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Secondly# -the jows:are sometimes called articulators becouse we move the lower "ow a lot in speaking

but the "ows are not articulator in the same way as the others becouse they cannot themselves

make contact with other articulators.

The third# -althogh there is practicaly nothing that we can do with the nose and the nasal cavity, they area very important part of our euipament for making sounds what is sometimes called our vocal

apparatus, particularly nasal consonants such as m"n" . !e cannot really describe the nose andnasal cavity as articulators in the some sense as those above.

$. %ctie and &assie organs of Speech.

All the organs of speech can be divided into $ groups#

1. actie organs of speech '

$. passie organs of speech'

%ctie organs#Active articulators move towards these passive articulators to produce various speech sounds, in

different manner .

the vocal cords which produce voice

the tongue is the most flexible and moveble organ

the lips affect very consierably the shape of the mouth cavity

the soft palate directs the stream of air either to the mouth or to the nasal cavity

the back wall of the pharynx contracting for some sounds.

The lower "ow which movement controls the gap between the teeth an also the

disposition of the lips.

The lungs providing air for sounds.

&assie organs#assive articulators are those which remain static during the articulation of sound. The teeth,

the teeth ridge or alveolars, the hard palate, the walls of the re/onators) are the passiearticulators.

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. The Sounds of Speech. onsonants.

SO*+S %+ &-O+/S

+peech sounds are grouped onto language units called phonemes. They are the smallestcontrastive language units which exist in the speech of all people belonging to the same language

community. The phoneme is a functional unit. That means that being opposed to otherphonemes in the same phonetic context it is capable of differentiating the meaning.

e.g. pin- tin lot- litAre you fond of this cut0 - Are you fond of this cart0The organs of speech are capable of uttering many different kinds of sounds. 1rom the practical

point of view it's convenient to distinguish two types of speech sounds# owels andconsonants.2owels are voiced sounds produced without any obstruction in the supra-glottal cavity and

conseuently have no voice component.

In the articulations of consonants a kind of noise producing obstruction is formed in the supra-

glottal cavity. +uch sounds may be pronounced with or without vocal cords vibration.

onsonants#They are made with air stream that meets an obstruction in the mouth or nasal cavities. That's

why in the production of consonants there is a certain degree of noise.

onsonants!are the bones of word and give it basic shape. 3nglish Accents differ mainly invowels. The 4onsonants are more or less the same whatever 3nglish is spoken. +o, if our vowels

aren't perfect you may still be understood by the listener but if the consonants are imperfect there

may be some missunderstanding. Will you invite me to the party?

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2.The manner of articulation of onsonants.

The manner of articulation it is determined by the type of obstruction.The obstruction may becomplete and incomplete and momentary.!hen the obstruction is complete,the air stream meetsa closure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of " p# b# t# d# $# g# t # d , m, n, & .

In the case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of speech moves towards the point ofarticulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the production of

3nglish sounds" f# v# s# (# )# # # h# w# l# r# j#&.

/omentary obstruction is formed in the production of the consonant"p&when the tip of thetongue tops uickly everal times against the teeth ridge.

According to the manner of articulationconsonants may be of 0 groups)

- Occlusive

- *onstrictive

- Occlusive-constrictive +affricates,

Occlusie!the air stream meets a complete obstruction in mouth. &cclusive noise consonants arecalled stopsbecause the breath is completely stopped at some point articulation and then it isreleased with a slight explosion, that is why, they are also called plosies. According to thework of the vocal cords they may be voiced 7b, d, g8 and voiceless7 p, t, k8. 2oiced stops are

weak, voiceless are strong.

The particular uality of a sonorant depends on the position of the soft palate. Occlusiesonorants are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the airstream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal!3 m, n, & .

onstrictie!the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction.4onstrictive noise consonants are called fricaties! the air passage is constricted and the airescapes through the narrowing with friction. The fricatie consonants are#3 f, , %# )# s# (# ## h#&.

4ricatiesmay also differ # a)in the work of the vocal cords b)in the degree of forcearticulation.

According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced" v# )# (# & and voiceless

"f#%# s# # h& .According to the force of articulation they may be weak and strong.

onstrictie sonorants are also made with an incomplete obstruction but with a rather wide airpassage so the tone prevails over noise. They are all oral,because in their production the softpalate is raised.

Occlusie!constrictie (affricates)!are noise consonants produced with a complete obstructionwhich is slowly released and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. They are only

two occulsive-constructive consonants in 3ng) 7t # d ] . The 3ng.7d& is voiced and weak and

7t & voiceless and strong.

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5.The &lace of articulation of onsonants.

The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of

articulation. There may be one place of articulation or two places of articulation when active

organs of speech contact with two points of articulation. In the 5stcase consonants are

called)unicentral, in the %ndare bicentral.

%ccording to the position of the actie organ of speech consonants may be#

5. =abial

%. =ingual

>. ?lottal

6abial!are made by the lips. They may be bilabial and labio!dental.7ilabialconsonants are produced when both lips are active, they are 3p, b, m, w8.

6abio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth,they are 7f, v8.

6ingual!are classified into forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual.4orelingual are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. They differ in the position ofthe tongue. According to its work they may be)

! apical 9 the tip of the tongue is active:! cacuminal 9the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge:

%ccording to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be#

- interdental

- alveolar

- post-alveolar

- palato-alveolar

9nterdental!are made with the tip of the tongue pro"ected between the teeth.

%leolar!are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge.

&ost! aleolar!are made when the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the back part of theteeth ridge or "ust behind it.

&alato!aleolar!are made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and thefront part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, the narrowing is flat.

/ediolingual!are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. They aremade with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate!3 :8.7acklingual! are also called elar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue

raised towards the soft palate, they are *" $# g# &.

The glottal consonant 3h,8 !is articulated in the glottis.

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;.The nglish &losies.

Occulsie noise onsonantscompries threepairs)"p-b "t-d "$-g&. They are occulsivevecouse a complete obstruction to the stream of air is formed, they are stops becouse the breath

is stopped at some point of articulation and then released with an explosion, that is way they are

also called) &losies.&lace of articulation# stops are bilabial "p# b&produced with both lips pressed together,

forelingual "t#d&produced with the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge# bac$lingual "$# g&

produced with the back part of the tongue against the soft palate.

%spiration# 3p, t. k8in initial position in a stressed syllable are accompained by aspiration.Aspiration is very strong before a long vowel or a diphthong as in the following exaples) port,talk, take, .The nglish 4ricaties.

onstructie 4ricatie consonantscomprise fourpairs)"f-v%-) "s-( " - & and"h&. Theyare constructive becouse the air passage is constricted and an incomplete obstruction is formed,

they are fricative becouse the air passes through the narrowing with audible fication. All the

fricatives except 7 - & are unicentral. The consonants 7 - & are bicentralbecouse they havetwo places of articulation.

alatali/ation) 3ng. 1ricatives except 7 - &are nonpalatali/ed only brfore front, close and mid-

open vowels, they are a bit clearer than before back ones) father-feet# heart-heat# thunder-

theme.

?. The nglish %ffricates.

There are only two affricates in 3ng) 7t # d ] . They are occulsive-constructive consonants

becouse a complete obstruction to the stream of air is formed and it is released slowly with

frication. They a biocentral."ts" "d=" lingua!aleolar affricates#

ts"as in pi==a and its, and "d="which is voiced as in adsand ad=e.

"t@" "d " postaleolar affricates# /t/ as in cheese,catch,and ligature,and "d " which isvoiced as injudge, magic,and:am.

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1A. +asal onsonants.

Sonorants are sound pronounced with tone prevailing over noise. The air passage is rather widewhen they are produced. +onorants comprise seven sounds:"m #n # # l# w# r# j&.

Sonorants are subdivided into nasal and oral#depending on the position of the soft plate whichdefines the direction of the air stream. !hen the soft palate is raised, the air goes to the mouth,

so the sonorants are oal:" l#w#e#j&.

If the soft palate is lowered the air escapes through the nose and the sounds are nasal :"m #n # &.

The consonant 3m8#is occulsive, nasal,bilabial. The lips are firmly kept together. The soft palateis lowered and the air goes through the nose and the vocal cord vibrate. The consonant 3m8sounds longer when it is placed at the end of the word e.g 3dim8,after a short vowel 3lambs8or

before voiced consonant or a vowel 7mole8. @ut when it is placed a voiceless consonant 7m8sounds shorter3lamp!lambs8.

The consonant 3n8is occulsiv, nasal, forelingual, apical, alveolar. The tip of the tongue ispressed against the alveolar ridge. The soft palate is lowered and the air escapes through the

nose, and the vocal cords vibrate. =ike in the case with 3m8 the sonorant 7n8 may have variants ofdifferent length. If depends on the position of 3n8in the word) tin, send, net, sent.

The sonorant 7 & is occulsive , nasal, backlingual, velar. The back part of the tongue is pressed to

the soft palate. The soft palate is lowered and the air goes through the nose, the vocal cords

vibrate. =ike in the case with 7m,n8the sonorant 7 & may have variants of different length. It isdefined by the position of 7 & in the word) sing!singing!sink.

+ometimes the 3ng. +ound 7k8 or 7g8 are pronounced after the sonorant . The difficulty is to

avoid putting in a 7k8 or 7g8 after 7 & especially when it stands between vowels. +o make the

final 7 & long and let it die away into silence.

If 7 & occurs between vowels, go from 7 & to the following vowel very smoothly, with no "erk,

at first do it rather slowly, then more uickly. +ome learners of 3nglish nasali/e the vowel

preceding the sound 7 &. 6ot to make this mistake they must be very careful to pronounce the

vowel in a proper way and then to press tha back of the tongue against the soft palate forming a

firm contact between them so that no air could go through the mouth.

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11. /odifications of onsonants in onnected Speech.

The complete articulation in speech sound,a vowel or a consonant when said itself in isolation

consists of > stages)

5.The on-glide stage!during which the articulatin organs moved to the position necessary for thearticulatin o a sound

$.the hold stage-during which the articulating organs moved to the position necessary for acertain period of time

>.The off-glide stage!during which the articulating organs retain to the position of rest.The on-glide ofB pronounced in isolation is the contact formed by the tip of the tongue placed

against the teeth ridge.Curing the whole stage the air is compresed behind the closure during the

explosion stage,the organs forming the abstraction part rapidly and the comprised air escapes

abruptly.

+uch isolation of sounds from the flow of speech is however to a great degree simplification of

real processes. +peech sounds are seldom set by themselves,they are used only in combination

with other sounds in connected speech.In the process of speech,the articulatory organs aremoving continuously and the sounds mostly merged are into another.

n connected speech the sounds are subjective in general to ! main types of influence#

5.the reciprocal influence of neighbouring sounds;

.the influence on sounds by larger speech units and their elements,first of all by the stress.

The 1stgroup of processes is called the combinative changes#the !nd-the positioned

changes.The ma"ority changes of sounds in connected speech are combinative.These sounds are

modified by other sounds near to them in the phonetic seuence.In this case they lose theirclearness and some peculiarities of their articulation gaining on the other hand some new

articulatory features.As a rule,it's the >rd9of glide:stage of the articulation of the proceeding

sound and the 5ststage9on glide: of the following sound that undergo modifications.

As a result of mutual interaction of speech sounds in connected speech there is a nr of phonetic

processes such as!%ssimilation,%ccommodation,lusion.

1$. %ssimilation.

%ssimilation!a process of alteration of speech sounds as a result of which,one of the soundsbecomes fully or partially similar to the ad"oining sound.

The word assimilation is an example of this phenomena,this latin word is composed of the

preposition-ad,which meand BtoCand the ad:CsimilesDalike,similar. %d!similation!assimilation(3ds8!3ss8), -under the influence of the following BsCwas changed to another BsC.The nature of assimilation is determined by ob"ective phisical and physiological conditions.

Assimilation exists in every lang ,but its laws ad forms in each lang depend on the historically

formed articulatory tendencies typical of every lang and specific phonetic structure.

"here are # types of assimilation! direction of assimilation, degree of completeness, degree of

stability.

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1. irection of %ssimilation.

irection of assimilation!the influence of neighboury sounds in 3nglish can act in aprogressie, regressie and reciprocal direction.!hen some ariculatory features of thefollowing sounds are changed under the influence of the proceding sounds which remains

unchanged, assimilation is calledprogressive.3.g. the pronounciation of the plural sound 7s8ofthe nouns depends on uality of the proceding consonants. It is pronounced as 3=8after thevoiced consonants9panes,calls,beds: and as3s8after the voiceless consonants9desks,books,texts:.!hen the following sounds influences the articulation of the preceding one, assimilation is

called regressive. 3.g in the word combination inthem,the alveolar DnEbecomes dental befor theinterdental 7%8.

Feciprocal assimilationmeans complex mutual influence if the ad"acent sounds.ThewordCtreeC,the sonorantr is partly devoiced under the influence of the voiceless EtC and thealveolartCbecomes post alveolar Br.

10. egree of ompletenes and Stability.

egree of completiness*according to its degree , assimilation can be complete and incomplete.Assimilation is called completewhen % ad"oining sounds become alike or merge into one. Italways takes place when the % sounds differ only in one articulatory feature 9cup board: 7

8.

Assimilation is called incompletewhen the likeness of the "oining sounds is partial as theassimilated sound and it retains its ma"or articulatory features(sweet,place,try)

egree of stability!many assimilatory phenomena of old stages in the development of the landhave become obligatory in modern 3nglish.

They mayFmay not be reflected in spelling.+uch changes have taken place over a period of time

called historical9orchard ortByard:. In Modern lang obligatory assimilation are allophonic

variation characteristic of the native speech.There are a lot of non-obligatory cases of

assimilation which can be traced mainly at the word boundaries(e.g ten minutesnonobligatoryassimilation are characteristic of fluent or careless speech.

12. The Feduction of onsonant lusters ( lision).

The reduction of some consonants clusters! was established long years ago, the initial w,k,gmay be dropped )write, know, knife, gnat. The medial CtC or BdC are dropped in a cluster of >consonants)listen,soften,ednesday .The final BbCis dropped in the clustermC,CbC!lamb,damb.In other cases of recent formation the elided forms are tipical of rapid collouialspeech.In the following example the elided sound is till pronounced in careful precise speech.In

present day 3nglish, the reduction of clustercontinues to take place,the plosivesCtC,Cd in theclusterFst, ft, it, nd, ld, =d, d"in final position went followed by a word with an initialconsonant are often reduced in rapid speech9e.g last time,mashed potatoes,next day,oldman).!ord final cluster of plosives or aplicates ) t d, pt, ft, ktmay lose the final alveolar

plassives when the following word begin with a consonant)kept Guiet,legged behind.

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15. The Sounds of Speech . Howels.

Howels

The organs of speech are capable of uttering many different kinds of sounds. 1rom the practical

point of view, it is convenient to distinguish % types of speech sounds) vowels and consonants

Howels are voiced sounds produced without any abstraction in the supra-glottal cavity andconseuently have no voice component.

&rinciples of classification of owels#vowel are made with the air stream that meets no closureor narrowing in the mouth, faringal and nasal cavity, that's why in the production of vowel

sounds there is no noise components characteristic of consonants sounds. &n the articulator

level the description of vowels changes)

5:in the stability of articulation

%:in the tongue position

>:in the lip position

(:in the character of the vowel end

G: vowels differ in respect of their lenth .

&rinciple of stability of articulation) All 3nglish vowels are divided intro > groups)

5:pure vowelsF monophthong. 3i e, , I, , , , J# , J, a, 8

.%:diphthongs 7 ei.ai, iJ, J, ,J, au, , Ju,8

>:diphtongoes 7 i#, u#8

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1>. Stability of %rticulation of Howels.

All 3nglish vowels are divided intro > groups)

5:pure owels" monophthong. 3i e, , I, , , , J# , J, a, 8

$)diphthongs7 ei.ai, iJ, J, ,J, au, , Ju,8

)diphtongoids 7 i#, u#8

/onophthongs-are vowels the articulation of which is almost unchanging the uality of suchvowels is pure. The 3ng. Monophtongs are )3i e,, I, , , , J# , J, a, 8.3x. It, pit, click .

In the pronuanciation of diphthong, the organs of speech glide in one vowel position to anotherwithin one syllable . The nucleus is strong and distinct. They consist of two vowel elements.

3nglish diphtongs) 7 ei.ai, i, iJ J, ,J, au, , Ju,8

The pronunciation in the group of diphthongoids, the articulation is slightly changing but thedifference between the starting point and the end is not so distinct as, it is in the case of

diphthongs . 3nglish Ciphthongoids are) 7 i#, u#8.

1?. Tongue &osition of Howels.Tongue position of owels# the changes in the position of the tongue determine largely the shapeof the mouth and faringal cavities. The tongue may move forward and backward , up and down,

thus changing the uality of vowel sounds. !hen the tongue moves forward-backward variousparts, it may be raised in the direction of the palate. !hen the tongue is in the front part of the

mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard palate ,a front owelsis pronounced frontowels..D i., I , J 8.

!hen the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted and the part of the tongue

nearer to the centre than to the front ,a front retracted vowel is pronounced ) 3i8.!hen the front of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate , the vowel is

called central 7 , J , J#8

!hen the tongue is In the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the softpalate a back owelis pronounced 7 a, u# , , # 8 !hen the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but it is slightly advanced and the central part

of it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate a back adancedvowel is pronounced 3 u8.!hen the front or back of the tongue is raised high towards the palate, the vowel is called

closed. 7i# , i, u , u# ,8

!hen the front or back of the tongue is a low as possible in the mouth, open owels arepronounced 7 I , a#, , # 8

!hen the highest part of the tongue accupies the position intermediate between the closed andapen one, mid owels are pronounced 7a , J , e, 8

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$A. 6ip &osition of Howels.

The shape of the mouth cavity is also largely dependent on the position of the lips.

!hen the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are turned) unrounded 3 ' u# u i i# ' e I'a# ' J J# 8

!hen the lips are drown together so that the opening between them is more or less round. Around vowel is pronounced 7 u# u 8

$1. haracter of Howel nd.The uality of all 3nglish monophthongs in the stress position is strongly affected by the

following consonant of the same syllable.

If a stressed vowel is followed by a strong voiceless consonant it is cut off by it. In this case the

end of the vowel is strong and the vowel is called checked.+uch vowels are heard in stressedclosed syllables ending in a strong voiceless consonant.) cart-cut,hut.

If a vowel is followed by a weak voiced consonant or by no consonant at all , the end of it is

ery weak.In this case vowel is called free. +uch vowel are heard in closed syllables ending in a voicedconsonant or in an open syllable ) before,money, begger.

$$. Howel 6ength.2owels are capable of being continued during a longer or shorter period. All 3nglish vowels with

exception of diphthongs are divided into long and short.

6ong owel! 7i# u# J a 8Short owels7i, e J u a 8.The vowel Iis not included in the category of short vowel,because of specific length . @ut forthe purpose of practical speech training it is not enough to distinguish % degrees of length. In the

similarly accented position, all 3nglish vowels are fully long,when they are final at the end of

the word.3see, sea, bar, saw, sore8. They are almost as long as that when weak voicedconsonants follows them in the closed syllable3 seed,arm, farm,bird,big,bed,song8.They are considerably shorter before strong voiceless consonant is closed syllable

3 seat,larg,look,first,bit,sat8.Ciphthongs vary in length in the same way as long vowels 3play!played!plate8 variations oflength affect the nucleus not the glide. +uch variations might be represented these ways

9pleiFple)i-ple'i/-pleit:.

Howel seGuence! all vowels seuencespronounced with a smooth glide between them, bothwithin words and between words. The most common seuences are formed by adding the neutral

vowel 7 J 8 to a diphthong specially 7ai Ju 8(lion,trial,our,hour.:.

$. nglish /onophthongs and iphthongs.

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/onophthongis simply a vowel. The word monophthong comes from the old ?reek language.Mono means one or single, and the -phthong means sound or tone. The word monophthong

shows that a vowel is spoken with exactly one tone and one mouth position. 1or example, when

you say EteethC, then while you are creating the sound of the EeeC,nothing changes for thatsound.

% iphthongis a vowel that a person has to move his or her mouth into two different positionsto make. Ciphthong comes from the old ?reek language. Ci means two or double, while the part

-phthong means sound or tone, It is a vowel where two different vowel ualities can be heard.

1or examples are) waist, die, noise, road, house, fierce, bear, sure. 3ach of these is a differentvowel sound.

The ifference between /onophthong and iphtong

% monophthongis a simple vowel sound that a person does not have to move his mouth tomake, like the Eoo sound in Ebook.

In a diphthong, the person combines two different monophthongs, as with the Eoi sound in the

word Eoil. The person starts with the mouth in the position to make an Eo sound, then uickly

moves the mouth to make a hard Ee sound.

Another example is the Eou sound in the word Ehouse. The mouth starts out making a sound

like the soft Ea sound in Eflat, then moves to make the a hard Eoo sound like the one in

Eboots.E

The main difference is that a monophthong is a phoneme that consists of only one 9Emono

means one: vowel sound and a diphthong is a phoneme consisting of two 9Edi means two:

vowel sounds that are Econnected or Elinked to each other.

Some xamples of /onophthong and iphthong

*onophthong

I# man

bit

lot

o) tall

+iphthong

I main

bite

J low

o toy

$0. The nglish diphthongs.

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% iphthongis a vowel that a person has to move his or her mouth into two different positionsto make. Ciphthong comes from the old ?reek language. Ci means two or double, while the part

-phthong means sound or tone, It is a vowel where two different vowel ualities can be heard.

1or examples are) waist, die, noise, road, house, fierce, bear, sure. 3ach of these is a differentvowel sound.

The ifference between /onophthong and iphtong

% monophthongis a simple vowel sound that a person does not have to move his mouth tomake, like the Eoo sound in Ebook.

In a diphthong, the person combines two different monophthongs, as with the Eoi sound in the

word Eoil. The person starts with the mouth in the position to make an Eo sound, then uickly

moves the mouth to make a hard Ee sound.

Another example is the Eou sound in the word Ehouse. The mouth starts out making a sound

like the soft Ea sound in Eflat, then moves to make the a hard Eoo sound like the one in

Eboots.E

The main difference is that a monophthong is a phoneme that consists of only one 9Emono

means one: vowel sound and a diphthong is a phoneme consisting of two 9Edi means two:

vowel sounds that are Econnected or Elinked to each other.

+iphthong

I main

bite

J low

o toy

$2. /odification of Howels in onnected Speech.In 3nglish as well as in other language vowels in unstressed syllables are usually reduced and

this phonetic phenomena is called reduction of owels. The lows of reduction in this languageare not the same however. Feductionis a historical process of weakering, shortening or even

disaperence of vowel sound is unstressed positions. This phonetic phenomena as well as

assimilation of consonants is closely connected with general development of the language

system. Feductionreflects the process of lexical and grammatical changes. The neutral soundsrepresents the reduced forms of almost any vowel or diphthong in the unstressed position.

3 g combine-noun produce-noun

4ombine-verb produce- verb

The vowel sounds of the ,,rKKrelated words are in contrast because of difference stressed

position. The sound 7i8 and 7u8 and the suffix-full, are very freuent of the unstressed positione.g. possibility, beautiful. There is also a detency to retain the uality of the unstressed vowelsound . e.g program.,situate .

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6oun reduced unstressed sounds are often retained in)

a)compound words ! blac'board

b)borrowing ) from 1rench etc. borgeoisy

Feductionis connected not only with word stress, but also with rhytm and sentence stress.

+tressed words are pronounce with great energy of breath. +o , reduction is reali=ed with#

a,in unstressed syllables within a word:demonstrative

b,in unstressed form- words as! auiliary. *odal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns

ithin intonation groups and phrases. .g. hat do you thin' you can do?

$5. The Feduction of Howels.

Three different types of reduction are in nglish)

1)Guantitatie reduction-shortening of the vowel sound in the unstressed position and affectsmainly the long vowels. 3g) he 7hi)8, he7hi8, when does he3hi8come0

$)Gualitatie reduction! obscuration of vowels towards a neutral3i8 and 3u8. it affects bothlong and short vowels. 3g. 4an 7k In8,you can easily do it0 2owels in unstressed form-words inmost cases undergo both ualitative and uantitative reduction

)the elisionof vowels in unstressed position eg. I am 7 9 Jm 8.

$;. Strong and eak forms of Howels.Spoken 3nglish shows a market contrast between its stressed and unstressed syllables. !ordswhich bear the ma"or part of information, are generally stressed and they are called content ornational words, these are ) nouns,ad"ective, national verbs, adverbs, numerals, interrogative anddemonstrative pronouns. Th other words in a sentence are mostly form or structural words,which link the content words and help us in this way to form an utterance. Articles , prepositions,

con"unctions, particles auxiliary verb, modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns. These are

not many in number but they are among the commonest words of he language. As form wordsare normaly unstressed in a sentence, they are weak reduced forms, are generally used in speech.

3g 9he said he come in the morning.:

The weak formsof words should be used in unstressed position. The strong forms of theauxiliary and modal verbs, personal and possessive pronouns are more realy used. They are used

in their strong forms, when they are sed, in isolation, when they become communicative sentence

of utterance.

$>. Syllable tructure.%syllable is a speech unit consisting of a sound or a sound seuence one of which is heard to be

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more prominent than the others, the most prominent sounds being the nucleus of the syllables is

called syllabic. Syllabic sounds are generally vowels 9 monophthongs ,diphthongs,diphthngois:and sonorants. A syllabic sonorants is marked with 3m,n8.a word consisting of only one vowelsound represent a separate syllable eg. 9 , are.or. in the case of a diphthong the pick, of thesyllable is formed by its nucleus. Among syllabic sonorants, we find 3m,l,n8e.g apple 7Jpl8

trouble ,pu//le .Many words in english as )parcel, leel, special ,personcould be pronounced with the neutralvowel before the sonorant, thous making it no syllabical. In all these words the second prominent

sound or the peack0 Is formed by the neutral form 7J8 corresponding to sound vowel, better inunstressed position before the sonorants. owever some words in 3nglish not having any vowel

letter before the final sonorants may also be pronounced in both ways. 3g pu==le7 p =l 87p =Jl &n the other hand many having a vowel letter before the final sonorants are pronouncedwithout the neutral vowel where by the sonorants is syllabic eg lesson, pupils. The word with

the sonorant 7m89blossom: are more with often pronounced with the neutral vowel 9blossom:so , if a sonorant is preceded by a vowel sound it loses its syllabic character and the syllable is

formed by the vowel.

$?. Syllable iision.

Syllable diision and syllable formation rules appear to be a matter of great practical value tothe language learner they are very important when its necessary to know the number of syllable

for the purpose of picturing a word or sentence on the staves or for finding a convenient place to

put a stress mark in phonetic transcription.

A. ord Stress in nglish.&ne or more syllables of a polysyllable have a great prominence than others. +uch syllables are

said to be stressed. In 3nglish any all of factors) loudness, pitch, sound uantity, sound uality

may reder a syllable more prominent than the others. In similar phonetic contexts a vowel is

perceived as a more prominent, if it's lauder, longer and more distinct than the unstressed are.

3ver vowels of full formation in the unstressed position are not so distinct as their stressed

counter parts. The peach component of word stress manifests itself in the fact that the stressed

syllable is always that on which there is a change of peach in the phrase, though the stressed

syllable is not necesarlyhigher than the unstressed one.e.g. compound96:compound92:

2owels of unstressed syllables undefinitly not so long and tend to be reduced in the unstressed

position. 3nglish vowels are shorter in the unstressed position, the difference between

historically long and historically short vowels remains uite distinct.

&ur treatment of word stress as of any other component of pronunciation is based on %

linguistics functions) constitutie and distinctie.!ord stress arranges syllables in words thus fulfilling the constituitive function. Its distinctive

function can be traced in the opposition of words consisting of the same morpheme. The

meaning of which is differentiating by word stress. e.g. ob"ect 9n: 9v:

1. The egrees of ord Stress.

In 3nglish there are degrees of word stress#

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1 Stress syllable(primary stress)

$ -alf stressed syllable(secondary stress)

eak unstressed syllable

A logic group of polysyllabic simple words has both) primary and secondary )e.g.conversation#

intonation# pronunciation#

There are several large groups of words with $ eGually strong stresses. These words consist of %morphemes. The use of semantic significance of both eually stressed elements of the word.

e.g. rewrite, fourteen

$. The &osition of ord Stress.!ord stress in 3nglish as well as in other languages is free, in the sense that the primary stress isnot tied to any particular syllable in all the words but it always falls on a particular syllable of

any given word.e.gfinish, result, educationThe position of words stressin the product of its historical development. It has been influenced

by the combination of different tendencies, the oldest of them is known as the recessive

tendency, according to which the root syllable the semantic unit of the word is stressed. +o the

ma"ority of words of ?ermanic origin have stressed on the 1stroot syllable.e.g. cleer, body, water, singing9f words are formed with the prefixes with no referential meaning, the stressed is shifted onto theroot syllable, which is not enitial in this case . e.g. before, begin, mistake

The $nd

tendencyis the result of the mutual influence of ?ermanic and 1rench accentualpatterns. It is known as the rhythmic tendency which manifest itself stressing the rdsyllablefrom the ende.g. situate, articulateMost disyllabic 3nglish words have recessive stress# e.g. finish, answer, marriage, result+ome disyllabic 1rench borrowing retain the primary stress on the last syllable.e.g. machine,policeAccording to both tendencies, words of > syllable generally have stress on the 5 st syllable which

is the >rdsyllable from the end# e.g. cinema, enemy, but, situate, relation, uncertain!ords of 0 syllablemay have either recessive or rhythmic stress #e.g architect, criticism,characteri=e, remarkable, articulate

ythmic stress is especially common for verbs with the suffixes *ate, -fy, -i/e

e.g. situate, articulate, Guality, personify, centrali=e+ome ( syllable words tend to have a free syllable accentual pattern)e .g. dictionary, laboratory

. ords with &rimary and econdary Stress.

The secondary stressis manifested in polysemantic wordswith primary stress on the >rdor (th

syllable from the beginning. 3g. &opularity, responsibility

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compound remains unstressed.

Thought the stressed vowels of the %ndelement retains its ualitative and uantitative

prominence, this is the case of the ma"ority of the compound nouns. They are usually single

stress) 3?) 3ACI6?-&&M, rain-coat, blackboard. This type of word stress in compound

nouns differenciate compounds from a word-combination in which every word has a stress.0!

blac'bird 1 blac' bird, blac'board- blac' board, goldfish-gold fish, strong-bo 1 strong bo.

5. The 4unctions of ord Stress.ord stress in a language performs three functions.5. !ord stress constitutes a word, it organi/es the syllables of a word into a language unit having

a definite accentual structure, that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables a word doesnot exist without the word stress Thus the word stress performs the constitutie function. +oundcontinuum becomes a phrase when it is divided into units organi/ed by word stress into words.

%. !ord stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual

pattern of a word. This function of word stress is known as identificatory function 9J KLN OPQ R

SLQUU 9or recognitive:. 4orrect accentuation helps the listener to make the process of

communication easier, whereas the distorted accentual pattern of words, misplaced word stresses

prevent normal understanding.

>. !ord stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of words or their forms, thus

performing its distinctie function. The accentual patterns of words or the degrees of wordstress and their positions form oppositions, e.g. Vimport W imVport, Vbillow W below.

;. The 9ntonation in nglish.

The term LK intonationKK implies variation of pitch , force of utterance and tempo.Hariation of pitch*are produced by significant move of the voice up and down.

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The force component!of intonation is measured by the degree of loudness of syllable thatdetermines the prominance of words.

The tempo- is determined by the rate of speech and the length of posses.

Intonation is very important for communication, as it helps the addressee interpret the message.

There have been different proposals to explain how intonation can help communication, some of

which are)

5. Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak) the attitudinal function of

intonation.

%. Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on stressed syllables) the accentual

function of intonation.

>. Intonation helps to recogni/e the grammar and syntactic structure of the utterance) the

grammatical function of intonation.

(. Intonation conveys the given-new information, or provides information for turn-taking) thediscourse function of intonation.

>. The 4unctions of 9ntonation.

&ur approach to the study of intonation is based on its two functions) the constitutie functionand the distinctiefunction.Intonation forms sentences. 3ach sentence consists of one or more intonation groups.

%n intonation groupis a word or a group of words characteri/ed by a certain intonation patternand is generally complete from the point of view of meaning.

3. g. 2ou3ll come early 4 and stay as long as you can 4 on3t you 44

+entences are separated from each other by pauses. The end of a sentence is always recogni/edby a long pause the end of a non-final intonation group is usually characteri/ed by a shorter

pause.

3. g.5e3s passed his eam 44 5e is a student no 44 6i'e most old people 4 he as fond of tal'ing

about old days 44

9ntonationalso serves to distinguish the communicative types of sentences, the actual meaningof a sentence, the speaker's emotions or attitudes to the contents of the sentence, to the listener or

to the topic of conversation.

3. g.5e3s passed his eam 44

=ow-1all - a statement of fact

igh-ise - a uestion

=ow-ise * a uestion with surprise

igh-1all * an exclamation

&ne and the same sentence pronounced with different intonation can express different emotions.

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9ntonationis also a powerful means of differentiating the functional styles.

?. The Sections of an 9ntonation &attern.

The Intonation attern- consists of one or more syllable of various pitch levels and bearing alarge or smaller degree of prominence. Those Int.atterns that contain of a number of syllable

consists of following parts) 1. The pre M head. $. The head. . The nucleus. 0. The tail.

5. The pre!head consistsof unstressed and half stress syllable preceding the head.%. The head!consists of the syllable beginning with the 5ststress syllable up to the last stress

syllable.

>. The nucleus!the last syllable stress.(. The tail!the unstressed and half stress syllable that follow the nucleus.

Then don't make so much fuss about it.

The pre! head the head nucleus the tail

The modification of intonation patternis also due to the speed of utterance and pausation.!e must point out that one of the three components of intonation patterns-pitch is the most

significant one.

The timbre a special colouring of human voice is sometimes considered to be the ( th

component of intonation. @ut it has not been investigated yet, we shall not considered acomponent.

Intonation also serves to distinguish communicative type of sentences, the actual meaning of

the sentence, the speakers emotion or attitudes to the contents of the sentence, to the listener

or to the topic of conversation. &ne of the same word seuence may express differing

meaning when pronounce with different intonation.

3.g) Con't know it0

Con't I know itX

Con't do that.

Intonation is also a powerful means of differentiate functional styles.

0A. 9ntonation &atterns and Sentence types.

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ave you eaten yet0

FeGuests4ould I have some money0

4an I go with you sometime0

Statement- are pronounced with low fall.Speech uestions- are alse oronounced with low fall. 3.g What country 7 from?Peneral uestion-are pronounced with lo rise. 3.g are you a student.

9mperaties- in comands we have low fall..g try the other 'ey.FeGuests!are pronounced with low rise.+on3t move8 "ry not to.xclamations!we have low fall and high fall, it depends of the mood of speakers. e.g. &h, it's magnificantX !hat an extraordinary pice of cakeX

01. 9ntonation in Statements.

1. Statementsare most widely used with the falling tone, which expresses finality,completeness, and definiteness.

tsYdifficult.

/wanted to /go there imYmediately.

t /was not soYeasy.

%. owever, in non!categoric statements, or in sentences in which something is implied9doubt, uncertainty, hesitation: the rising tone 9the =ow ise: is used. This is the intonation of

politeness, doubt, or indifference. In all cases it gives the impression that the expression of the

speaker's idea is unfinished.

t /isnt /soYbad.

/thin$ he is busy.

t /wasnt /veryYhot.

. 9f a statementis a correction of what someone else has said or a contradiction to somethingpreviously uttered or a warning the 1all-ise is usually used.

0e is thirty. 0e is thirty- v five.

2 shall go there at once. e v shant.

must catch the .34 train. 5oull be v late.

0$. 9ntonation in Special uestions.

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5. uestionsbeginning with hat, hen, here, hich, ho, hom, hose, hy and hooften have a falling tone on an important word 9often near the end of the uestion:.

%. owever, if the speaker is checking that he or she has heard something correctly, is very

surprised at some information that they have "ust heard, forming a series, as if in a

uestionnaire, or implying a mild reproach the uestion may start rising on the wh word and

continue to rise throughout 9=ow ise:

/0ow /old are you6

/here do you /study /2nglish6

/hats the /matter6

/hat have you /done6

0. 9ntonation in Peneral uestions.

1. Peneral Guestions are most common with the =ow ise tone preceded by the 1allinghead, which expresses genuine interest.

s anyone /absent toYday6

0ave you been /studyingYlong6

%. owever, when general Guestionsare said with the =ow 1all they are interpreted as a

serious suggestion or a sub"ect for urgent discussion)

Z7hall we post/pone6

/0avent you /noticed the mis/ta$e6

>. In short Guestionsused as responses like 9did you?9 9have you?9, 9has she?V the low fall isused, e.g.)

/went to the /theatre /last night. /8id you6

0e /hasn9t been /invited. /0asnt he6

00. 9ntonation in 9mperaties.

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9mperatie sentences reGuest,instruct, or command. !hen no sub"ect is given, it is impliedin an imperative sentence, meaning it is understood to whom the reuest or command is

made.

2xamples:

Turn down the music.

eave the door closed.

Ta$e out the trash.

;inish your dinner.

02. 9ntonation in xclamtions.

The exclamatory sentenceis a sentence that is exclaimed, emphasi/ing excitability oremotion. It is punctuated by an exclamation point.

2xamples:

Turn down that musicam