Philosophy of Social Science1 Positivism & The Search for
truth Week 17: Claire Blencowe
Slide 2
Lecturers Claire Blencowe (me, weeks 17-19) Peter Ratcliffe
(week 20) Topics Week 17: Introduction to final part of the module
What is the philosophy of social science? Positivism and the search
for truth Week18 : Interpretive perspectives and the search for
meaning Week 19 : Post-humanist perspectives getting back to
reality? Week 20 : Mixed methods approaches
Slide 3
Assessment 2: Research Project Report and Reflexive Essay (40%
and 20% of the total module mark respectively) Submission date:
Tuesday 7 May 2013, by 2pm The second piece of assessment is a
maximum 5,000 word Research Project Report and Reflexive Essay,
which makes up the remaining 60% of the total module mark. This
entails the completion of an original (if small-scale) research
project covering aims, methods and results, as well as a literature
review which, although modest in length, is sufficiently detailed
both to provide a clear framework for the project and to inform
research questions. The project, on a topic selected by individual
students and formally approved by seminar tutors, should be
predominantly qualitative in nature. It is a module requirement
that all students must display evidence of the collection of
primary research data (included as appendices). The project report
itself is limited to a maximum of 3,500 words (40% of total module
mark). The other 1,500 words must be devoted to a reflexive essay
(20% of total module mark) that primarily assesses the
epistemological and ontological questions raised by the research
process. It should also, however, reflect briefly (where relevant)
on whether and how the research might have been improved by the
addition of other, e.g. quantitative, data sources. Assessment 2:
Research Project Report and Reflexive Essay (40% and 20% of the
total module mark respectively) Submission date: Tuesday 7 May
2013, by 2pm The second piece of assessment is a maximum 5,000 word
Research Project Report and Reflexive Essay, which makes up the
remaining 60% of the total module mark. This entails the completion
of an original (if small-scale) research project covering aims,
methods and results, as well as a literature review which, although
modest in length, is sufficiently detailed both to provide a clear
framework for the project and to inform research questions. The
project, on a topic selected by individual students and formally
approved by seminar tutors, should be predominantly qualitative in
nature. It is a module requirement that all students must display
evidence of the collection of primary research data (included as
appendices). The project report itself is limited to a maximum of
3,500 words (40% of total module mark). The other 1,500 words must
be devoted to a reflexive essay (20% of total module mark) that
primarily assesses the epistemological and ontological questions
raised by the research process. It should also, however, reflect
briefly (where relevant) on whether and how the research might have
been improved by the addition of other, e.g. quantitative, data
sources. Full assessment 2 guidelines on module webpage!
Slide 4
Reflexive Essay. This essay should take the form of a standard
1500 word academic essay which does the following: Choose a
specific perspective on the philosophy of social science and
explain that perspective. Include a summary of the ontological,
epistemological and political assumptions of that approach Write a
critical reflection on your research project from the point of view
of that perspective. Consider questions such as : Would a proponent
of your chosen perspective accept that your research process was
valid? How would you explain that you have produced valid knowledge
about society, in the terms of the concepts provided by this
philosophical perspective? What ethical and political concerns are
raised by your research project? Reflect on the appropriateness of
that philosophical perspective to your area of research. Is this
philosophical approach the right one to take when researching this
area? Is there a case for adopting one of the other philosophical
approaches covered in the module? Reflexive Essay. This essay
should take the form of a standard 1500 word academic essay which
does the following: Choose a specific perspective on the philosophy
of social science and explain that perspective. Include a summary
of the ontological, epistemological and political assumptions of
that approach Write a critical reflection on your research project
from the point of view of that perspective. Consider questions such
as : Would a proponent of your chosen perspective accept that your
research process was valid? How would you explain that you have
produced valid knowledge about society, in the terms of the
concepts provided by this philosophical perspective? What ethical
and political concerns are raised by your research project? Reflect
on the appropriateness of that philosophical perspective to your
area of research. Is this philosophical approach the right one to
take when researching this area? Is there a case for adopting one
of the other philosophical approaches covered in the module? Full
assessment 2 guidelines on module webpage!
Slide 5
Reflexive Essay. This essay should take the form of a standard
1500 word academic essay which does the following: Choose a
specific perspective on the philosophy of social science and
explain that perspective. Include a summary of the ontological,
epistemological and political assumptions of that approach Write a
critical reflection on your research project from the point of view
of that perspective. Consider questions such as : Would a proponent
of your chosen perspective accept that your research process was
valid? How would you explain that you have produced valid knowledge
about society, in the terms of the concepts provided by this
philosophical perspective? What ethical and political concerns are
raised by your research project? Reflect on the appropriateness of
that philosophical perspective to your area of research. Is this
philosophical approach the right one to take when researching this
area? Is there a case for adopting one of the other philosophical
approaches covered in the module? Reflexive Essay. This essay
should take the form of a standard 1500 word academic essay which
does the following: Choose a specific perspective on the philosophy
of social science and explain that perspective. Include a summary
of the ontological, epistemological and political assumptions of
that approach Write a critical reflection on your research project
from the point of view of that perspective. Consider questions such
as : Would a proponent of your chosen perspective accept that your
research process was valid? How would you explain that you have
produced valid knowledge about society, in the terms of the
concepts provided by this philosophical perspective? What ethical
and political concerns are raised by your research project? Reflect
on the appropriateness of that philosophical perspective to your
area of research. Is this philosophical approach the right one to
take when researching this area? Is there a case for adopting one
of the other philosophical approaches covered in the module? Full
assessment 2 guidelines on module webpage! A specific perspective
means a particular thinker or school of thought. Not quantitative
perspective or qualitative perspective But rather: Emile Durkheim,
Karl Popper or positivism Sandra Harding, Patricia Hill Collins or
Feminist stand-point epistemology Donna Harraway, Bruno Latour,
Post-humanism or Actor Network Theory Etc... Lectures brief
introduction to various perspectives Seminar readings a very good
starting point You also need to engage with details of your chosen
perspective through your own further reading A specific perspective
means a particular thinker or school of thought. Not quantitative
perspective or qualitative perspective But rather: Emile Durkheim,
Karl Popper or positivism Sandra Harding, Patricia Hill Collins or
Feminist stand-point epistemology Donna Harraway, Bruno Latour,
Post-humanism or Actor Network Theory Etc... Lectures brief
introduction to various perspectives Seminar readings a very good
starting point You also need to engage with details of your chosen
perspective through your own further reading
Slide 6
Ontology, Epistemology & Problems
Slide 7
Philosophy thinking, critical reflection on our practice Why do
we do what we do? What are we hoping to achieve? What problems
motivate our work? What assumptions are we making about the nature
of the world? What is Society/the Social anyway? What kind of
knowledge are we trying to produce? How do we know if things are
factual? Or if we have really understood something?
Slide 8
To have mastered theory and method... Means to have become a
self-conscious thinker; a man ready for work and aware of the
assumptions and implications of every step he will take as he tries
to find out the character and the meaning of the reality he is
working on. C. Wright Mills On Intellectual Craftsmanship in Seale,
2004 p.21
Slide 9
Whats the problem? Different philosophical approaches Emerge
from specific histories Relate to different technologies Address
different problems Attempt to do different things To grasp a
philosophical approach you need to know something about where it
came from and what problems or issues it is motivated by
Slide 10
Whats the problem? The need to govern urbanised industrial
populations Dangerous romanticism and ideological domination A lack
of understanding and empathy A lack of meaningfulness/alienation
Domination and inequality/dominant discourse Desire to give voice
to minority perspectives A lack of reality or objectivity Different
philosophical approaches are motivated by different
problems/issues
Slide 11
Ontology Ontology: theory of what exists Social ontology: a
theory of what society is Theory here simply means understandings,
underlying assumptions... In this sense we always have (at least
one) theory. We are always assuming (at least one) ontological
position.
Slide 12
Ontology - What is society? Population/society level
phenomenon? Rates e.g. Unemployment rates Large scale changes and
events Normal behaviours Normal attitudes public opinion Regularity
Different philosophical approaches have different ontologies that
is, different theories of what the social is
Slide 13
Ontology - What is society? Ideas, beliefs, culture, knowledge?
Specific beliefs and ideas Individual and collective narratives
Texts and other media Myths Underlying grammar or episteme
Discourses and knowledges Ways of seeing, perspectives Subcultures
Ethnicities Different philosophical approaches have different
ontologies that is, different theories of what the social is
Slide 14
Ontology - What is society? Power relations Inequality Systems
of domination Law Regulation Imposition of perspectives Ideology
Different philosophical approaches have different ontologies that
is, different theories of what the social is
Slide 15
Ontology - What is society? Material processes of association?
Architecture Objects and technologies Texts and media Environments
Movement Sociability Communication Different philosophical
approaches have different ontologies that is, different theories of
what the social is
Slide 16
Epistemology Epistemology: theory of knowledge What is
knowledge? How is it possible to know? How do we know that we know?
Do other people really know what they claim to know? What is
sociological/social science knowledge? How is it possible to know
about society? How do we know that we know about society? Do other
sociologists really know what they claim to know?
Slide 17
Epistemology what is sociological knowledge? Social Facts
Understanding Fragments/snapshots that capture fundamental truths
about the whole Specific perspectives from situations of oppression
Traces of networks, processes and communication These are some of
the different theories about what sociological knowledge is
Different philosophical approaches lead to different ideas about
what sociological knowledge is (is should be). These are some of
the different theories about what sociological knowledge is
Different philosophical approaches lead to different ideas about
what sociological knowledge is (is should be).
Slide 18
Epistemology how do you know that it is good knowledge? is the
research repeatable? Is the knowledge reliable? is it based on
historical and subjective depth? Is there detailed empirical
research and explanation? does the fragment resonate aesthetically?
philosophically? politically? does the knowledge come from the
direct experience of the oppressed? did the interpretive categories
and concerns come direct from the data? These are questions we ask
ourselves, and also questions we use to criticise and test the
sociological claims of others... What kind of questions we ask
depends upon our philosophical approach These are questions we ask
ourselves, and also questions we use to criticise and test the
sociological claims of others... What kind of questions we ask
depends upon our philosophical approach
Slide 19
Epistemology different philosophical approaches to knowledge
Social Facts? is the research repeatable? Is the knowledge
reliable? Understanding? is it based on historical and subjective
depth? Is there detailed empirical research and explanation?
Fragments/snapshots that capture fundamental truths about the
whole? does the fragment resonate aesthetically? philosophically?
politically? Specific perspectives from situations of oppression?
does the knowledge come from the direct experience of the
oppressed? Traces of networks, processes and communication? did the
interpretive categories and concerns come direct from the
data?
Slide 20
Epistemology Different perspectives on what sociological
knowledge is demand different ways of thinking critically about how
we know, and questioning the validity of knowledge. Unreliability
is not a valid criticism of research that aims at producing in
depth understanding Bias is not a valid criticism of research that
aims at giving voice to specific perspectives Superficiality is not
a valid criticism of research that aims at producing aggregate
social facts The critical questions we ask about sociological
knowledge should relate to the kind of knowledge that is being
produced
Slide 21
Likewise different ontological positions are tied to different
epistemological positions. The Social is: population/society level
phenomena Sociological knowledge is: Social Facts Critical
epistemology asks: is the research repeatable? Is the knowledge
reliable? (objectivity)
Slide 22
Likewise different ontological positions are tied to different
epistemological positions. The Social is: Ideas, beliefs, culture,
knowledge Sociological Knowledge is: Understanding and
Fragments/snapshots that capture fundamental truths about the whole
Critical epistemology asks: is it based on historical and
subjective depth? Is there detailed empirical research and
explanation? does the fragment resonate aesthetically?
philosophically? politically?
Slide 23
Likewise different ontological positions are tied to different
epistemological positions. The Social is: Power relations
Sociological Knowledge is: Specific perspectives from situations of
oppression Critical epistemology asks: does the knowledge come from
the direct experience of the oppressed?
Slide 24
Likewise different ontological positions are tied to different
epistemological positions. The Social is: Material Processes of
Association Sociological Knowledge is: Traces of networks,
processes and communication? Critical epistemology asks: did the
interpretive categories and concerns come direct from the
data?
Slide 25
Different philosophical approaches in the philosophy of social
science are motivated by different problems and put forward
different ontological and epistemological positions We will look at
some different philosophical approaches Positivist approaches
Interpretivist approaches Feminist standpoint epistemology
Post-humanist approaches Mixed-methods approaches
Slide 26
What problems (should) motivate research? What is the social or
society? What is sociological knowledge? How do you really know
that you know?
Slide 27
And the search for truth/objectivity
Slide 28
Old or classic positivism; induction, empiricism e.g. Emile
Durkheim (1858-1917) Neo positivism; logical deduction,
falsification e.g. Karl Popper (1902-94) e.g. Talcott
Parsons(1902-79) Orthodoxy in early 20 th century philosophy
Orthodoxy in contemporary media? Associated with quantitative
methods
Origins 1 Enlightenment, Science as Human Freedom 18 th -19 th
C: David Hume, John Stuart Mill Scepticism, secularism and
anti-metaphysics Reacting against 19 th C Romanticism &
individualism Reacting against 20 th C Ideology &
totalitarianism Searching for rational scientific management of
society Durkheim empiricism, sociology as secular alternative to
religion, study of social facts Popper & Parsons logical
knowledge as basis of the open society, social science as aspiring
natural science
Slide 31
Origins 2 Quantification Development of surveys and statistical
analysis New field of understanding population life, public health,
public opinion, social problems e.g. Edwin Chadwick 19 th C
Politician/Reformer (poor law reforms) Addressing new problems of
industrial urban population cholera, costs of destitution Defining
problems in new ways public health Developing new techniques of
analysis treating city areas as variables Demonstrating links
between disease, water and sanitation Developing new objects of
government policy
Slide 32
Essential distinction exist between Subjectivity versus
Objectivity Individual versus General Opinion & Interpretation
versus Fact Society is general processes Society is objective facts
outside of particular people and experiences
Slide 33
The study of general, objective, social phenomenon The study of
objective, generalisable, facts Instrumental knowledge for
governance of society (based on fact and reason)
Slide 34
Durkheim/Classical Positivism Induction, empirical observation
of obvious facts Knowledge of general processes; statistical
knowledge Social Facts every way of acting that is general
throughout society Popper, Parsons/Neo-Positivism Knowledge based
on sound logical deduction (general thinking) Should be falsifiable
Subjected to severest test possible Consisting of bold and daring
hypothesis that are highly falsifiable
Slide 35
Is this knowledge generalisable/applicable to wide variety of
people and circumstances? That is to say... Is the sample reliable?
Is the research repeatable and transparent? Durkheim/Classical
Positivism Is the data obvious ready to hand empirical material?
Popper, Parsons/Neo-Positivism Are the claims falsifiable? Has
attempt been made to falsify the hypothesis?
Slide 36
Critical discussion of the required readings and lecture
Clarifying understanding of key terms Consolidating understanding
of positivism Thinking critically about positivism
