the radiation emitted by phosphorescent

End

PHY401: Nuclear and Particle Physics Dr. Anosh Joseph, IISER Mohali