Peer Observation of Teaching: Peer Observation Scd

2012 DJ

Peer Observation of Teaching

Module Workbook 2011

Contributing Lecturers

David Jennings, Tim mcMahon & Paul Surgenor

UCD Teaching and Learning

Graduate Diploma in University Teaching and Learning

Contributing Lecturers: David Jennings, Dr Tim McMahon & Dr Paul Surgenor

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Task: Initital thoughts on the process of Peer Observation…

Looking at the questions below, decide whether they’re true (T), false (F), or a bit of both (BoB).

1. The main point of peer observation is to establish how good a

lecturer is

T F BoB

2. Peer observation should only be conducted by senior members of

staff

T F BoB

3. The observer should have a good knowledge of the subject they are

observing

T F BoB

4. Results are more reliable if it occurs without the knowledge of the

observed lecturer

T F BoB

5. After a peer observation, results should be forwarded to your Head of

School

T F BoB

What is the purpose of observation, what is being observed, and by whom, what is their

experience/role in the process, what is done with the data, how is it interpreted…

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Introduction

Observation of teaching has become a feature in our universities over the last decade. The

application of these social learning principles became common in the USA in the 1960s. Student-‐

generated reviews of teaching staff led to professional development programmes and peer

observation was an integral part of this process (D’Andrea, 2002). The practice has been

increasingly developed throughout the UK, but didn’t become widespread until the 1990s

(Shortland, 2004). It took an additional ten years to infiltrate third-‐level education in Ireland.

What is Peer observation?

Peer observation is regarded by academics and educational developers as a tool for personal and

professional development.

Peer observation is a complex process which isn’t easily defined. One very basic definition is that it

is a ...process whereby a third party observes & provides feedback on teaching and learning

support taking place in a university or college.

(NATFHE, 2001, cited in Shortland, 2004)

...a tool that enables lecturers to improve the standard of their teaching

...a method of gaining feedback to improve your teaching skills that involves discussing your teaching,

paricularly areas you feel you need help with

...a process that involves peers observing a tutor’s performance through classroom observaion and examinaion of instrucional materials and course design

...an opportunity for two or more lecturers to learn from each other through a process of observaion

Peer observaion is...

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Gosling (2002) considers the topic by deconstructing the individual terms in the title.

‘Peer’ Many learning theories see learning as a social process (for example, the social

constructivism that underlies student-‐centred learning or a PBL approach to teaching/learning).

Webb (1996) states that since learning cannot be abstracted from the social relations within which

it occurs, the peer will have an impact merely by being involved in the process regardless of their

status.

A ‘peer’ can be taken to mean a variety of things – a colleague from the same School, different

School, similar status, above or below your own grade, same age or experience etc. The nature of

this relationship may change depending on why the observation is occurring.

If peer observation is being used throughout a School it’s vital that all staff members are regarded

as genuine peers, and that there is real mutuality and respect for the participants, regardless of

their status.

‘Observation’ What are we actually observing? There’s an ostensible emphasis on the

‘performance’ aspect of teaching, and of moving teaching from a private, to a more public activity.

Perspective is an important consideration, since those involved in the observation don’t just ‘see’

the teaching behaviours – they interpret them. Their views are shaped by their own interpretation

or idea of what a lecture, innovative teaching, or traditional lecturing involves, and so the

experience and expertise of the observer influences what is seen and what is missed, and what is

thought to be important.

To avoid a vague, anecdotal observation/feedback, it is suggested that some form of

checklist/proforma is used. However, since most genuine peer observation is developmental in

nature, the checklist approach to data collection can be limiting and it is suggested that a more

open, informal recording measure should also be incorporated. This ensures that the observer

isn’t merely relying on memory & interpretation without any evidence, while at the same time not

being limited to the strict format of a checklist.

One option for capturing as much data as possible is the use of recording equipment (either audio

or video). While this can be a very powerful tool, the presence of a video camera can have an

undesirable influence, particularly if the class is small.

The process of observation then is not simply a neutral, objective process. Rather, the observer,

method of observation, and instruments used will all impact on the information obtained from the

session.

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‘Teaching’ The emphasis on ‘teaching’ can often cause us to overlook the fact that the main

purpose of teaching is to promote student learning. Consequently, we may have to broaden our

perspectives, or reassess our conception of what we understand teaching to be and what evidence

should be collected accordingly.

The assumptions we make about teaching will influence what is observed, since we often have

different ideas of what constitutes teaching. Aspects that tend to receive less focus include

tutorials, supervision, lab or studio work that may involve one-‐to-‐one conversations etc., or

anything that happens outside the traditional arena of learning (i.e., the lecture

theatre/classroom).



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Issues and Dilemmas

Task: Resolving potential Problems with Observation

Based on this brief overview can you think of any potential problems and, more importantly, how

these can be overcome?

Potential Problem Potential Solution

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1. Who observes whom? And why?

Who decides who should be observed and who their observer should be? Does this matter?

-‐ In true peer observation, the person to be observed generally chooses the observer and

the observation focus (such as student activity; presentation skills; clarity of explanation;

interactivity; use of aids; questioning skills etc)

-‐ One method is to deliver one class using a well-‐established lecture method, and a second

using a new technique or approach to teaching.

If the observation process/an observer is being forced upon a lecturer, are they compelled to participate? How much room is there to negotiate? And what exactly are the data collected going to be used for?

2. Choice in participation

Should peer observation be forced on any lecturer? And if so, how will this affect the overall effectiveness of the process as a learning tool?

-‐ There is a clear distinction between voluntary and compulsory observation.

-‐ Research suggests that: there should be a culture that supports and encourages individuals

to invest in their personal growth (Loughran & Gunstone, 1997); that a self-‐diagnosed need

for learning is a more powerful motivator than an externally prescribed one (Wade &

Hammick, 1999); and, that informal collegial relationships are often the most fruitful

(Rowland, 2000)

Who observes whom (and why)?

Choice in paricipaion

Judgemental/ Evaluaive

observaions Equality, trust, &

respect

Control Confideniality Good teaching Quanifying teaching

Confusion over terms

Personal skills required Subjecive nature Challenge to

lecturer autonomy

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-‐ The issue of choice has profound implications at several levels: degree of participation and

engagement; self-‐reflection; effectiveness; motivation for continuing; what you actually do

in your observation; how it’s observed; what’s done with the data; your relationship with

the observer; your level of comfort and trust in the process/observer; whether you actually

learn anything from the process (or just breathe a sigh of relief when it’s finished); or,

apprehension about having no control over flow of data and how it’s used

If the observed is trying something more innovative or interactive than usual, to impress rather than to get feedback, is there any point in the observation?

3. Judgemental/evaluative observations

-‐ According to Shortland (2004) the first guiding principle of observation should be that it’s

developmental, not judgemental, and MacKinnon (2001) reports that evaluative

observations may have detrimental effects.

-‐ There’s a major flaw with observations conducted for means of evaluation. If the aim is to

determine professional competence, the lecturer will be more concerned with looking

good and demonstrating their strengths than honestly and openly exposing themselves

and their methods to a peer.

-‐ Judgemental observations tend to be less realistic and representative of real teaching

methods or abilities. During such instances students are expected to remain impressively

quiet while the teacher delivers a slick, packaged presentation. This shifts the emphasis

away from encouraging student learning, to the ‘performance’ of being a teacher.

-‐ To improve teaching (and student learning), it’s the weaker aspects that have to be

submitted to the rigours of real peer observation so teachers can engage in effective self-‐

managed professional development.

-‐ While peers from a different subject discipline can validly comment on non-‐judgemental

observations, can (or more importantly, should) the observer judge the explanation of the

subject if they’re observing a class in an unfamiliar discipline?

-‐ How does the judgemental/evaluative component limit the aspects of teaching that Cohen

& McKeachie (1980) state peers are most competent to comment on? These include:

i. Selection of course content

ii. Course organisation

iii. Appropriateness of objectives

iv. Appropriateness of instructional materials (e.g., readings, media)

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v. Appropriateness of evaluative devices (i.e., assessment methods)

vi. Appropriateness of methodology used to teach specific content areas

vii. Commitment to teaching & concern for student learning

viii. Students achievement, based on performance on exams and projects

-‐ In non-‐evaluative/developmental observations, it’s the methods, materials, and

performance within the class that are of interest and commented upon, not the lecturer’s

grasp of the subject. For this reason, the background discipline of the observer is less

important.

-‐ In genuine peer observations choosing an observer from the same subject discipline can

actually be more limiting, since they may focus primarily on the content (since this is what

they feel they can reliably comment on). This has the potential to be less beneficial in

developing your teaching processes.

4. Equality/Trust/Respect

Can observations really be open and honest?

Are there issues of power balance, even within formative observations?

-‐ To be true ‘peer observation’ there has to be equality between the observed and the

observer -‐ they have to be genuine peers. It can only be successful when all parties

involved are regarded as equal and respectful, regardless of their position in the

School/institution.

-‐ To avoid giving a non-‐representative performance of teaching (as per the previous section),

lecturers have to be able to identify with the observer as an equal, to create an

atmosphere of trust and respect (McMahon et al., 2007)

-‐ Farrell (2001) states that to foster a successful and reflective environment, time and trust

are essential.

5. Control

Who controls the information generated by an observation?

What can the information be used for, and whose permission should be sought beforehand?

-‐ The issue of control defines the observation process.

-‐ If a genuine peer observation has occurred, but the resulting report on their performance

is forwarded to a Head of School or above without their knowledge or consent (i.e., the

observer has no control over the transmission or flow of the data), then the observation

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constitutes an evaluation and the ‘peer’ observer concerned (regardless of their status)

must be seen as acting in place of the superior.

-‐ Because of the importance of this issue, McMahon et al (2007) suggest that it’s possible to

classify observation processes by this distinction of who controls the data flow (who

decides what is reported, how it’s reported, and to whom).

-‐ McMahon et al identified six dimensions of control.

i. Control over whether or not to participate in the observation

ii. Control over choice of observer

iii. Control over focus of observation

iv. Control over how feedback should be given

v. Control over all information generated by the observation

vi. Control over what is done as a result of the observation

6. Confidentiality

-‐ Linked with the idea of controlling the data, is the issue of confidentiality -‐ an essential part

of the Peer Observation process.

-‐ This refers to the information that’s generated by the observation, in terms of what is

actually reported, who it’s reported to, what format it is in, and the purpose for which it’s

being reported (Gosling, 2002)

-‐ If confidentiality cannot be guaranteed, and it cannot be confirmed that only the observed

lecturer can choose to disclose the information gather, it’s not really peer observation, and

should not be referred to as such.

-‐ The issue of confidentiality also extends to the students in the class that is being observed.

The ideas, views, and personal experiences expressed or recounted in the class should

remain confidential.

-‐ Ensuring confidentiality is vital to establishing the aforementioned atmosphere of equality,

trust, and respect. Any information that is sanctioned for use outside the context of the

observed/observer should be aggregated and anonymised before it is discussed.

7. Good teaching

What is good teaching?

Does the observer or the observed set the criteria?

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-‐ The definition and conceptualisation of what constitutes ‘good teaching’ may affect the

observation in several ways.

-‐ The differing view between observed and observer may result in innovative techniques

being frowned upon, or traditional, static, pedagogic techniques reinforced or praised.

-‐ All comments or suggests from the observer may be dismissed if the observed lecturer

feels that their definition of good teaching is outdated or incorrect.

-‐ Conform to teaching standards that are not aligned with best practice in the classroom, but

may be aligned to the definition of good teaching accepted/offered by management.

-‐ As McMahon et al (2007) state, it is often the most innovative teachers who are concerned

about this, since what they’re doing may not be viewed as ‘good teaching’, since it may go

against the norm or challenge the existing methodology within their School.

8. Quantifying teaching

Can teaching be reduced to a number?

-‐ If you were told your teaching was a three, a seven, or even a one (Ewens & Orr, 2002)

would this make any sense? Or would it give you an idea of how or what you should

develop?

-‐ Graded peer observation suggests that a simple numerical value can capture what’s

happening in the classroom. This fails to capture the complex environment and variables

involved and has the potential to demoralise teachers who receive lower grades.

9. Confusion over terms

-‐ The term ‘peer observation’ has become a catch-‐all for any type of observation. This has

led to confusion over the boundaries and definitions of what it actually is, why it’s used,

and what it’s used for.

-‐ This can be exacerbated and abused at a managerial level by those who wilfully use the

term to mislead (McMahon et al, 2007). This leads to greater levels of suspicion and

mistrust of any type of third party observation.

-‐ There are potential problems with implementation, especially when institutional views on

the role and purpose of peer observation are taken into consideration (Cornwell, 2002).



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10. Personal skills required

-‐ The interactive process requires much from the observer in terms of personal skills and

collegial attributes. Many participants don’t have these required personal skills, and

developing these in the peer observation training takes time (Bell, 2002).

-‐ Many participants are not aware of, or under-‐estimate, the high degree of professional

ethics required to engage in such an intimate exercise with a colleague, while maintaining a

professional and confidential relationship. Consequently ethics can easily and often

unknowingly be violated.

11. Subjective nature

-‐ One major problem is that the idea of what constitutes ‘good teaching’ is highly subjective

and variable. How should it be defined, and who should it be defined by?

-‐ The impartiality of the data may be affected by previous or personal relationships, peer

pressure, or a difference in opinion of the observed and observer.

-‐ Peer relations may suffer

-‐ There may be a possible bias due to the observer’s preference for their own teaching

methods.

12. Challenge to Lecturers’ autonomy

-‐ Recent studies have identified that aversion to being monitored leads to a reluctance to

participate in peer observation (Peel, 2005; Adshead, 2006)

-‐ In addition, lecturing has been identified as a largely autonomous profession (Jarzabkowski

& Bone, 1998), and any kind of peer review can increase this fear and suspicion (Shortland,

2004).

-‐ The reason for conducting the observation is important. The introduction of managerially

owned QA driven observation will invariably result in suspicion, mistrust, and resistance,

and this leads to great resistance and defensiveness (Gosling, 2000).

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UCD Model of Peer Observation

UCD Teaching and Learning has designed a five-‐stage peer-‐observation of the teaching process

which can be used as a development tool for reflective practice. The key elements of this model

are outlined below and the full process is described in the figure on the following page.

Pre-‐Observation Meeting Post-‐Observation Feedback Meeting

The person to be observed

indicates they would to

gain from the observation

The observer acts in an

unobtrusive manner

Conducted in private and

comfortable settings with

sufficient time allocated.

The observed briefs the

observer on the intentions

of the session and the

chosen teaching strategy

The observer observes both

teacher and learners (is

aware of the context of the

class/the learning)

The observed should give

their appraisal of the

session first.

The observed supplies a

lesson plan and copies of

resources to be used

The observer discusses

their observation notes.

This isn’t judgemental or

summative

The observer gives

feedback, drawing on the

evidence they gathered

Both parties agree a

recording system and an

action plan structure

Observer makes comments

on and records specific

incidents that seem

important

The observer leads a

discussion on what can be

learned from the

observations and

encourages the observed to

identify issues for an action

plan

Key features of the first three stages of the UCD model of peer observation

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Conducting Peer Observation using the UCD Model

Preparation

The planning stage of the observation is one of the most important, and similarly most

overlooked, aspects of the process. Poor planning will lead to confusion and misunderstanding, a

lack of focus, and potential breakdown in communication and relationships.

Establish key principles

Before the pre-‐observation meeting occurs between the observed and the observer, care should

be taken to ensure that all parties involved are appropriately trained and aware of key issues and

principles that may adversely impact on the effectiveness or smooth-‐running of the observation

process. These include:

-‐ Clarifying the role and responsibilities of the observer and the observed

-‐ Ensuring issues of confidentiality and control have been addressed and resolved to the

satisfaction of the participants

-‐ Emphasising the purpose of the process

-‐ Identifying, discussing, and agreeing on the controversial issues identified earlier

Roles of Observed & Observer in Preparing for the Observation

Observer Observed

Set up pre-‐observation meeting if

requested/selected by observer

Decide who observes & what happens to the

report

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Pre-‐Observation Meeting

The initial pre-‐observation meeting is essential to the success of the process. If you cannot

physically meet beforehand, there should at least be an exchange via e-‐mail or telephone

conversation. It’s important to use this meeting to develop a sense of trust and to resolve any

anxieties or concerns before the observation begins.

This meeting should also be used to clarify the roles and responsibilities of the observer and the

observed. It’s important to establish these parameters at this stage to avoid confusion or

difficulties during the observation, or as part of the post-‐observation meeting/action plan

production

Topics the meeting should include

During the course of the meeting the following issues should be discussed & resolved:

-‐ Necessary admin details – the where & when etc.

-‐ The location of the observer in the classroom

-‐ How their presence will be explained to the students

-‐ The level of activity

-‐ The teaching approach being observed, learning outcomes, anticipated student activities,

time plan for session (a lesson plan may contain all of this information)

-‐ The context of the class (how it fits into the curriculum/programme of study)

-‐ How the observation is to be conducted (time of arrival and departure, focus of the

observation, seating location, specific ways data will be collected, any special requests on

behalf of either party)

-‐ Identification of any particular areas of concern or areas /aspects to focus on

-‐ How students will be involved or incorporated into the observation

-‐ How data will be recorded (note taking, video/audio recording etc)

Preparing the Students

It can be disconcerting for students to have someone else attend the class without warning. It is,

therefore, sensible and proper for you to explain to them, in advance:

-‐ that a colleague will be attending the class

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-‐ who that colleague is and their status in the institution

-‐ that he or she will be there to help you with your teaching

-‐ that he or she will play no part in the class proceedings (unless a participative observation

strategy is agreed)

-‐ that he or she will be “evaluating” the teacher not the students

Evaluation component of the session

It should be firmly established (again!) that the observer is not there to assess your teaching. They

have been asked to provide feedback to enable you to assess your own teaching. It is not about

making summative judgements about teaching quality. Any outcomes of observations, whether

spoken or written, are confidential between pairs of participants, unless both agree to make some

or all of the outcomes public.

Roles of Observed & Observer in the Pre-‐Observation Meeting

Observer Observed

Confirm the following:

-‐ Time, date, & place of observation

-‐ How the students will be briefed

-‐ Focus and conduct of study

-‐ How observations will be recorded

-‐ Post-‐observation meeting details

Supply a detailed briefing on session to be

observed

Include info on how the session fits into

programme & characteristics of students

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The Observation

Although criteria vary from session to session (depending on focus and purpose etc), some

common features exist across almost all learning situations and these can be used to provide

feedback.

1. Openings and closings

Focuses on whether sessions have a clear introduction indicating the aims and learning outcomes

of the session and time plan; conclusion or summing-‐up; summary of learning outcomes achieved

and setting of work/reading for students to complete their study time.

2. Planning and organisation

Does the class begin and end on time; planned activities occur within the time allowed; is there

evidence of planning of student learning; does the tutor address the learning outcomes that

students are expected to achieve; are these related to the overall aims and objectives of the

unit/course; and these outcomes are communicated to the students.

3. Methods/approach

Are approaches to organising and stimulating student learning suitable to achieving the learning

objectives set; methods adopted justifiable in comparison with alternative approaches which may

be taken; approach ensure adequate planned student participation.

4. Delivery and Pace

In a tutor led session: is the pace and delivery appropriate for the students present; sufficient time

given to explain key concepts. In student led activities: are explanations to students of activities

well paced; sufficient time allowed for student activities.

5. Content

Does the tutor demonstrate a good command of the subject being taught; is the content

appropriate to the level being taught, up-‐to-‐date and accurate; can the tutor respond to students'

questions; is the class intellectually stimulating

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6. Student Participation

Do students have opportunities to participate in the learning process in an active way that

promotes their understanding; do they have opportunities to ask questions

7. Use of appropriate learning resources

Are learning resources carried, interesting and appropriate

8. Use of accommodation and equipment

Is the accommodation and equipment well utilised; is the room suitable for the type of learning

activity being undertaken; are seating arrangements are effective

9. Overall style and ambience

Can the tutor can be heard and understood clearly; does the tutor communicate an enthusiasm

for the subject; are explanations given at the appropriate level in clear language; is student

diversity respected; is there a good rapport with students

10. Acknowledgement of students special needs

Where students have special needs or disabilities are these taken into account



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Roles of Observed & Observer in the Observation

Observer Observed Student

In addition to the role clarified

with the observed the observer

should:

-‐ Be discreet and diplomatic

-‐ Be located in an unobtrusive

position

-‐ Take notes when necessary

which relate to teaching and

learning, not about the

actual subject matter

-‐ Observe the methodologies

employed, responses and

interactive processes used,

the ability of the tutor to

effectively achieve their

aims, and the areas of

successful and less-‐

successful achievement in

the session

-‐ Share in a reflective

feedback process with the

tutor at the end of the

session

Prepare the students for

the presence of the

observer

Teach the students as

normal, ignoring the

presence of the observer

Begin the class with the

observer present

Students have to be

informed about the

observation in advance and

should be aware:

-‐ That the purpose of the

observation is to assist

in the development of

professional skills and

the focus of the

observation will be the

work of the tutor

-‐ That the observer will

not participate in the

session

-‐ That they are not being

assessed or evaluated in

any way

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Post Obseravtion Meeting

In addition to a brief feedback session following the class (if possible), a post-‐observation meeting

should be held, ideally within one week of the session. This meeting will involve the observer

providing confidential feedback to the observed in a sensitive and constructive manner. The

nature and format of this feedback depend on the parameters agreed by both parties at the

outset of the process. Any information imparted at this meeting should be done respectfully,

sensitively and constructively.

Structure of the meeting Steps in the Post-‐Observation Meeting

§

The meeting should begin with the observer asking how the teaching experience was for the observed lecturer, and how well the observed lecturer felt that they met their objectives. Sample starter prompting questions include:

-‐ How do you think the session went? -‐ Did it go as you intended? -‐ What were the strong points? -‐ What were the weaker points? -‐ What would you do differently?

The observer should then outline and explain his observations, drawing on concrete example when necessary.

Based on this, the observer should identify what they observed the teacher to have done successfully, as well as those components which were less successful or where there were difficulties

The observed responds to the comments of the observer. There should be a joint exploration of areas of improvement, and ideas about skills, areas, or techniques that the observed may wish to develop.

The meeting also provides the observer with an opportunity to discuss aspects which they may take from their experience with the observed.

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Feedback

Receiving feedback can be a nerve-‐wracking experience. It’s suggested, therefore, that feedback

should be:

-‐ As immediate as possible

-‐ Delivered as informally as possible

-‐ Kept to the areas you were asked to comment on

It has been established at this stage that the observer is not being asked to assess teaching

competence. Despite this, the observed lecturer may want to know what judgements the

observer made about the observed session. The extent of the evaluative judgements you are

willing to provide should have been discussed and agreed upon in the initial pre-‐observation

meetings.

Where judgmental comments are made, keep in mind the subjectivity of the task you have been

involved in. Therefore, it’s suggested that phrases such as "It seemed to me ..." or "I felt that ..."

are more appropriate than "This was bad ..." or "You didn't succeed in ...". Because of the

importance of feedback in the observation process (since it is the feedback that encourages and

enables the observed lecturer to identify and develop weaker elements of their teaching), some

tips on giving and receiving feedback are presented in the table below.

Giving feedback

The impulsive response when providing feedback is to either report what you would’ve

done in a similar situation, or highlight the weaknesses at the expense of the strengths.

Neither is constructive or helpful.

Steps that can be taken to provide constructive, useful feedback include:

-‐ Confidence building (e.g., comment on some positive aspect of the session)

-‐ Limiting comments to aspects the lecturer can control or develop

-‐ Being specific in identifying problem areas -‐ vague generalisations are of little help

-‐ Displaying sensitivity to the goals of your colleague

-‐ Making a concerted effort not to be judgemental

-‐ Balancing the proportion of positive and negative feedback -‐ too much of either isn’t

constructive and is unlikely to lead to a change for the better

-‐ Being prompt, since delay reduces impact

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Receiving feedback

Natural, opposing responses to receiving feedback are either to accept whatever you’re told

as fact and follow all advice without question, or ignore everything. Neither will lead to

successful developments or a trusting, respectful relationship.

To gain the most from feedback, the receiver should:

-‐ Be prepared to consider comments which may challenge your own perceptions.

-‐ Have established from the outset exactly what you want your feedback to include

-‐ Be aware of how you’re receiving the info, both intellectually and emotionally

-‐ listen to what is being said rather than trying to explain or justify yourself

-‐ Be clear about what your colleague is saying and about the points they are trying to

make



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Producing an Action Plan

After particular issues have been identified one action may be produce an action plan or learning

contract.

This may involve a verbal or written agreement based on an issue identified through the

observation that details how a particular activity will be undertaken in order to achieve specified

learning goals, and what will be produced as evidence that the goals were met.

The role of the observer in this process is to help the observed party identify issues and to develop

an action-‐plan with specific targets. Examples include:

-‐ trying out new approaches to teaching

-‐ practising specific teaching techniques with a view to improving personal mastery

-‐ investigating what research says about particular teaching strategies or techniques, applying

this knowledge in the classroom and evaluating the results

-‐ producing new or improving existing learning materials

-‐ developing new curriculum content or processes

-‐ trying out new ways of assessing learning

It is important that the targets set are manageable within the time-‐frame.

Roles of Observed & Observer in the Post-‐Observation Meeting & Planning

Observer Observed

Encourage reflection on the session

Identify issues to be addressed

Provide structured and constructive

feedback

Contribute to discussion on how to improve

students’ learning experience

Help draw up action plan

Start by commenting on how you felt session

went. Be reflective

Discuss observer’s comments & ideas. Be

open to constructive comments

Draw up an action plan for specific

improvements in students’ learning

experience with observer

Agree on action plan/learning contract

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Implementing the Action Plan

While participating in the observation is an important step, the activities that result from it are

arguably more important. Without benefiting from the observations made, or implementing some

aspect, the process becomes a pointless paper exercise.

Reporting Achievements

This stage involves the production of some type of report on how the observation led to

improvement in the observed party’s teaching and the learning experience of students. In this

module this will relate to Assignment 2, and will include reflections on strengths and weaknesses,

and suggestions for changes or improvements to some aspect of your teaching.



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Sample Forms

This section includes sample forms that may be used for the peer observation. These may be

developed or personalised as required.

1. Pre-‐Observation Meeting

Person to be Observed:

Observer:

Date and Time of Observation:

Location of Observation:

Type and number of students:

Focus of observation:

How the observation data will be recorded:

Where the observer will sit, time for observation start and finish:

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2. Observation Session

Observer: Class:

Observed: Date:

First impressions made by the lecture

How were the intended outcomes

made clear to students at the beginning

of the lecture?

How was this particularly put into

context regarding previous &

forthcoming lectures?

How was the general tone & style of

the presentation?

How were visual aids used to enhance

students’ learning?

To what extent were students kept

actively learning during the lecture?

How was intended evidence of

achievement of intended learning

outcomes clarified to student during

lecture?

How were links made between the

content of the lecture and links to the

33

way this would be assessed?

What were students doing with any

handout materials used during the

lecture?

How were students’ questions invited

and handled during the lecture?

How was body language used to

enhance communication at the lecture?

Comments on tone of voice, clarity of

diction, audibility and so on

What were students doing during the

lecture?

How well was use made of the available

space as a learning environment?

How were learning outcomes revisited

towards the end of the lecture?

Any further comments about the close

of the lecture?

Specific areas asked to focus on?

34

3. Post-‐Observation Meeting

Name of person observed:

Date of observation:

Commentary / narrative on the processes of the session:

(You might like to pick out points for discussion during the feedback session.)

Any other comments that you think the person being observed might find useful:

Name of person conducting observation:

35

4. Observed -‐ Self Reflection (post observation)

Name of person observer:


What did I do well during the tutorial?

What could I have done better?

What were the biggest challenges in that class?

What will I resolve to do differently in my next tutorial/next time I tutor this topic?

What I gained from my colleague’s feedback (comments on feedback from observer):

What will I apply to my own teaching (action(s) to be taken)?

36

5. Observer -‐ Self Reflection (post observation)

Name of person observed:


What I learned from observing my colleague:

Comments on tutor’s feedback regarding my feedback:

What will I apply to my own teaching (action(s) to be taken)?

Reflection on action(s) taken (any other comments on the exercise):

37

Task: What is Reflective Practice?

Here are three definitions of reflective practice:

Definition 1:

“In reflective practice, practitioners engage in a continuous cycle of self-‐observation

and self-‐evaluation in order to understand their own actions and the reactions they

prompt in themselves and in learners (Brookfield, 1995; Thiel, 1999). The goal is not

necessarily to address a specific problem or question defined at the outset, as in

practitioner research, but to observe and refine practice in general on an ongoing

basis.”

(Cunningham 2001).

Definition 2:

“Reflective practice…involves thinking about and critically analyzing one's actions with

the goal of improving one's professional practice. Engaging in reflective practice requires

individuals to assume the perspective of an external observer in order to identify the

assumptions and feelings underlying their practice and then to speculate about how

these assumptions and feelings affect practice.”

(Imel 1992).

Definition 3

“…critical reflection entails a challenge to the hidden assumptions of both the

reflector and those of the surrounding social context. Critical reflection goes beyond

mere reflection, which could be simply a review of actions in the light of accepted

precepts, in that it requires the reflector to “deconstruct long-‐held habits of behaviour

by looking beyond the behaviour itself to their own self-‐image and examining why

they do what they do”.

(Silverman & Casazza 2000: 239).

38

Think about the above definitions for a couple of minutes. This might include discussions

with colleagues. Then, prepare (and be prepared to share) one of the following:

1. Complete the following sentence, “I prefer the 1st / 2nd / 3rd definition because… OR

2. Give your own definition of reflective practice OR

3. Complete the sentence, “For me, the most important feature of reflective practice

is….”. OR

4. Formulate a question about reflective practice that you think it would be useful to

have answered at this point.

39

Brookfield and the Lenses of Critically Reflective Teaching

The heart of the reflective process is viewing teaching from four different perspectives or

"lenses"

i) Autobiographies as teachers and learners

This process unveils the assumptions and reasoning that shape and influence our

teaching. Later, these assumptions may be verified through the remaining three

lenses. In addition to videotaping and peer observation, Brookfield describes

several innovative strategies that can be used with this lens

ii) Students' eyes

Assessment of student perceptions reveals to what extent our assumptions

about teaching or classroom management correspond with those of our students

iii) Colleagues' perceptions

Emphasises the importance of dialogue among colleagues. Discussion of

pedagogical matters frequently reveals that concerns or problems are shared.

Peer discussion not only validates our trials and successes, but it also provides

new perspectives and insights into problem-‐solving.

iv) Relevant theoretical literature

Theoretical literature plays a role in critical reflection in helping us to understand

our experiences by naming and describing them. According to Brookfield, this

can help prevent us from believing that we are responsible for everything (good

and bad) that happens in our class

40

How to be Critical when Reflecting on Your Teaching

The idea of critical reflection is a development of Habermas’s (1974) critical social science.

It is based on the assumption that self-‐reflection will be almost inevitably distorted by the

social context and personal history of the reflector.

“…critical reflection entails a challenge to the hidden assumptions of both the reflector

and those of the surrounding social context. Critical reflection goes beyond mere

reflection, which could be simply a review of actions in the light of accepted precepts,

in that it requires the reflector to “deconstruct long-‐held habits of behaviour by

looking beyond the behaviour itself to their own self-‐image and examining why they

do what they do”. (Silverman & Casazza 2000: 239).

In other words, when engaging in critical reflection you should make explicit and challenge

(as in review) your own basic assumptions and those of the community (society) in which

you work.

According to Brookfield (1988), four activities are central to critical reflection:

1. Assumption analysis – This is the first step in the critical reflection process. It

involves thinking in such a manner that you challenge your own beliefs, values,

cultural practices and social structures. The purpose of this is not, necessarily, to

overthrow these beliefs and values but, rather, to assess their impact on our daily

proceedings and thus be able to see more clearly causal relationships. Assumptions

are our way of seeing reality and but if we are unaware of them they can trap us into

false reasoning.

2. Contextual awareness – Realizing that our assumptions are socially and personally

created in a specific historical and cultural context.

3. Imaginative speculation – Imagining alternative ways of thinking about phenomena

in order to find better ways of doing things. This is really what is meant by the oft-‐

use but little understood phrase “thinking outside the box”.

41

4. Reflective skepticism -‐ Questioning of universal truth claims or unexamined patterns

of behaviour and interaction through the prior three activities (assumption analysis,

contextual awareness, and imaginative speculation). It is the ability to think about a

subject so that taken-‐for-‐granted assumptions are suspended or temporarily

rejected in order to establish the truth of an analysis or the viability of a proposition.

In a later paper, Brookfield (1995) suggests that there are, at least, three different types of

assumption.

“Paradigmatic assumptions are the hardest of all assumptions to uncover. They are the

structuring assumptions we use to order the world into fundamental categories. Usually we

don't even recognize them as assumptions, even after they've been pointed out to us.

Instead we insist that they're objectively valid renderings of reality, the facts as we know

them to be true. Some paradigmatic assumptions I have held at different stages of my life as

a teacher are that adults are self-‐directed learners, that critical thinking is an intellectual

function characteristic of adult life, that good adult educational processes are inherently

democratic, and that education always has a political dimension. Paradigmatic assumptions

are examined critically only after a great deal of resistance to doing this, and it takes a

considerable amount of contrary evidence and disconfirming experiences to change them.

But when they are challenged and changed, the consequences for our lives are explosive.

Prescriptive assumptions are assumptions about what we think ought to be happening in a

particular situation. They are the assumptions that are surfaced as we examine how we

think teachers should behave, what good educational processes should look like, and what

obligations students and teachers owe to each other. Inevitably they are grounded in, and

extensions of, our paradigmatic assumptions. For example, if you believe that adults are

self-‐directed learners then you assume that the best teaching is that which encourages

students to take control over designing, conducting and evaluating their own learning.

Causal assumptions are assumptions about how different parts of the world work and

about the conditions under which these can be changed. They are usually stated in

predictive terms. An example of a causal assumption would be that if we use learning

42

contracts this will increase students' self-‐directedness. Another would be the assumption

that if we make mistakes in front of students this creates a trustful environment for learning

in which students feel free to make errors with no fear of censure or embarrassment. Of all

the asumptions we hold, causal ones are the easiest to uncover. Most of the reflective

exercises described in this book will, if they work well, clarify teachers' causal assumptions.

But discovering and investigating these is only the start of the reflective process. We must

then try to find a way to work back to the more deeply embedded prescriptive and

paradigmatic assumptions we hold.”

43

Task: Reflective Writing Part One

You may find it useful to use the following grid to explore whether your reflective writing

meets Brookfield’s definition of critical reflection.

Have I… Yes /

No

Example:

…made explicit and

challenged my own hidden

assumptions?

…where and if appropriate

made explicit and

challenged the hidden

assumptions of others?

… shown how the

assumptions made by

myself or others are related

to specific historical and

cultural contexts?

…been sufficiently skeptical

when analyzing situations,

motives and actions?

…engaged in imaginative

speculation?

(…thought outside of the

box?)

44

Task: Reflective Writing Part Two

Identify a memorable experience that you have had either as a teacher or as a learner. It

should be an event that captured your imagination in some way and from which you feel

you learned something important.

Write down

A. A description of the event.

B. Why it was memorable.

C. What it was that you learned.

D. A statement of what evidence there is that the event took place.

E. An answer to the question, Looking back, what was the meaning of the experience

for you as an individual? (You may find that the answer is very similar to B above. If

so, do not worry but try to add to or amplify what you wrote in that section.)

52

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