Phonetics k Phonology

Introduction to General Linguistics - Phonetics & Phonology winter term 2010/2011 Christian Ebert

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Articulatory Phonetics

Phonetics k Phonology

(Clark & Yallop, Chapter 2 & 6)

Christian Ebert

[email protected]

Universität Tübingen

Seminar für Sprachwissenschaft


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organizational issues

revised schedule

22.10. introduction29.10. articulatory phonetics: anatomy & physiology05.11. articulatory phonetics: consonants12.11. articulatory phonetics: vowels & complex articulation19.11. phonology: basic concepts of generative phonology26.11. phonology: phonological processes03.12. phonology: distinctive features10.12. phonology: distinctive features & rule ordering17.12. autosegmental phonology: tone14.01. autosegmental phonology: syllables21.01. review session28.01. exam04.02. discussion of exam solutions (and handout of corrected exams, if possible)


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organizational issues

tutors

Nadine [email protected] [email protected]

tutorials

mondays 12-13 room 1.13 starts 8. November

tuesdays 12-13 room 0.35; Brechtbau starts 2. November

wednesdays 11-12 room 1.13 starts 3. November

wednesdays 16-18 room 0.35; Brechtbau starts 3. November


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Reminderarticulatory vs. acoustic vs. auditory/perceptual

Vorlage: Karl-Heinz Wagner, Skript zur Phonetik und Phonologie; http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/linguistik/khwagner/phonetik/

a simple model of communication

speech productionarticulatory phonetics

sound propagationacoustic phonetics

speech perceptionauditory/perceptual phonetics


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Sound

sound waves are longitudinal waves in a propagating medium (e.g. air)

longitudinal wave: at some places the medium is compressed, and at others the medium expands

i.e. the pressure in the medium varies

What is sound?

air molecules

amplitude


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Sound

to produce sounds, some energy source must cause the compression of the medium

in the case of speech sounds, an stream of air must be produced; we hence speak of the airstream process/mechanisms

this airstream is modified at later stages. First by a process that is responsible for voice/voicelessness called phonation, ...

... and then by articulation, responsible for further shaping the eventual speech sound.

What is sound?


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Speech organs

Speech organs are those parts of the human body that are actively or passively involved in the production of speech sounds.

They include the lung, the larynx, the pharynx, the tongue, the lips, etc.

Obviously, their participation in the production of speech is only a secondary purpose; they actually fulfill more vital functions (respiration, swallowing, food processing)


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Speech organs

lips

tongue

larynx, includingthe glottis

lung (pulmo)

windpipe (trachea)

diaphragm

pharynx

oral cavity

palate

nasal cavity

supr

aglo

ttal

subg

lott

al


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Speech organs

lips

tongue

glottis

lung volume

pharynx

oral cavity

hard palate (palatum)

nasal cavityschematics

soft palate (velum)

lung air pressure


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Speech organsschematics

in most languages (z.B. German,English, etc.) the lung is the sole source for providing anairstream (ð airstream process)

this air flows through the glottis, an aperatur build by the vocal folds

depending on the pressure and the exact position of the vocal folds the air is causedto vibrate (ð phonation)

the air flows through the pharynx and through the oral or nasal cavity, depending on the position of the soft palate, and is further shaped by tongue, lips, etc. (ð articulation)


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The airstream processbasics

to produce speech sounds an airstream has to be generated

this airstream can be oriented in two ways:

egressive — the airstream is directed away from the body, i.e. air is pushed out off mouth or nose (as in the case of exhaling).

ingressive — the airstream is directed inwards, i.e air streams into mouth or nose (as in the case of inhaling).


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The airstream processpulmonic airstream mechanism

most languages of the world make use of lung airflow that is the result of activities of the respiratory system (lung, diaphragm, trachea, etc.)

such an airstream is called pulmonic (from lat. pulmo, lung)

all languages make use of egressive pulmonic airstream for speech sound production, many as the sole process (e.g. German, English, Spanish, Indonesian, Chinese)

ingressive pulmonic airstream can in principle also be used for speech production, but no language is known where this is done in a systematic way


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the respiratory system is contained within the chest (lat. thorax), i.e. a cage of ribs, the sternum and the vertebral column

the lung itself does not have any muscles,but she is connected to the thoracic cage by pleural linkage, an interface of fluids

through this linkage changes in the thoracic cavity volume cause changes in the lung volume vertebral column

sternum

ribs



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during inspiration the diaphragm moves downward and the external intercostal muscles are contracted

this causes the rib cage structure to be raised and hence the thoracic cage volume and thus the lung volume are increased

this lowers the internal air pressure in the lungs relative to external air pressure and allows air to flow into the lungs via nose and mouth to equalize pressures


trachea

heart

diaphragm


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for expiration, the lung volume is reduced, causing an increase in internal lung air pressure and hence a flow of air out of the lungs

this is achieved while all inspiratory muscles are relaxed (without contraction of any other muscles) by the elastic recoil forces set up during inspiration only

for this reason the resultant air pressure is known as relaxation pressure



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however, the relaxation pressure is greater than required for normal conversational speech.

hence, muscles primarily associated with inspiratory activity (particularly the external intercostals) are used to resist the effects of elastic recoil forces until relaxation pressure has lowered to the appropriate level of speech.

once relaxation pressure has dropped below the needed pressure for speech, the expiratory muscles (internal intercostals, abdominal muscles) compress the rib cage further.

the goal of all this is to maintain a consistent subglottal pressure



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air volume

subglottal pressure

diaphragm

external intercostals

expiratory muscles

time

speech

mus

cle

acti

vity



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glottalic airstream mechanism

instead of the respiratory system, the larynx may be used to produce an airstream

more precisely, the glottis has a prominent role since it is closed completely to create a body of air about it that is moved by the larynx

for this reason, this airstrem mechanism is called glottalic

as in the case of pulmonic airstream, glottalic airstream may be egressive or ingressive

The airstream process


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The airstream processglottalic airstream mechanism

an egressiv glottalic airstream is produced by

1. forming an oral closure,oral closure2. forming a velar closure, velar closure

3. closing the glottis,

glottal closure

4. rapidly moving the larynx and hence the closed glottis upward

upwardmovementof larynx

Hence the supraglottal body of air is compressed increasing the internal pressure. At release of the oral closure a „burst“ sound will obtain.

Vorlage: Karl-Heinz Wagner, Skript zur Phonetik und Phonologie


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the sounds that are produced with a egressive glottalic airstream are called ejectives

ejectives are marked with a diacritical apostrophe ¤ in the IPA

due to the complete closure of the glottis, ejectives are voiceless

ejectives occur in many American Indian languages as well as in some African languages

Examples: Montana Salish „six“ t¤aæq¤@nQuechua „tomato sauce“ q¤aLuHausa „increase“ k¤a:ra



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an ingressive glottalic airstream is produced by

1. forming an oral closure, oral closure2. forming an velar closure, velar closure

3. closing the glottis to voiced position,

vibrating glottis

4. rapidly moving the larynx and hence the closed glottis downward

downward movement of larynx

Hence the supraglottal body of air is rarefied reducing the internal pressure. At release of the oral closure an „implosion“ sound will obtain.




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the sounds that are produced with a ingressive glottalic airstream are called implosives

since the glottis is not closed completely, some lung air may still be pushed out and hence the sound us usually voiced

for implosives the IPA provides special symbols with little hooks at the top e.g. �

implosive occur in several American Indian and African languages

Examples: Owerri Igbo „to gather“ iæa (voiceless)„to dance“ iæa (voiced)

Sindhi „handle“ anu„ear“ kanu



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A last possibility concerns velaric airstream. It is produced by

1. forming an oral closure

2. forming a velar closure by raising the back of the tongue to the velum

3. rapidly moving the tongue downwards

velar closureoral closure

downward movement of tongue

Hence the body of air in the frontal oral cavity is rarefied reducing the internal pressure. At release of the oral closure a „click“ sound will obtain.


The airstream processvelaric airstream mechanism


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this mechanism is ingressive (an egressive version is conceivable, but not known to be used in any language)

the sounds that are produced with an ingressive velaric airstream are called clicks

for clicks there are special symbols in the IPA, e.g. « Å Ç Æ !

clicks are occur in some African languages

examples: Zulu „left hand“ ès è:NÇeæ:leèXhosa „to lie on back, knees up“ ukuæNÇoNÇaNama „hollow“ k!oas

The airstream processvelaric airstream mechanism


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The airstream processsummary

two directions (egressive/ingressive) and three modes (pulmonic/glottalic/velaric) for airflow

pulmonic egressive: the respiratory system is responsible for generating an outgoing airstrem ð consonants/vowels

glottalic egressive: upward movement of larynx with closed glottis results in higher internal oral pressure ð ejectives

glottalic ingressive: downward movement of larynx with glottis in 'voiced' position results in lower internal pressure ð implosives

velaric ingressive: downward movement of back of tongue placed at the velum results in lower internal pressure ð clicks


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Phonation

reminder:An egressive pulmonic airstream passses through the larynx, more precisely the glottis

the glottis is the first place where this egressive pulmonic airstream can be modified


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Phonationthe larynx



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the basic function of the larynx is as a valve in the respiratory system

in particular, it is responsible for directing food or drink into the esophagus and to deflect it from the windpipe by shutting the epiglottis during swallowing.

during speaking, the vocal folds contained in the larynx are responsible for making the sound voiced or voiceless.

the vocal folds are attached to the thyroid cartilage in front and the arytenoid cartilages at the back.

the arytenoid cartilages can be tilted by various muscles leading to different shapes of the aperture between the vocal folds, the glottis

Phonationthe larynx


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Phonationvocal folds and glottis

the larynx seen from above

thyroid cartilage

vocal folds

glottis

arytenoid cartilages

Glottis in Stimmstellung Glottis in Atemstellung

thyroid cartilage

vocal folds

glottis

arytenoidcartilages


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the arytenoid cartilages can be moved and tilted in several ways by various muscles

this determines the shape of the glottis (and in particular whether it is open or closed) and the tensioning of the vocal folds

when the glottis is closed expiratory airflow will cause the vocal folds to vibrate

this causes the airstream to vibrate periodically in the same way and a kind of „tone“ is produced — the resultant speech sound is voiced

when the glottis remains open (as in the case of expiration) the airstream passes unmodified and the resultant speech sound is voiceless


epiglottis

vocalfolds

trachea

falsevocalfolds


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air pressure forces vocal folds apart

cleavage gets bigger glottis open

glottis closed, vocal folds adducted

vocal folds

Vorl

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airflow through open glottis air pressure drops at glottis (Bernoulli effect)

elasticity of vocal folds causes them to close again glottis closed

Vorl

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inspiration:

vocal folds are pulled apart by arytenoid cartilages

pulmonic airstream can pass unhindered

the resulting sound is voiceless

voicelessness is indicated in the IPA by a diacritical (where it makes a difference, i.e. with sounds that are not voiceless anyway such as [t])

normal phonation:

vocal folds are close together

pulmonic airstream causes them to vibrate the →resulting sound is voiced

Vorl

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Phonationglottis state and phonation modes


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whisper:

the glottis is closed completely, but the arytenoid cartilages are tilted such that they form a little aperture

the resulting sound is voiceless

breathy voice / murmur:

arytenoid cartilages are in similar position as in the whisper mode, but the vocal folds do not close the glottis completely and may vibrate

the resulting sound is murmuredVorl

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breathy voice is a distinctive feature in some southeast-asiatic languages (i.e. there are identical sequences of segments with different meanings where breathy voice makes the sole difference).

breathy voice is noted by a diacritical Ð in the IPA

examples: Gujarati „dirt“ mEl „palace“ mEÐl

Marathi „to hit“ maar„a caste“ mÐaar



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creaky voice/ laryngealization:

arytenoid cartilages are tightly together, so that vocal folds can vibrate only at the anterior end at very low frequency

this produces a „creaky“ sound

Vorl

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laryngealized sounds are noted in the IPA by a diacritical Ñexamples: Kambaata „it will be green“ gorÑano

Mazatec „seed“ t{æ„buttocks“ nd{æÑ„horse“ nd{æÐ



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the glottis is the gap that is formed by the vocal folds, which are positioned by the arytenoid cartilages

in normal phonation/voiced mode, an egressive pulmonic airstream causes the vocal folds to vibrate and a voiced sound ensues

in inspiration mode, the airstream passes unhindered and a voiceless sound ensues

further modes of phonationsarten include whisper, breathy voice/murmur and creaky voice/laryngealization

Phonationsummary


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Übersetzungen

larynx Kehlkopf

pharynx Rachen

palate Gaumen

soft palate weicher Gaumen

nasal cavity Nasenhöhle

oral cavity Mundhöhle

glottis Stimmritze

trachea Luftröhre

diaphragm Zwerchfell

thoracic cage Brustkorb

external intercostal Zwischenrippenmuskulaturmuscles

arytenoid cartilages Stellknorpel

epiglottis Kehldeckel

hyoid bone Zungenbein

thyroid cartilage Schildknorpel

cricoid cartilage Ringknorpel

vocal folds Stimmlippen

(vocal chords Stimmbänder)

breathy voice Behauchung

Documents

Phonetics k Phonology