Paradoxes of Hybrid Organizing in the Cambridge Energy Alliance

by

Jason Jesurum Jay

M.Ed., Harvard Graduate School of Education, 2003 B.A. Psychology, Harvard College, 1999

Submitted to the MIT Sloan School of Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

at the

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

August, 2010

© 2010 Jason Jay. All Rights Reserved.

The author hereby grants to MIT permission to reproduce and to distribute publicly paper and electronic copies of this thesis document in whole or in part in any medium now known or hereafter created. Signature of Author ...............................................................................................................

MIT Sloan School of Management August 19, 2010 Certified by ...........................................................................................................................

Wanda J. Orlikowski Alfred P. Sloan Professor of Information Technologies and Organization Studies

MIT Sloan School of Management Thesis Supervisor

Accepted by .......................................................................................................................... Roberto M. Fernandez

William F. Pounds Professor in Management Professor of Organization Studies

Acting Chair, PhD Program, MIT Sloan School of Management

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Page 8 of 186!

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When the opportunity came to work on CEA I jumped on it. I do believe in this project as a model going forward. I don’t think you can rain energy efficiency down from above - I think it has to come from the grass roots level. And I think that the community based marketing type of approach will work. I don’t think we've quite got all the kinks out of it yet - but I think this approach of bringing this to people from people is going to work much better than [utility by itself]. There is some cynicism in our country, which is well-earned, I guess, but it reduces our opportunity to serve folks even when we have good programs that are cost effective. So by working with their friends and neighbors we are going to be able to do a lot more.

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I don't think there is any ESCo, there is no bank, there is nothing that can do it more cheaply than Alpha, because of our structures and our ability to do it ourselves. We can borrow money cheaply and cheaper than most of those people because of tax exempt, everything. So I think in some particular dislocations of the market, that may not be true, and we may not be allowed to go to capital markets and borrow or do some other thing... so there may be some instances where we benefit… but it’s like giving 30% of company to private investor, you are giving up a lot of potential. So it's the same thing here. If you let an ESCo do it, they will do it, they have the capital base, but the reality is the cost would be probably at least 50% more than what we could do, if we set that project.

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[I am interested in] the rigor and measurement CEA/ESCOs bring to the endeavor as well as the potential expertise and additional bandwidth/capacity. This is a positive value that in some instances/projects could overwrite the pure financial economics. The best of both worlds is if they could do this, manage the project and Alpha had the capacity to finance it.

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This has been the year of people coming to me about CEA in impressionistic way. They get brokered by people all the way up to [board members]… We can get some good stuff going, whether it involves CEA or not. I got frustrated with the “why aren’t we doing anything with CEA” questions lobbed in. I’m not committed to CEA. They need us as a marquee name - and need us in their portfolio.

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[CEA staffer] attributes the problem to Beta’s reliance on the facilities people “in the boiler room” to make decisions: “If [Beta staff member sympathetic to CEA] had been on the selection committee they might have made a decision more based on community engagement. There is a problem in being labeled as a non-profit - people say you are mission driven and that’s code for we don’t need to give you any money.” (Field notes, 4/1/2009)

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I honestly haven’t seen the Cambridge Energy Alliance model presented in a way where I... totally get it... I wish I understood it so I could have explained it to folks around here in a way that might have changed things.

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[The review committee] were looking a bit at apples to apples. Had it been apples to oranges, they would have said CEA is providing us with oranges, that’s pretty interesting. As it was, that didn’t show up as issue… And, it comes at 3% cost.

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OK, so you didn’t get the job. But if you look at your highest level goals around reducing the greenhouse gas footprint of Cambridge, we're still achieving that goal. We haven't contracted with you but we have contracted with a reputable firm and we are doing things. You know, I don’t mean this as consolation prize, but at the highest level... the reason for your existence is being addressed by the path of action that we’re taking.

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Person 1 – We said we would link community as a driver to these organizations. If you look at our cases, we were unable to do that. With Epsilon, [Assistant City Manager] was terrific. Director of community relations attended. That seemed very good. But not administrative VP. Person 2 - We tried to get him, I’m sure. Person 1 - We did try. We had facilities people. I did try to keep link with community person. Shunted into facility and ESCo and getting project done. Community person drifted off. Clearly would have been better to work with her. But even she was notch too low. We didn’t put community in front of them. We need bandwagon, put in driveway, CEO sees it, and we were never able to show that. Epsilon would have been easy place. (Field notes, 4/28/2009)

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They could be saving $750,000 per year and fund completely out of savings but they aren’t doing it. Elevator light bulbs this year…

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Other client with progress is Zeta. [CEA team members] met with them in November. Then [client manager] meeting with them in two days. Eager to get started with… antiquated steam system they want to replace. Can get started right away with project there. Interested in [group of buildings] and measuring and monitoring to get [occupants] doing contests. Their culture is not tuned to energy and environment and administrators want to push that agenda forward. And other part of Zeta is [a cluster of small buildings] and we will get in there. Weather sealing and insulation, old boilers, all that kind of stuff. That could be good opportunity. (Field notes, 12/2/2008)

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[CEA staffer] comes to talk. He first says that [client manager] told him the Zeta gig is a go. Crossing his fingers. (Field notes 12/12/2008)

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[CEA staffer] says that this is a success story for the CEA model because we got the meeting after [City Manager] Bob Healy badgered the president of Zeta and said we are great to work with. (Field notes, 11/13/2008)

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Of all customers, Zeta appreciates residential and outreach component more than any group or institution we’ve talked with. To them it’s a value-add; the things they can do with CEA they can’t do otherwise. Community, and outreach and bragging. [Larger potential client] doesn’t need us for publicity. Zeta arguably does. (Field notes, 11/5/2008)

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The VP, in a meeting with us on Monday, suddenly said she’s not interested in the boiler, without explanation… I had to have a conversation with the facilities guy... He had us in over Christmas, moved up meetings, now suddenly not interested? We looked at rest of campus - there are opportunities. But can’t get [ESCo] interested in it. Bill said it’s the money. I said, that we can deal with. (Field notes, 2/11/2009)

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Her perspective was that even going off balance sheet, if it’s a financial obligation that has to go off revenue or cash flow it’s the same for her given her concerns. (Field notes, 2/13/2009) There are some very good projects there that are perfect for performance contracting even if they don't decide to do something with central plant. That project seemed to be undermined completely by their perceived financial issues. The operations people were extremely enthusiastic. (Field notes, 12/7/2009)

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[Gamma rep at start of meeting]: Great job. We’re calculating things the way you are. Lots of information to help us see what makes sense. Looks like less than 10 year payback, and 20% off GHG footprint. [everyone smiles and tone is very positive; CEA client manager claps his hands and ESCo engineer blushes]. [Gamma rep at end of meeting]: My take is I think you guys have done what we were looking for. Achieves the goals we need. Lot to understand on agreement, need to understand what risk, what that looks like. I will digest info you send to us. We will have one meeting to talk about contract language. (Field notes, 5/15/2009)

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Gamma interviewee 1: We’re not going for performance contracting. What’s behind that… probably part of it is financing. But also, performance contracting doesn't have best reputation in the world… Performance contracting can be very complicated and expensive in terms of M&V… You don’t always get results you had hoped for. So it's something that most people feel like, “Let me put something in, let me get a rebate, and then I'm done with this.” They do what they want to do and get good results. And perhaps it's not quite as comprehensive, but I think it ultimately it gets you to the same goal. And then you're not tied up with some outside organization - praying that you're going to be able to achieve the savings that you had, and therefore pay them… I don't think people want to be that involved with an external source. But that's just my gut. Interviewer: They'd rather have the autonomy to manage it internally. Gamma interviewee 1: Yes. And they are doing a good job. We have seen considerable drop in our electric demand over the past year.

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Gamma interviewee 2: Generally when I've talked to facilities managers about these kinds of things [ESCos and performance contracting]... eh, they're not so sure. It's a multifaceted problem in a sense. But I think it's rooted in the fact that facilities managers are a pretty cautious lot. And sometimes not as technically proficient in some of these areas as they should be. Therefore, not knowing that they can manage something like this as well. Because maybe they don't fully have the skillset, therefore they are trusting someone to do the right thing.

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I’m not sure they are as coherent as they should be. I think there is a little bit of an identity crisis here. Maybe that's too strong a word, but... the idea, is it part of the City, is it not part of the City? What is this thing? The perception among potential customers, residential or commercial, about what's the business model… All of that has seemed a little fluid from the beginning… Because City has arms-length relationship with it through Cambridge Health Alliance. Although [City Manager] Bob Healy is on the board, he has to be very clear, very careful about how much of this is the City, and putting City at risk, and so forth. So there is kind of this odd position of whether it is or isn’t. And at the same time it’s not a pure competitive private sector consulting energy development operation… So it does have this kind of odd... so my guess is to people who don't really understand how all these things work, they kind of wonder, "well, what is this thing?" Is it an agency of city? Is it not? It's non profit, but it has to make own money. So I think there's... the business model has that challenge in terms of understanding what this thing really is. And ultimately therefore how people perceive it.

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It has become even less clear to me over time… And the business model has changed for variety of different reasons. So the concept is still there, but the details are quite different. And the identity, I think, is affected by that. That has been part of the problem. I think even that lack of clarity has affected the way [Gamma building managers] look at this as well. Are we doing this because we want to have good relationship with the city? What’s in it for them? What's in it for us? How does this thing work? Not having that quite as clear as it might be. I do think that’s an ongoing challenge. I don't have a good answer for it.

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In the last couple of years especially, in the last two months, two weeks, two days, there’s all of this out there about climate change and greenhouse gas reduction and so on. So today it’s hard - it’s different than it was 10 years ago. Today it’s already on people’s minds, so just from that alone, you need to address - you need to address it, ‘cause your employees are thinking about it. And if you want to remain competitive with employees, I would think you would want to consider what’s on their minds and what are they - what are they concerned about.

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I think we were hoping to do two things. One is, you know, we have young population at Eta. And that, to attract the best and sometimes the youngest scientists, we want to have, we want to be the kind of organization that is again sort of cutting edge just like the science. So there was an interest in the mission of Eta that we are interested in the latest technologies. The second of course was cost savings. So the idea of co-generation - the idea that it is incredibly expensive to implement but you will see at some point that it will pay for itself.

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I think... the whole process will now be much better served for having made this choice. I think that we can move down the line with complete legal legitimacy without people saying, well, who the hell is CEA, I could have done that stuff. You don’t need to turn a positive into a negative… and in this world… the current view of public sector is very cynical. And I guess in some cases for good reason. But in other cases, I guess it’s easier to be negative than be positive and accomplish something. Easier to criticize it…

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Once we looked at anti-aid amendment and how it was envisioned that this would work I said, in current law, this can’t be done without some competition. And the makeup of CEA itself administratively… the reality is it’s not a big organization. You're heavily reliant on consultants, which is how it should be, and I understand that’s the way industry needs to work. It doesn’t blend itself easily for a public sector contract with a small entity that then is going to get a big number that it is going to do as pass through to consultants or almost a pass-through with a 10% administrative charge. There are still some details to be worked out. But the symbolism, real and perceived, of being... blessed... whatever the right word is... by legislation makes it easier to move forward.

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We don't own - we are tenants. Only one, so not democratic but... on other side only have 10 year lease. An 11 to 12 year return on investment is harder for us to see as something to expend funds on. But we may not move, so may be good to do, and we want to lead. (Field notes, 3/4/2009)

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We all know Cambridge wants to be leader of pack. We also want that. When you put all that together, it's a good fit… We want to do something. Want to be leader in sustainability. Have to spend money. But I don't want to go out of business buying all hybrid cars. Need to be careful how we spend… Any way to tie to LEED report? If we show that, it's easier. Measures helping certification was 150K out of the 723K to 1M potential project scale? We are together. We want LEED, we want footprint. Bigger bang for buck. (Field notes, 3/4/2009)

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I think there are these three facets we consider in implementing sustainability improvements - one is for the community, one is for our clients, and one is costs. So we take all three of those… and we evaluate anything that we do, and if it has a benefit to all three of them, we'll do it. If one of them does not, or has a significant negative impact, then we won’t…

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The planet has an indirect benefit. If we do something for a very local community like here in Cambridge, or if we do something on a larger scale like for a water treatment plant, or if we do any sustainable decision making for any of our offices, these changes benefit the local communities. If every one of our offices did something in their local community then our changes have an impact on the world.

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I told them for an investment of three-quarters of a million dollars, you will save 135K per year and end up with 5 year payback. So if you have three quarters of a million dollars you are willing to spend, in 5 years you're going to get it back… And we saw benefit to doing this because we can demonstrate to our clients, that what we are designing for your facilities, we have done in our office. That's why it's very important to make a decision on the impact of all three [client, community, cost]. The executives are always careful with our discretionary spending. Why don't we ask our engineers to do it? Could we put it off til next year? I said it’s worth doing. First of all we want to be the leader, and we want to be the forefront. What if we’re the 10th building that does this? We might not stand out as well in our clients’ eyes. It might help us with the community and saving money, but might not be as big an impact with the client base.

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We’ve worked with Cambridge since our founding in 1947. We designed the water treatment plant over at Fresh Pond. And we do a lot of work for them in water and other public works.

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Page 97 of 186!

CHeA interviewee: We are looking at CEA as kind of being an extender, and a coordinator, and trying to be innovative in how can we get increased activity, focus, and energy (no pun intended) realized on getting our employees activated and engaged… Our intent with CEA was to see if we could leverage them to help us with organizing, stepping up our tempo on sustainability efforts with their expertise, and their programs, and their services. Because part of what I think is an interesting aspect that I think has a lot of potential is the whole emphasis that President Obama has with, you know, green technology and energy… so we think that CEA is uniquely poised, you know, as a national model, to be able to really take this topic and really go forward and make some innovative programs and coordination of services and delivery of services to help us reduce our operating cost and do the right thing for the environment. Whether it’s solar or whether it's more recommissioning of the plants to make sure they are achieving and operating the way they are supposed to… There's multiple dimensions on the energy side.

41.$!'@%5@.&8!-($.&'$$!#))#&8'*'&/!1#$!%66())'0!.&!9#)/!/1)%(81!#!5%&8!/')*?!*(5/.7#6'/'0!.&/')E%)8#&.>#/.%&#5!/.'!-'/C''&!/1'!%)8#&.>#/.%&$?!*'0.#/'0!-+!.&0.@.0(#5$!C1%!7%$/')'0!9#/.'&/!#&0!6)'#/.@'!'&8#8'*'&/!-'/C''&!-%/1!9#)/.'$B!3/!#5$%!1'59$!/1#/!F='H!#&0!FGH!#)'!/C.&!1+-).0!%)8#&.>#/.%&$!#5.8&'0!C./1!/1'!$#*'!*(&.6.9#5!8%@')&*'&/B!!N&'!F='H!$/#77!*'*-')!'A95#.&'0J!!!

There is some unique history with CEA and CHeA - with the incorporation and the establishment. Our attorneys were asked by the City Manager to help establish CEA... So we are inextricably interwoven with their establishment. Paul Allison said to us, “At the bequest of Bob Healy, the City Manager, we helped establish this [CEA]. And I know you guys are working on these different energy efficiency initiatives, and we wanted to see if there are any synergies.” It was no directive, only if it makes sense. Now we are just trying to understand how we can benefit from the relationship.

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Page 98 of 186!

1#&0'0!%77!/%!7#6.5./.'$!$/#77B!!41.$!5'0!/%!C1#/!FGH!$/#77!)'7')!/%!#$!g8'//.&8!$/(6I!.&!/1'!-%.5')!)%%*?h!.&!C1.61!7#6.5./.'$!$/#77!-'6%*'!/1'!9).*#)+!&'8%/.#/.&8!9#)/&')$B!!FGH!$/#77!-'5.'@'!/1#/!F`3!7#6.5./.'$!$/#77!#)'!*%/.@#/'0!-+!/1)''!/1.&8$J!#!0'$.)'!/%!*.&.*.>'!6%*95#.&/$!-+!-(.50.&8!%66(9#&/$?!#&0!/1($!#@%.0!(&&'6'$$#)+!0.$)(9/.%&$!/%!7#6.5./.'$!%9')#/.%&$d!#!0'$.)'!/%!*#.&/#.&!6%&/)%5!%7!7#6.5./.'$!*#&#8'*'&/!C./1%(/!(&0('!.&/')7')'&6'!-+!%(/$.0'!6%&/)#6/%)$!#&0!$')@.6'!9'%95'd!#&0!#!0'$.)'!/%!*.&.*.>'!/1'!6%$/!%7!#&+!&'6'$$#)+!9)%a'6/$B!!e%)!7#6.5./.'$!$/#77?!/1'!@#5('!9)%9%$./.%&!%7!FGH!.$!$%*'/.*'$!$''&!#$!#!-'&'7./?!-(/!6#&!-'!'A9').'&6'0!#$!#!/1)'#/!.7!./!.$!$''&!#$!1#&0.&8!%@')!'&')8+!'77.6.'&6+!*#&#8'*'&/!/%!#!/1.)0!9#)/+B!!41'!@#5('!%7!'&8#8.&8!.&!#!6%**(&./+!6#*9#.8&!/1#/!*.81/!C.&!/1'!%)8#&.>#/.%&!8%%0!9(-5.6./+!.$!#5$%!&%/!9#)/!%7!#!7#6.5./.'$K!*#&#8')K$!9()@.'Cd!)#/1')!./!.$!*%)'!5.I'5+!/%!)'$%&#/'!C./1!9(-5.6!)'5#/.%&$?!*#)I'/.&8?!%)!1(*#&!)'$%()6'$!$/#77!C1%!#)'!6%&6')&'0!C./1!/1'!%)8#&.>#/.%&K$!)'9(/#/.%&!C./1!I'+!$/#I'1%50')$B!

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I also think that we have a fundamental credibility issue in the large C&I sector. You know, if I’m [names three large clients], I’m not going to do a multi-million dollar project with a 2 person non-profit. I do those projects with Johnson Controls or Ameresco [two key ESCos], I don't do it with little non-profits.

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Cross-sector collaborations are more likely to succeed when they establish— with both internal and external stakeholders— the legitimacy of collaboration as a form of organizing, as a separate entity, and as a source of trusted interaction among members. (p. 47)

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Legitimacy is a generalized perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, or appropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions. (p. 574)

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Proposition 1: Cross-sectoral collaborations will be successful when they establish the legitimacy of both the network form and a hybrid way of organizing. Doing so requires navigating the paradox of hybrid legitimacy.

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Proposition 2: Navigating the paradox of hybrid legitimacy requires pursuing alternative pathways to legitimacy that allow circumventing the illegitimacy of defying known organizational types.

Proposition 3: One alternative pathway to hybrid legitimacy is to sequentially present the organization as one or the other known type. This may be a more feasible strategy in the early stages of organizational development before a dominant reputation has been established.

Proposition 4: One alternative pathway to hybrid legitimacy is to work with exchange partners who are themselves hybrid organizations, with whom cognitive and moral legitimacy can be more easily established.

Page 108 of 186!

Proposition 5: One alternative pathway to hybrid legitimacy is to use interpersonal relationships such as those built through structural ties, enabling interpersonal trust to scaffold the development of cognitive and moral legitimacy.

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Proposition 6: In facing the paradox of hybrid legitimacy, actors inside the hybrid organization will experience stuckness, in which the organization hesitates in engaging with exchange partners until it has successfully resolved its internal contradictions, but to the detriment of performance.

Proposition 7: In facing the paradox of hybrid legitimacy, actors inside the hybrid organization will experience oscillation, moving back and forth between organizational identities and images.

Proposition 8: In facing the paradox of hybrid legitimacy, actors inside the hybrid organization will experience some reduction in organizational complexity and cleaving to one pole of the hybridity; this creates path dependency based on its most successful exchange relationships.

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The Cambridge Energy Alliance (CEA) is a new nonprofit organization affiliated with the City that will design, market, finance, manage, and document unprecedented efficiency improvements in the use of energy, water, and transportation. The CEA will carry out a massive $100+ million efficiency effort offering new technical services and financing options to residents, businesses, organizations, and institutions. Where feasible, the CEA will also support installations of new renewable and clean energy generation, and technologies that curb electricity use during peak demand periods.

H"#.$567$,#+,-(%#+$)%*$&)**)'.$*%-%#&#.%$).$L-/$EFGF=$%"#$3-.18-1#$8*#+$@-*$-*$('33'@*M$

The Cambridge Energy Alliance confronts Climate Change by educating, inspiring, and assisting residents and businesses in Cambridge to improve the efficiency of their buildings and reduce their climate impact. We work to overcome barriers that prevent people and organizations from implementing efficiency measures in their buildings through programs, outreach, and financing; creating new solutions to old problems. We work to share our successes and our challenges with other communities so that Cambridge can be a model for energy efficiency to communities across our nation. Our goal is transformational change of buildings and organizations so that energy efficiency and conservation is realized across our society.

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Page 117 of 186!

The Cambridge Energy Alliance (CEA) is a new nonprofit organization affiliated with the City that will design, market, finance, manage, and document unprecedented efficiency improvements in the use of energy, water, and transportation. The CEA will carry out a massive $100+ million efficiency effort offering new technical services and financing options to residents, businesses, organizations, and institutions. Where feasible, the CEA will also support installations of new renewable and clean energy generation, and technologies that curb electricity use during peak demand periods.

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Page 118 of 186!

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It’s a very different organization from what we envisioned a few years ago. More realistic, more adaptable to conditions on the ground, and more useful on national stage.

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The Cambridge Energy Alliance confronts Climate Change by educating, inspiring, and assisting residents and businesses in Cambridge to improve the efficiency of their buildings and reduce their climate impact. We work to overcome barriers that prevent people and organizations from implementing efficiency measures in their buildings through programs, outreach, and financing; creating new solutions to old problems. We work to share our successes and our challenges with other communities so that Cambridge can be a model for energy efficiency to communities across our nation. Our goal is transformational change of buildings and organizations so that energy efficiency and conservation is realized across our society.

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Our core model to finance efficiency to pay out of savings is an elegant model and works under most conditions but I’m skeptical that it works today. Given economy, people are unwilling to assume debt. 0% doesn’t help. Automobile sales are 25% off last year’s, even though they are offering 0%. We could make decision to buy down interest rate and may not be expensive because others wouldn’t take up. But we’d be further down the road and success not achieved. Our elegant model may not float in this storm and we may need to change the boat. Need to get the most people to participate in CEA. [We should route them toward the] NSTAR program. Behavioral changes in addition or instead of NSTAR model. (Field notes, 12/3/2008)

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To put this in perspective with City objective, to reduce greenhouse gases, the fact that this is a City run effort is belied by the fact, or illustrated by the fact that we are doing small customers. Small customers will be 90% of participation in numbers, but only 15-20% of greenhouse gas reduction. And then about 150 organizations, including Alpha and Beta will deliver 70-80%. We are trying to serve thousands of customers, only 150 of which will do 80%. In that respect it’s a political exercise… These are decisions largely made by political actors, like the City Manager responsive to the City Council. Lots of effort to get low-income customers involved… These other goals are to some extent competing for the reduction in greenhouse gases.

B$)'<(,)4&+.A)/4+("%5)'<4)(%4&)"7)($%(+46')47746',5)($)-<(6<)012)8(*<')($7.#4$64)/4"/.4)&$%)"+*&$(D&'("$,)'")($94,')($)4$4+*A)477(6(4$6A)-('<"#')@4($*)&@.4)'")4$*&*4)'<48)&,)6.(4$',5)-&,)$"')&),&.(4$')(,,#4>))?")'<4)4J'4$')'<4)(,,#4)&+",4)&')&..5),#6<)($%(+46')47746',)-4+4)(8/.(4%)'")@4)&)@4$47('5)/&+')"7).&#$6<($*)&)6&8/&(*$)"+)8"9484$')($)'<4)0('A>)

I don’t know if I’m the only one, in the core group, but my view is the key to this is to organize a web campaign not unlike the Obama campaign. Where you offer so many opportunities that are enriching to get people in competitions, critique the program, testimonials and case studies, organize each other. Trying to get participation an order of magnitude greater than a utility program. Good utility program is 1% per year. We are trying to get 10% per year.

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Person 2 - Yes, partly because we know people doing heating systems but not using CSG to do it.

Person 4 - We can still capture that as success.

Person 2 - Yes but need CSG to be compensated… Already down 115K expenditures with no revenue…. Sooner or later… they will say we’re out of here.

…

Person 4 - Speaks to idea of how create immediate successes. Doing multiple measures is measure of success. If person decides to do heating system but not through us then we lose track. Or massive uptick in audits in Cambridge… amount of uptick… what are our measures of success?

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The dilemma is if we hire someone it’s another mouth to feed, but if we don’t hire then we eliminate our ability to get attention and Foundation money. Have to get going and get some visibility. Residential and small business will never generate a lot of revenue but will generate buzz and attention. Between Chorus, Barr, and Kendall Foundations, I think we can hire and support this person for a few years and support most of what we want to do. Just have to get going with this. (Field notes, 12/10/08)

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OK, so you didn’t get the job. But if you look at your highest level goals around reducing the greenhouse gas footprint of Cambridge, we're still achieving that goal. We haven't contracted with you but we have contracted with a reputable firm and we are doing things. You know, I don’t mean this as consolation prize, but at the highest level... the reason for your existence is being addressed by the path of action that we’re taking.

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There is a problem in being labeled as a non-profit - people say you are mission driven and that’s code for we don’t need to give you any money. Beta is eager to say they’ll share their data and contribute to the community effort, but they’re still going with [other ESCo].

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We took such a hit with Beta and Epsilon that we really put on the brakes to say what can we do differently… I don’t mind… well I kind of do mind doing what I’ve doing. We need to get people together to absorb these failures, and get common thought on how to proceed and then proceed.

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I think there is a lot of opportunity for CEA to reach their goal without necessarily doing it themselves. And I think that has been… sort of a sticking point for me. Whatever we do, if we reduce our demand, that will represent a significant decrease in greenhouse gases in Cambridge. And CEA won’t have had to do very much. Perhaps they should embrace that a bit more. It’s part of the deal, it's part of the Cambridge thing… But my impression is if they don’t do it, they don’t want to have anything to do with it. That’s a not a good city goal. They should be looking at what I call the ‘parasitic opportunities.’ Not trying to control that, as much as encourage and support that.

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That’s where we need to be… we need to take some credit for that. Regardless of whether we do [the project] directly or they do it… in terms of overall impact of CEA, if we’re working with Gamma it all gets blended together. In terms of being a national model and getting things moving, it’s all part of one happy family, hopefully.

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I knew going in that I would eventually get them on board. I am not giving way here. I’m going to be tactful and I’m going to go through the right channels and so forth but we WILL get them to do what they gotta do.

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Person 1 - I would say Alpha is not low hanging fruit.

Person 2 - We have completed a building survey... Talking about a project there… we are a square peg in a round hole. They do a lot of talking.

Person 3 – So we are ‘pre-breakthrough.’ [all laugh]

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We can get some good stuff going, whether it involves CEA or not. I got frustrated with the “why aren’t we doing anything with CEA” questions lobbed in. I’m not committed to CEA. They need Alpha as a marquee name - and need in their portfolio.

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Alpha exec: I see [CEA] at the political and dissemination level. I still relate everything we do to our mission. Even if it's administration, even if it's about this [building improvements], it's about disseminating knowledge. I see CEA as a very key vehicle in doing that - in partnership with City… Making sure that our methods, Alpha methods, are understood and potentially disseminated across many others… There are many projects in that list that could be interesting advancements in understanding how savings could be achieved. I would see our contribution and our partnership with CEA would be a much better platform for disseminating knowledge…

Not only that, but a bolder proposition, I think. If we are like a testbed for CEA and we reach x% of goals, you could almost push that to be in the regulations or expectations of the City of Cambridge. This is about being a citizen of the world. So there are two avenues, I think. One is the actual case study, which you can replicate. The other is from the case study you could derive real policy implications and expectations of good citizenship.

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Person 1 – We could get a Chief Scientist - if Cambridge is laboratory, make sure we are learning… Extends the metaphor. We are using CEA as a national laboratory… We talk about implementation organization rather than learning organization. Documenting what you’ve done is as important or more than what you accomplish. Test tubes. Laying down body of knowledge. Energy Advisor tracking calls, what doing, what works and doesn’t. Experience.

Person 2 - Hypothesizing and testing, and moving on when you’ve learned.

Person 1 - Make sure we are recording so we can sell ourselves as a laboratory. (Field notes, 4/28/2009)

S*"%+()*+("5+$(28(I%$.20$)20&J(*$,(.++#(/,+5()2(0+80$-+(8$"%/0+'(")($%,2(3+),(/,+5("#($(-20+(42,")"9+(,+#,+()2(1*$0$1)+0"E+(,2-+(28()*+("##29$)"9+("#")"$)"9+,(5+,10".+5($.29+@((H#($(120+(302/4(-++)"#3(5",1/,,"#3(,2-+(28()*+(#+:+0("#")"$)"9+,'(820(+?$-4%+'($(-$#$3+0(,$"5R(

We can be creative, innovative, be a laboratory… It’s all about getting as much done as possible. (Field notes, 9/2/2009)

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Author - How much do we expect is going to happen as a result of CEA's direct action as opposed to the community as a whole, given CEA's existence here? I think that's an important thing... if Beta works with CEA to a certain extent and then goes with [other ESCo], they are still reducing their footprint, they are still moving Cambridge on all these goals. So that could be seen as a success or it could be seen as a failure.

Person 1 - Especially in the way we word this.

Author - Yeah. I think that is a point of ambiguity that is worth touching on in conversations about mission and goals.

Person 2 - I think it should be viewed as a success. I mean... it doesn't help us, our bottom line, but that's not the purpose. We are trying to get people thinking about it and taking action regardless of how they get there.

Person 1 - Because when we say ‘one stop shop’ I question that. I think we are trying to be a catalyst. We are trying to be the thing that is added to this mix of ingredients that causes something to happen. There is a lot of ways we can do that, but when we say ‘one stop shop’ that implies that we step up and we command everything and that is never going to be the case.

Person 3 - I think that notion of being a catalyst is a good one.

Person 4 - Yeah.

%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%

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Person 3 - I think noting the context that CEA is operating in. It's not just CEA making stuff happen. There is stuff happening at federal and state level. There is municipal policy. There are other private initiatives... The mission could/should address that context or include that context and talk something about what CEA's role is as a catalyst, facilitator.

Person 4 - I like that, and I think that... my feeling is that we ought to... acknowledge the fact that [other ESCo] and others not directly with CEA are doing stuff. And that is OK. It doesn't have to be this ‘us and them.’ So finding ways to indicate that if efficiency occurs in Cambridge, that’s a good thing, doesn’t have to be done by us specifically... is not only fine, it's something we ought to be acknowledging and talking about.

Person 1 - And we are certainly not trying to push the private sector aside. We are acknowledging that the government, the utilities, the private sector all have different programs. We are trying to get owners to step up and take advantage of everything that is out there. (Field notes, 1/20/2010)

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Person 5 - And [Author’s] point is not to take advantage of what other people do but give them recognition, promote it, somebody does something and we had nothing to do with it, still, give them recognition, promote it on our web site, do what we can.

Person 6 - We do get criticized for that.

Person 5 - By whom?

Person 6 - Well.. of saying that... you know, that CEA isn't really doing anything, we are just recycling others’ successes.

Person 5 - If we do it right we shouldn't be criticized for it.

Person 1 - Well, if our mission is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in Cambridge… then everything is fair game!

Person 5 - We are trying to get others to emulate what they did...

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Person 3 - We could recognize people, not take credit for it…

Person 5 - Yeah, we're not taking credit for it...

Person 6 - Even when we’ve done that in the past…it has been… [a problem]

Person 7 - I do think that ties to how you define the mission. If CEA is there to do what others don’t do…and to recognize what goes on by itself…

Person 5 - That word catalyst…

Person 2 [simultaneously] – catalyst… (Field notes, 1/20/2010)

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Competing institutional logics are likely within cross-sector collaborations and may significantly influence the extent to which collaborations can agree on essential elements of process, structure, governance, and desired outcomes. (p. 50).

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Cross-sector collaborations are most likely to create public value when they produce positive first-, second-, and third-order effects. (p. 51)

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Proposition 9: In organizations with a combined mission to serve clients and achieve general social objectives, the catalyst’s paradox will exert an important influence on sensemaking, identity construction, and organizational change.

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!"##$%$&'('")$*+(,%(!$-$.,/"&0(1(*2&'3$'"4(%$#%1)"&0('31'("&4.5!$*('3$(4,&'%1!"4'",&(6$7078(5*"&0(9*'%54'5%1'",&:(',(%$*,.-$(*'%54'5%$(1&!(10$&42(/1%1!,;$*<7(

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

=3$(#"%*'(,5'4,)$("*(*'1*"*(,%(#$$."&0(9*'54E:(@$415*$('3$(14',%(%$#.$4'"-$.2(/$%4$"-$*('3$(*'%54'5%$(,#('3$(*"'51'",&(1&!(%$1."S$*('31'(1&2(14'",&(>"..(31-$(4,&'%1!"4',%2($##$4'*7((=3"*(31*(@$$&(431%14'$%"*'"4(,#('3$(14',%*("&(ABC(1'(-1%",5*(/,"&'*("&('3$(,%01&"S1'",&R*(3"*',%2(>3$&('3$2(#"&!('3$)*$.-$*(*'2)"$!("&(!$#"&"&0(*544$**(#,%('3$(,%01&"S1'",&(1&!(E&,>"&0(3,>(',(1..,41'$(*41%4$(%$*,5%4$*7((C&($;1)/.$("*(ABCR*(%$45%%"&0(!"*45**",&*(1@,5'(4,&!54'"&0(1(%$4,0&"'",&(/%,0%1)(#,%(3,)$*(1&!(*)1..(@5*"&$**$*("&-$*'"&0("&($&$%02($##"4"$&42(T('3"*("!$1(>1*(/%,/,*$!(@2(1()1%E$'"&0(4,&*5.'1&'("&(ABCR*(#"%*'(2$1%(,#($;"*'$&4$(@5'(31!(2$'(',(@$(")/.$)$&'$!('3%$$(2$1%*(.1'$%7((U"*45**",&*(,#(>3$'3$%(',(1..,41'$(%$*,5%4$*(',(*543(1(/%,0%1)(/1%'.2(3"&0$!(,&('3$(V5$*'",&(,#(>3$'3$%(ABC(*3,5.!(%$4,0&"S$(/%,?$4'*("'(!"!(&,'("'*$.#(")/.$)$&'8(>3"43("*(1'('3$(4$&'$%(,#('3$(41'1.2*'R*(/1%1!,;7(

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

=$)/,%1.(*/."''"&0("*(1('3"%!(,5'4,)$8(1&!(%$*5.'*("&(1&(,*4"..1'",&(@$31-",%("&(>3"43('3$(14',%(1.'$%&1'$*(@$'>$$&(/,.1%"'"$*(6\,3&*,&(MNN]+(F$>"*(HIII<7((W$(*$$('3"*("&('3$(."#$(,#(ABC8(>3"43(@$01&(@2(1**$%'"&0(A"'2^.$-$.(0,1.*8('3$&(!$-$.,/$!(1(#$$^#,%^*$%-"4$(@5*"&$**(),!$.8('3$&(,%"$&'$!("'*$.#(',>1%!(0%1&'*(',(*5//,%'("'*(,/$%1'",&*(>"'3(.$**(!"%$4'(4."$&'(144,5&'1@"."'27((D'("*(/%$4"*$.2('3"*('$)/,%1.(!2&1)"4('31'(4,&'%"@5'$*(',(ABCR*($-,.5'",&(',>1%!(1(),%$('%1!"'",&1.(&,&^/%,#"'(),!$.(#%,)(P31*$(M(',(P31*$(H7((=35*(D(/%,/,*$_(

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Proposition 10: Stuckness, splitting, and oscillation can be expected as organizational responses to the catalyst’s paradox.

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

R2/)"$1+/%%023),/("'0+40$2)&2,)1/&(7'/1/24)$*)4#0()"&+&80%046)#&()8//2)*'&1/,)&()"#$%&'()%*!+(,-*#.'/0)?S/20($29)T$$0U8/'39)&2,)V7022)IJJME)$2)4#/)+&'4)$*)4#/)02,0.0,7&%()02.$%./,W)

The concept of behavioral complexity is perhaps best understood as an analog to the concept of cognitive complexity. In the same sense that Fitzgerald (1945) noted that "the test of a first-rate intelligence is the ability to hold two opposed ideas in the mind at the same time and still retain the ability to function," the test of a first-rate leader may be the ability to exhibit contrary or opposing behaviors (as appropriate or necessary) while still retaining some measure of integrity, credibility, and direction. Thus, effective leaders are those who have the cognitive and behavioral complexity to respond appropriately to a wide range of situations that may in fact require contrary or opposing behaviors…

If paradox exists in the environment, then it must be reflected in behavior. (Denison et al. 1995, p. 526)

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Proposition 11: When organizations find themselves stuck, splitting, or oscillating in response to the catalyst’s paradox, behavioral complexity by individuals in the organization may enable the organization to move beyond these patterns toward creative synthesis.

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

We get invited like every other day to go and speak everywhere… Everybody loves it. Well… let me say this. It's always the case, it's very hard to be world famous in your own town… Here people are... they know us, and they know city programs, and they are much more critical. Where people out in the world are like oh, wow, that's amazing, I wish we could do that, and this is the big idea that's out there, and nobody is doing anything like that. And I think both are true.

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Proposition 12: In organizations with a combined mission to serve clients and achieve general social objectives, a modeler’s dilemma can arise in which resources devoted to replication compete with resources dedicated to local success, with similar effects to the catalyst’s paradox.

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B5#&"?0=@,"6&/2"&F<#"".G&25="&@#5%)*/!&*5=@0.(&H"$"./2&I"."#0/-5.&"./"#"%&0&@"#-5%&5+&!/#0/"<-*&#"+,"*/-5.&0.%&!5),&!"0#*2-.<&-.&JKKL&0!&0&#"!),/&5+&0.&"="#<-.<&%-!*5.."*/&'"/1"".&/2"-#&=-!!-5.&C@)',-*&!"#$-*"D&0.%&/2"-#&')!-."!!&<50,!&C@#-$0/"&!"#$-*"D&CM5,,".%"#&JKKLD3&&42"&*5=@0.(>!&5#-<-.0,&<50,&10!&/5&*#"0/"&0&=0#N"/&+5#&,51&/5?-*-/(&0.%&=5#"&".$-#5.="./0,,(&!)!/0-.0',"&25="&*0#"&@#5%)*/!6&0.%&/5&!"#$"&0!&"%)*0/5#!&5+&*5.!)="#!&0.%&/2"&=0#N"/@,0*"&0'5)/&/2"&$-#/)"!&5+&!)*2&@#5%)*/!3&&E.-/-0,,(&/2-!&10!&0&$"#(&!)**"!!+),&')!-."!!&@#5@5!-/-5.6&0.%&/2"(&".O5("%&#0@-%&<#51/2&CJP;QPR&0..)0,,(&+#5=&JKKK;JKKPD&0!&0&@#5%)*/&*5=@0.(6&0!&1",,&0!&"./#""!&-./5&*5.$"#!0/-5.!&1-/2&S0,;T0#/6&40#<"/6&0.%&5/2"#&=0O5#&=0#N"/&@,0("#!&/20/&/2"(&15),%&."$"#&20$"&20%&0!&0&+#-.<"&*0/0,5<)"&*5=@0.(&C/2"-#&"0#,-"#&-.*0#.0/-5.D3&&&

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Proposition 13: Behavioral complexity among a hybrid organization’s exchange partners will enable the organization to more easily navigate the catalyst’s paradox.

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Proposition 14: Overcoming the deleterious effects of the catalyst’s paradox will be easier in policy and funding environments that offer multiple forms of compensation to the hybrid organization: internalization, compensation, donation, and respect.

F-%$4)%#'-#/570-+%#4".$)*%'!%$40&%70&&)*$"$0'-D%F%&1-$4)&06)%(1%*)&5/$&%"-7%#'-&07)*%"%T5)&$0'-%$4"$%!'//':&%!*'(%$40&%.*'.'&0$0'-%B%4':%(0+4$%;<=%&4".)%0$&%0-&$0$5$0'-"/%#'-$)2$%&'%"&%$'%("A)%$4)0*%':-%-",0+"$0'-%'!%$4)&)%."*"7'2)&%)"&0)*U%

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The business model has that challenge in terms of understanding what this thing really is. And ultimately therefore how people perceive it. It has become even less clear to me over time… And the business model has changed for variety of different reasons. So the concept is still there, but the details are quite different. And the identity, I think, is affected by that. That has been part of the problem.

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Proposition 15: Hybrid organizations can experience progressive erosion of legitimacy when seemingly adaptive changes in the organizational logic result in greater confusion among critical exchange partners.

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