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CONTENTS

PEANUTS

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Contents Peanuts

contentsWhat’s new

IntroductionA.1 Agronomy at a glance ..............................................................................................xii

A.2 Crop overview ...........................................................................................................xiii

A.3 Executive summary ..................................................................................................xiv

1 Planning/Paddock preparation1.1.1 Peanut production season plan .............................................................................. 1

Pre-season ...........................................................................................................................................2

Ground preparation ...........................................................................................................................2

Week 0: planting .................................................................................................................................2

Week 1: cracking .................................................................................................................................2

Weeks 2 and 3: crop establishment ............................................................................................2

Weeks 4 and 5: flowering ................................................................................................................2

Weeks 6 and 7: main flowering .....................................................................................................3

Weeks 8 and 9: pegging .................................................................................................................3

Weeks 10 and 11: pegging and pod-setting ...............................................................................3

Weeks 12 and 13: canopy closure and pod-setting ................................................................3

Weeks 14 and 15: pod-filling ............................................................................................................3

Weeks 16 and 17: pod-filling and early maturity .......................................................................4

Weeks 18 and 19: maturity and digging ......................................................................................4

Weeks 20 and 21 ................................................................................................................................4

Harvest...................................................................................................................................................4

Pre-cleaning .........................................................................................................................................4

Curing .....................................................................................................................................................4

1.2 Paddock selection ...................................................................................................... 5

1.2.1 Rotations .......................................................................................................................5

1.2.2 Soils ...............................................................................................................................5

1.3 Paddock history .......................................................................................................... 5

1.3.1 Paddock history trials ................................................................................................6

1.3.2 Pesticide history ....................................................................................................... 10

1.4 Benefits of peanuts as a rotation crop ..................................................................10

1.5 Disadvantages of peanuts as a rotation crop .....................................................10

1.6 Pre-plant weed control .............................................................................................10

1.7 Potential crop contaminants ...................................................................................10

1.8 Seedbed requirements ..............................................................................................11

1.9 Soil moisture ..............................................................................................................11

1.9.1 Dryland ......................................................................................................................... 11

1.9.2 Irrigation .................................................................................................................... 12What will irrigation do? ................................................................................................................... 12

Irrigation systems ............................................................................................................................. 12

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1.10 Yield and targets .......................................................................................................13

1.10.1 Seasonal outlook ..................................................................................................... 15

1.10.2 Fallow moisture and double-cropping ............................................................... 15

1.10.3 Water Use Efficiency ............................................................................................... 15

1.10.4 Nitrogen-use efficiency .......................................................................................... 16

1.11 Disease status of paddock ...................................................................................... 17

1.12 Insect status of paddock .......................................................................................... 17

2 Pre-planting2.1 Varietal performance and ratings yield ................................................................... 1

2.1.1 Hi Oleic varieties ........................................................................................................2

2.1.2 Short-season (early maturing) varieties ................................................................2

2.1.3 Yielding ability .............................................................................................................3

2.1.4 Peanut breeding .........................................................................................................4Kairi .........................................................................................................................................................4

Taabinga ...............................................................................................................................................4

2.2 Quality of planting seed ........................................................................................... 4

2.2.1 Growing peanuts for seed .......................................................................................5Clean land ............................................................................................................................................5

Clean machinery ................................................................................................................................5

Irrigation ................................................................................................................................................5

Supplementary calcium....................................................................................................................5

Maturity ..................................................................................................................................................5

Digging and threshing ......................................................................................................................5

Drying .....................................................................................................................................................6

Peanut seed contracts .....................................................................................................................6

3 Planting3.1 Seed dressings ............................................................................................................ 1

3.2 Inoculation .................................................................................................................... 1

3.2.1 Treat inoculum well ....................................................................................................2

3.3 Germination ................................................................................................................. 2

3.4 Reduced tillage ........................................................................................................... 2

3.5 Time of planting .......................................................................................................... 3

3.6 Seeding rate ................................................................................................................ 3

3.7 Sowing depth .............................................................................................................. 4

3.8 Row configuration ...................................................................................................... 4

3.9 Sowing equipment ......................................................................................................7

3.9.1 Press-wheels ...............................................................................................................8

3.9.2 Planters .........................................................................................................................9

4 Plant growth and physiology4.1 Botanical types ............................................................................................................ 1

4.2 Growth and development ......................................................................................... 3

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4.2.1 Germination and emergence ..................................................................................3

4.2.2 Vegetative growth ......................................................................................................4

4.2.3 Flowering ......................................................................................................................5

4.2.4 Pegging .........................................................................................................................5

4.2.5 Pod development .......................................................................................................6

4.2.6 Podfill .............................................................................................................................6

4.2.7 Maturity ......................................................................................................................... 7

4.3 Seed dormancy ........................................................................................................... 8

5 nutrition and fertiliser5.1 Declining soil fertility .................................................................................................. 1

5.1.1 Soil organic matter ...................................................................................................... 1

5.1.2 Current situation .........................................................................................................4

5.1.3 Options for reversing the decline in soil organic matter .................................5Impact of fertiliser N inputs on soil ...............................................................................................7

5.2 Nutritional requirements ............................................................................................7

5.3 Soil fertility ..................................................................................................................10

5.4 Crop removal rates ...................................................................................................10

5.5 Soil testing ...................................................................................................................11

5.6 Nutrient availability and soil pH...............................................................................11

5.7 Calcium ........................................................................................................................13

5.8 Nitrogen .....................................................................................................................15

5.8.1 Nitrogen loss ..............................................................................................................17How nitrogen is lost ..........................................................................................................................17

Case study: One management strategy to reduce nitrogen losses ............................... 18

5.9 Phosphorus.................................................................................................................18

5.10 Sulfur ..........................................................................................................................20

5.11 Potassium ..................................................................................................................20

5.12 Boron ..........................................................................................................................22

5.13 Copper ........................................................................................................................23

5.14 Iron ..............................................................................................................................23

5.15 Magnesium ................................................................................................................25

5.16 Manganese ................................................................................................................26

5.17 Molybdenum .............................................................................................................26

5.18 Zinc.............................................................................................................................. 27

5.19 Cadmium management ...........................................................................................28

6 Weed control6.1 Digging ......................................................................................................................... 2

6.2 Threshing ..................................................................................................................... 2

6.3 Drying ........................................................................................................................... 3

6.4 Management options ................................................................................................. 3

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6.4.1 Cultivation ....................................................................................................................3

6.4.2 Herbicides ....................................................................................................................3Grass weeds ........................................................................................................................................3

Broadleaf weeds ................................................................................................................................3

Weed peanuts .....................................................................................................................................4

7 Insect control7.1 Types of insect pests .................................................................................................. 1

Foliage feeders ....................................................................................................................................1

Sucking insects ....................................................................................................................................1

7.2 Growth stages ............................................................................................................. 2

7.2.1 Pre-emergence ...........................................................................................................2

7.2.2 Emergence to first flowering ..................................................................................2

7.2.3 Flowering, pegging and podfill ...............................................................................3

7.2.4 Mature crops ...............................................................................................................3

7.3 Damage caused by pests ......................................................................................... 3Soil insects and pod damage .......................................................................................................3

7.4 Management of insect pests ................................................................................... 3

7.5 Major insect pests of peanuts .................................................................................. 4

7.5.1 Aphids (Aphididae) ....................................................................................................4

7.5.2 Cluster caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) ..................................................................5

7.5.3 Cutworms (Agrotis spp.) ...........................................................................................6

7.5.4 Lucerne seed web moth (Etiella behrii) ................................................................ 7

7.5.5 False wireworms (Gonocephalum spp. and Pterohelaeus spp.) ...................8

7.5.6 Helicoverpa punctigera and H. armigera ............................................................9

7.5.7 Lucerne leafhopper (Austroasca alfalfae) ......................................................... 10

7.5.8 Vegetable leafhopper (Austroasca viridigrisea) ............................................... 11

7.5.9 Pineapple mealybug (Dysmicoccus neobrevipes) .......................................... 12

7.5.10 Mirids (Miridae), green and brown (Creontiades sp.) ......................................13

7.5.11 Peanut mite (Paraplonobia spp.) ...........................................................................14

7.5.12 Two-spotted mite (Tetranychus urticae) ............................................................. 15

7.5.13 Redshouldered leaf beetle (Monolepta australis) .......................................... 16

7.5.14 Silverleaf whitefly (Bemisia tabaci, type B) ........................................................17

7.5.15 Storage insects ......................................................................................................... 18

7.5.16 Thrips (Thysanoptera) ............................................................................................. 19

7.5.17 Whitefringed weevil (Graphognathus leucoloma) ......................................... 20

7.5.18 Cane whitegrubs (Lepidiota spp.) ........................................................................ 21

7.5.19 Peanut whitegrubs (Heteronyx piceus) ............................................................. 22

7.5.20 Wireworms (click beetles, Elateridae) ................................................................ 23

8 nematode management8.1 Types of nematodes................................................................................................... 2

8.1.1 Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus brachyurus) ..........................................2

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8.1.2 Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla) .......................................................2

8.2 Effects of cropping history on nematode status .................................................. 3

9 Diseases9.1 Damage caused by disease ...................................................................................... 1

9.2 Management of disease ............................................................................................ 1

9.2.1 Crop rotation ...............................................................................................................2

9.2.2 Fungicide program for high risk areas ................................................................2

9.3 Disease symptoms ..................................................................................................... 2

9.3.1 Causes of seedlings dying (or poor emergence) ..............................................3Soil-borne fungi including Aspergillus niger (Aspergillus crown rot) and Rhizopus arrhizus ......................................................................................................................3

Damaged seed ...................................................................................................................................4

9.3.2 Causes of leaves with brown spots ......................................................................4Early and late leaf spot (caused by Cercospora arachidicola and Cercosporidium personatum) .........................................................................................................4

Rust (caused by Puccinia arachidis) .............................................................................................6

Net (or web) blotch (caused by Didymosphaeria arachidicola)...........................................8

Pepper spot and scorch (caused by Leptosphaerulina arachidicola) ...............................9

Physiological spotting .......................................................................................................................9

9.3.3 Leaves with colour variations ............................................................................... 10Capsicum chlorosis virus (CaCV) ................................................................................................ 10

Peanut mottle virus (PMV) ............................................................................................................... 11

Tomato spotted wilt virus (TSWV) ................................................................................................ 12

Verticillium wilt (caused by Verticillium dahliae) ..................................................................... 13

9.3.4 Branch wilting or plant death ................................................................................ 15Sclerotinia blight (caused by Sclerotinia sclerotiorum and S. minor) .............................. 15

Cylindrocladium black rot (CBR) (caused by Cylindrocladium crotalaria) ...................... 16

White mould (caused by Sclerotium rolfsii) .............................................................................. 18

Collar rot (caused by Lasiodiplodia theobromae) ................................................................. 19

Aspergillus crown rot (caused by Aspergillus niger) ............................................................ 21

Charcoal rot (caused by Macrophomina phaseolina) .........................................................22

Rhizoctonia stem rot (caused by Rhizoctonia solani) ..........................................................23

9.3.5 Ill-thrift ........................................................................................................................ 24Root-lesion nematodes (Pratylenchus brachyurus) .............................................................. 24

Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne hapla) ...........................................................................25

9.3.6 Pods damaged at harvest ..................................................................................... 26Soil insects .........................................................................................................................................26

Pod-rotting fungi, including Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Pythium spp. and Rhizoctonia solani...................................................................................................................26

Aflatoxin-producing fungi (Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus) ....................................26

9.4 Soil-borne diseases .................................................................................................28

9.4.1 neocosmospora vasinfecta ........................................................................29

9.5 Emerging diseases ...................................................................................................29

9.5.1 Peanut smut (Thecaphora frezii) ........................................................................ 29

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9.5.2 Peanut kernel shrivel ............................................................................................ 29

10 Plant growth regulators and canopy management

11 crop desiccation/spray out

12 Harvest12.1 Hull scrape test .......................................................................................................... 1

12.2 When to dig ................................................................................................................ 2

12.2.1 Peg strength ................................................................................................................2

12.2.2 Disease .........................................................................................................................2

12.2.3 Weather conditions ....................................................................................................2

12.2.4 Soil conditions .............................................................................................................3

12.2.5 Area to be harvested ................................................................................................3

12.3 Digging and inverting ................................................................................................ 3

12.4 Windrowing ................................................................................................................. 4

12.5 Threshing ..................................................................................................................... 5

12.6 Wet harvest issues and management .................................................................... 5

13 storage13.1 How to dry and store peanuts on-farm ................................................................... 1

13.1.1 Aflatoxin ........................................................................................................................2

13.1.2 Off-flavour contamination .......................................................................................2

13.2 Pre-cleaning ................................................................................................................ 2

13.3 Storage pests .............................................................................................................. 2

14 environmental issues14.1 Climate .......................................................................................................................... 1

14.2 Temperature ................................................................................................................. 1

14.2.1 Risk management for frost ......................................................................................4

14.2.2 The changing nature of frost in Australia ...........................................................4

14.3 Rainfall .......................................................................................................................... 4

14.4 Daylength ..................................................................................................................... 5

14.5 Soils ............................................................................................................................... 5

15 Marketing15.1 Consumption ................................................................................................................ 1

15.1.1 Food value ...................................................................................................................2

15.2 World production ........................................................................................................ 2

15.3 Contract options ......................................................................................................... 3