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Philosophy 1050: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Introduction to Philosophy Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Machines”: Artificial Intelligence Artificial Intelligence and and Human Minds Human Minds

Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

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Artificial Intelligence: The Question ► This week, we’ll consider an important related question. Could it ever be possible for a machine – something made by humans – to actually think, reason, hold beliefs, have conscious experiences, etc.? ► And how could we tell if it could?

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Page 1: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Philosophy 1050: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Introduction to

PhilosophyPhilosophyWeek 12: “Thinking Week 12: “Thinking

Machines”:Machines”:Artificial Intelligence and Artificial Intelligence and

Human MindsHuman Minds

Page 2: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Mind and Intelligence:Mind and Intelligence: Dualism vs. Physicalism Dualism vs. Physicalism

► Last week we considered the Last week we considered the debate between the debate between the dualismdualism – according to – according to which there is a non-physical which there is a non-physical “mind” or “soul” connected “mind” or “soul” connected to the physical brain – and to the physical brain – and physicalism physicalism – according to – according to which there is no non-which there is no non-physical mind and all of our physical mind and all of our behavior and action can be behavior and action can be explained by the physical explained by the physical actions and processes of the actions and processes of the brain. brain.

Page 3: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence: The QuestionThe Question

►This week, we’ll consider an important This week, we’ll consider an important related question. Could it ever be related question. Could it ever be possible for a machine – something possible for a machine – something made by humans – to actually think, made by humans – to actually think, reason, hold beliefs, have conscious reason, hold beliefs, have conscious experiences, etc.?experiences, etc.?

►And how could we tell if it could?And how could we tell if it could?

Page 4: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Blade RunnerBlade Runner : : (Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?)(Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?)

► The year is 2019The year is 2019►Deckard (Harrison Ford) is Deckard (Harrison Ford) is

a “Blade Runner” – an a “Blade Runner” – an elite cop trained to find elite cop trained to find and hunt down human-and hunt down human-like androids or like androids or “replicants”“replicants”

► Six replicants have Six replicants have escaped from a prison escaped from a prison colony and are causing colony and are causing problemsproblems

Page 5: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Blade RunnerBlade Runner: : The Voight-Kampf TestThe Voight-Kampf Test

► In order to tell whether a subject is human or a In order to tell whether a subject is human or a replicant, investigators use a complex test called the replicant, investigators use a complex test called the “voight-kampf” test to evaluate their responses and “voight-kampf” test to evaluate their responses and reactionsreactions

► Some of the newest generation of replicants have been Some of the newest generation of replicants have been designed to give emotional responses and have even designed to give emotional responses and have even been implanted with “false memories” so that they been implanted with “false memories” so that they themselves do not know they are not human. themselves do not know they are not human.

Page 6: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Blade RunnerBlade Runner► If you were Deckard and If you were Deckard and

were confronted with a were confronted with a tricky subject who might be tricky subject who might be a Replicant, what questions a Replicant, what questions would you want to ask would you want to ask him?him?

►How could you know for How could you know for sure whether your subject sure whether your subject was human or not? Could was human or not? Could you know for sure? you know for sure?

Page 7: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Turing and ComputersTuring and Computers► Alan Turing (1912-1954)Alan Turing (1912-1954)►During World War II, During World War II,

Turing’s work on code-Turing’s work on code-breaking was instrumental breaking was instrumental in breaking the “Enigma” in breaking the “Enigma” code used by the German code used by the German and Japanese armiesand Japanese armies

► Because of this Turing has Because of this Turing has been called the one been called the one individual most individual most responsible for winning responsible for winning the war for the alliesthe war for the allies

Page 8: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Turing and ComputersTuring and Computers► Turing’s ideas about Turing’s ideas about

language and language and symbols led him to symbols led him to develop the idea of a develop the idea of a “Turing machine” or “Turing machine” or a universal a universal computing machinecomputing machine

► The basic structure of The basic structure of this machine is used this machine is used by every computer by every computer that exists todaythat exists today

Page 9: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Turing’s Prediction (1950)Turing’s Prediction (1950)► ““I believe that at the I believe that at the

end of the century end of the century the use of words and the use of words and general educated general educated opinion will have opinion will have altered so much that altered so much that one will be able to one will be able to speak of machines speak of machines thinking without thinking without expecting to be expecting to be contradicted …”contradicted …”

Page 10: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Artificial Intelligence Since Artificial Intelligence Since TuringTuring

► Since Turing wrote, artificial Since Turing wrote, artificial intelligence has made great intelligence has made great strides forward. We now strides forward. We now have computers that can have computers that can identify faces, read music, identify faces, read music, write poetry, and solve write poetry, and solve problems that no human problems that no human could ever solve. could ever solve.

► In 1997, IBM’s Deep Blue In 1997, IBM’s Deep Blue defeated the world chess defeated the world chess champion, Gary Kasparov, champion, Gary Kasparov, in a match of seven games.in a match of seven games.

Page 11: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Artificial Intelligence: Artificial Intelligence: What are the Bounds?What are the Bounds?

► Since 1950, tasks Since 1950, tasks once thought possible once thought possible only for human beings only for human beings have again and again have again and again been accomplished by been accomplished by computers.computers.

► Are there limits to this Are there limits to this progress? Is there progress? Is there anythinganything that humans that humans can do that can do that computers or computers or machines machines nevernever will will be able to? be able to?

Page 12: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Turing: The “Turing Test”Turing: The “Turing Test”►Turing considers the question: “Can Turing considers the question: “Can

Computers Think?”Computers Think?”►But this question is unclear and But this question is unclear and

difficult to answer. Turing suggests difficult to answer. Turing suggests replacing it with another question, replacing it with another question, which he puts in the form of an which he puts in the form of an “imitation game” or “test”“imitation game” or “test”

Page 13: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

The Turing TestThe Turing Test► A judge is connected A judge is connected

to two subjects by to two subjects by teletype machineteletype machine

► One of the subjects is One of the subjects is a machine and the a machine and the other is a person: the other is a person: the judge doesn’t know judge doesn’t know which is whichwhich is which

► If the machine can fool If the machine can fool the judge into the judge into believing it is a person, believing it is a person, it is actually thinking. it is actually thinking.

Page 14: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

The Turing TestThe Turing Test► ““I believe that in about fifty years' time it will I believe that in about fifty years' time it will

be possible to programme computers, with a be possible to programme computers, with a storage capacity of about 10storage capacity of about 1099, to make them , to make them play the imitation game so well that an play the imitation game so well that an average interrogator will not have more than average interrogator will not have more than 70 per cent chance of making the right 70 per cent chance of making the right identification after five minutes of identification after five minutes of questioning.” (p. 4) questioning.” (p. 4)

►Do we agree with Turing? If a computer can Do we agree with Turing? If a computer can pass the Turing test 70% of the time, is it pass the Turing test 70% of the time, is it actually thinking?actually thinking?

Page 15: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

The Turing Test: The Turing Test: Questions and ObjectionsQuestions and Objections

► Is there anything essential that a human Is there anything essential that a human being can do that a computer could being can do that a computer could never do? Why?never do? Why?

►Even if a computer can pass a Turing Even if a computer can pass a Turing test, how do we know it is test, how do we know it is reallyreally thinking thinking as opposed to imitating or simulating as opposed to imitating or simulating thought? thought?

► If the Turing test is not a good test for If the Turing test is not a good test for actual thinking, is there any better test?actual thinking, is there any better test?

Page 16: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Computer Thinking: Computer Thinking: ObjectionsObjections

1) The Theological Objection1) The Theological Objection::““Thinking is a function of man’s immortal soul. Thinking is a function of man’s immortal soul.

God has given an immortal soul to every man God has given an immortal soul to every man and woman, but not to any other animal or to and woman, but not to any other animal or to machines. Hence no animal or machine can machines. Hence no animal or machine can think.” (p. 5) think.” (p. 5)

Response:Response:1) 1) If God can create bodies and attach souls to If God can create bodies and attach souls to them, he could also attach souls to computersthem, he could also attach souls to computers2) Theological arguments are unsatisfactory for 2) Theological arguments are unsatisfactory for establishing scientific conclusionsestablishing scientific conclusions

Page 17: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Computer Thinking: Computer Thinking: ObjectionsObjections

2) The “Heads in the Sand” 2) The “Heads in the Sand” Objection:Objection:““The consequences of machines thinking The consequences of machines thinking would be too dreadful. Let’s hope and would be too dreadful. Let’s hope and believe that they cannot do so.” (p. 6)believe that they cannot do so.” (p. 6)

Response: Response: This is not really an argument at This is not really an argument at all, but just an appeal for consolation. all, but just an appeal for consolation.

Page 18: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Computer Thinking: Computer Thinking: ObjectionsObjections

4) The Argument from Consciousness:4) The Argument from Consciousness:““No machine could feel (and not merely artificially No machine could feel (and not merely artificially

signal ...) pleasure at its successes, grief when its signal ...) pleasure at its successes, grief when its valves fuse, be warmed by flattery, be made valves fuse, be warmed by flattery, be made miserable by its mistakes, be charmed by sex, be miserable by its mistakes, be charmed by sex, be angry or depressed when it cannot get what it angry or depressed when it cannot get what it wants.” (Geoffery Jefferson, 1949 (P. 6))wants.” (Geoffery Jefferson, 1949 (P. 6))

Response:Response: If it is impossible to know that a If it is impossible to know that a machine is really conscious judging from its machine is really conscious judging from its responses, then it is impossible to know whether responses, then it is impossible to know whether any other person is really conscious as well. If the any other person is really conscious as well. If the Turing test could not show that a computer is really Turing test could not show that a computer is really thinking, then it is impossible for me to show that thinking, then it is impossible for me to show that anyone else (other than myself) is really thinking. anyone else (other than myself) is really thinking.

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Computer Thinking: Computer Thinking: ObjectionsObjections

5) Arguments from Various Disabilities:5) Arguments from Various Disabilities: No computer could ever do X (where X is, e.g. “Be kind, No computer could ever do X (where X is, e.g. “Be kind,

resourceful, beautiful, friendly, have initiative, have a resourceful, beautiful, friendly, have initiative, have a sense of humour, tell right from wrong, make sense of humour, tell right from wrong, make mistakes, fall in love, enjoy strawberries and cream, mistakes, fall in love, enjoy strawberries and cream, make some one fall in love with it, learn from make some one fall in love with it, learn from experience, use words properly, be the subject of its experience, use words properly, be the subject of its own thought, have as much diversity of behaviour as own thought, have as much diversity of behaviour as a man, do something really new.” (p. 8)a man, do something really new.” (p. 8)

Response:Response: Various, but all of these seem to be Various, but all of these seem to be based on a bad extrapolation from what we have based on a bad extrapolation from what we have seen before. Some of the computers we have seen seen before. Some of the computers we have seen cannot do these things, but that is no reason to think cannot do these things, but that is no reason to think we could not eventually build a computer that can. we could not eventually build a computer that can.

Page 20: Philosophy 1050: Introduction to Philosophy Week 12: “Thinking Machines”: Artificial Intelligence and Human Minds

Computer Thinking: Computer Thinking: ObjectionsObjections

6) Lady Lovelace’s Objection: 6) Lady Lovelace’s Objection: Computers only do what they are programmed Computers only do what they are programmed

to do, so it is impossible for a computer ever to to do, so it is impossible for a computer ever to learn something new or do something learn something new or do something unexpectedunexpected

Response:Response: Computers do “new” and Computers do “new” and surprising things all the time. It is also easily surprising things all the time. It is also easily possible for us to set up a mechanism whereby possible for us to set up a mechanism whereby a computer can modify its own program, and a computer can modify its own program, and thereby can be said to have “learned.” thereby can be said to have “learned.”

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Computer Thinking: Computer Thinking: Minds and MachinesMinds and Machines

► ““The ‘skin-of-an-onion analogy is also The ‘skin-of-an-onion analogy is also helpful. In considering the functions of the helpful. In considering the functions of the mind or brain we find certain operations mind or brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to terms. This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off to find the real mind. But then must strip off to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be in what remains we find a further skin to be stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the ‘real’ mind, or way do we ever come to the ‘real’ mind, or do we eventually come to the skin which has do we eventually come to the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the mind is nothing in it? In the latter case the mind is mechanical.” (Turing, p. 12) mechanical.” (Turing, p. 12)

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Computer Thinking: Computer Thinking: SummarySummary

► Turing suggested that computers could think Turing suggested that computers could think and he suggested the Turing test to and he suggested the Turing test to determine whether they can think.determine whether they can think.

► If we accept the test, it will be difficult to If we accept the test, it will be difficult to hold onto a dualist or theological view of hold onto a dualist or theological view of human consciousnesshuman consciousness

►On the other hand, it is not obvious how to On the other hand, it is not obvious how to explain consciousness or the possibility of a explain consciousness or the possibility of a physical organism giving rise to experience physical organism giving rise to experience at allat all