Panama Encyclopaedia

8/4/2019 Panama Encyclopaedia

1/19

Panama Canal

The Panama Canal

A schematic of the Panama Canal, illustrating the sequence of locks and passages

Originalowner

La Socit internationale du Canal

Principal

engineer

John Findlay Wallace, John Frank Stevens (19061908), George WashingtonGoethals

Date of first

useAugust 15, 1914

Locks

3 locks up, 3 down per transit; all two lanes

(2 lanes of locks; locks built in three sites)

Status Open

Navigationauthority Panama Canal Authority

Location of Panama between Pacific (bottom) and Caribbean (top), with canal at topcenter

The Panama Canal (Spanish: Canal de Panam) is a 77-kilometre (48 mi) ship canal inPanama that joins the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean and is a key conduit forinternational maritime trade. Built from 1904 to 1914, annual traffic has risen from about1,000 ships in the canal's early days to 14,702 vessels in 2008, measuring a total 309.6million Panama Canal/Universal Measurement System (PC/UMS) tons. In total over815,000 vessels have passed through the canal. [1] It has been named one of the sevenmodern wonders of the world by the American Society of Civil Engineers.[2]

One of the largest and most difficult engineering projects ever undertaken, the canal hadan enormous impact on shipping between the two oceans, replacing the long andtreacherous route via either the Strait of Magellan orCape Horn at the southernmost tipofSouth America. A ship sailing fromNew Yorkto San Francisco via the canal travels9,500 km (5,900 mi), well under half the 22,500 km (14,000 mi) route around Cape Horn.[3]

The concept of a canal near Panama dates to the early 16th century. The first attempt toconstruct a canal began in 1880 underFrench leadership, but was abandoned after 21,900workers died, largely from disease (particularly malaria and yellow fever) and landslides.The United States launched a second effort, incurring a further 5,600 deaths butsucceeding in opening the canal in 1914. The U.S. controlled the canal and the CanalZone surrounding it until the 1977 TorrijosCarter Treaties provided for the transition ofcontrol to Panama. From 1979 to 1999 the canal was under joint U.S.Panamanianadministration, and from 31 December 1999 command of the waterway was assumed bythe Panama Canal Authority, an agency of the Panamanian government.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Findlay_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frank_Stevenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_tonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-canalusage-0%23cite_note-canalusage-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_modern_wonders_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_modern_wonders_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineershttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-ASCE-1%23cite_note-ASCE-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shippinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Hornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Franciscohttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-2%23cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torrijos%E2%80%93Carter_Treatieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Findlay_Wallacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frank_Stevenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_tonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-canalusage-0%23cite_note-canalusage-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_modern_wonders_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_modern_wonders_of_the_worldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_of_Civil_Engineershttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-ASCE-1%23cite_note-ASCE-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shippinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait_of_Magellanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Hornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Cityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Franciscohttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-2%23cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Third_Republichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landslidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torrijos%E2%80%93Carter_Treatieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Authority


2/19

While the Pacific Ocean is west of the isthmus and the Atlantic to the east, the 8- to 10-hour journey through the canal from the Pacific to the Atlantic is one from southeast tonorthwest. This is a result of the isthmus's "curving back on itself" in the region of thecanal. The Bridge of the Americas (Spanish:Puente de las Amricas) at the Pacific end isabout a third of a degree of longitude east of the end near Colon on the Atlantic.[4]

The maximum size of vessel that can use the canal is known as Panamax. A Panamaxcargo ship typically has a DWT of 65,000-80,000 tonnes, but its actual cargo is restrictedto about 52,500 tonnes because ofdraft restrictions in the canal.[5] The longest ship everto transit was the San Juan Prospector, now Marcona Prospector, an ore-bulk-oil carrierthat is 973 ft (296.57 m) long, with a beam of 106 ft (32.31 m).[6]

Contents

[hide]

1 Historyo 1.1 Early proposal

o 1.2 French construction attempt

o 1.3 U.S. construction

o 1.4 Isthmian Canal Commission

o 1.5 Planning and construction begins

o 1.6 Later developments

2 Layout 3 Lock size 4 Tolls 5 Current issues

o 5.1 Efficiency and maintenanceo 5.2 Capacity

o 5.3 Competition

o 5.4 Water issues

6 The futureo 6.1 Third set of locks project

o 6.2 Building the new canal

o 6.3 Rival Colombia rail link

7 Canal Pilots 8 Gatun Lake 9 See also 10 References 11 Further reading

12 External links

History
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acptraffic-3%23cite_note-acptraffic-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadweight_tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_(hull)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-4%23cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore-bulk-oil_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-5%23cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#%23http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#History%23Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Early_proposal%23Early_proposalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#French_construction_attempt%23French_construction_attempthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#U.S._construction%23U.S._constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Isthmian_Canal_Commission%23Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Planning_and_construction_begins%23Planning_and_construction_beginshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Later_developments%23Later_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Layout%23Layouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Lock_size%23Lock_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Tolls%23Tollshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Current_issues%23Current_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Efficiency_and_maintenance%23Efficiency_and_maintenancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Capacity%23Capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Competition%23Competitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Water_issues%23Water_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#The_future%23The_futurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Third_set_of_locks_project%23Third_set_of_locks_projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Building_the_new_canal%23Building_the_new_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Rival_Colombia_rail_link%23Rival_Colombia_rail_linkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Canal_Pilots%23Canal_Pilotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Gatun_Lake%23Gatun_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#See_also%23See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Further_reading%23Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#External_links%23External_linkshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acptraffic-3%23cite_note-acptraffic-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadweight_tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draft_(hull)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-4%23cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ore-bulk-oil_carrierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-5%23cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#%23http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#History%23Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Early_proposal%23Early_proposalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#French_construction_attempt%23French_construction_attempthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#U.S._construction%23U.S._constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Isthmian_Canal_Commission%23Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Planning_and_construction_begins%23Planning_and_construction_beginshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Later_developments%23Later_developmentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Layout%23Layouthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Lock_size%23Lock_sizehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Tolls%23Tollshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Current_issues%23Current_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Efficiency_and_maintenance%23Efficiency_and_maintenancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Capacity%23Capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Competition%23Competitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Water_issues%23Water_issueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#The_future%23The_futurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Third_set_of_locks_project%23Third_set_of_locks_projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Building_the_new_canal%23Building_the_new_canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Rival_Colombia_rail_link%23Rival_Colombia_rail_linkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Canal_Pilots%23Canal_Pilotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Gatun_Lake%23Gatun_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#See_also%23See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#References%23Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#Further_reading%23Further_readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#External_links%23External_links


3/19

Satellite image showing location of Panama canal. Dense jungles are visible in green.Main article: History of the Panama Canal

Early proposal

The earliest mention of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama dates to 1534, whenCharles V, Holy Roman Emperorand King ofSpain ordered a survey for a route throughPanama that would ease the voyage for ships traveling to and from Spain and Peru, aswell as give the Spanish a tactical military edge over the Portuguese. [7] During hisexpedition of 17881793, Alessandro Malaspina demonstrated the feasibility of a canaland outlined plans for its construction.[8]

Given the strategic location of Panama and its isthmus separating two great oceans, otherforms of trade links were attempted over the years. The ill-fated Darien scheme was anattempt launched by the Kingdom of Scotland in 1698 to set up an overland trade route,

but was defeated by the generally inhospitable conditions, and abandoned in July of1699.[9] Finally, the Panama Railway was built across the isthmus, opening in 1855. Thisoverland link became a vital piece of infrastructure, greatly facilitating trade and largelydetermining the later canal route.

Also in 1855, William Kennish, a Manx-born engineer in the employ of the United Statesgovernment, surveyed and issued a report on a route for a proposed Panama Canal. [10]Hisreport was published in a book entitled The Practicality and Importance of a Ship Canalto Connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans.[11]

French construction attempt

An all-water route between the oceans was still seen as the ideal solution, and the idea ofa canal was enhanced by the French success of the Suez Canal (which took 10 years tobuild the 102 mile canal, more than twice the size of the Panama Canal). The French,underFerdinand de Lesseps, began construction on a sea-level canal (i.e., without locks)through what was then Colombia's province of Panama, on January 1, 1880. The Frenchbegan work in a rush, with insufficient prior study of the geology and hydrology of theregion.[12] Excavation was conducted at such a steep angle that, in some years, rain-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Panama_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-6%23cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Malaspinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-7%23cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darien_schemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_routehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-8%23cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Railwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kennishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-mw-9%23cite_note-mw-9http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-mw-9%23cite_note-mw-9http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-10%23cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Lessepshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panama.A2003087.1850.250m.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panama.A2003087.1850.250m.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Panama_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmus_of_Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peruhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-6%23cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Malaspinahttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-7%23cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darien_schemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_routehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-8%23cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Railwayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kennishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-mw-9%23cite_note-mw-9http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-10%23cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Lessepshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11


4/19

induced landslides poured nearly as much material into the canal as had been removed.[13]

In addition, disease, particularly malaria and yellow fever, sickened and killed vastnumbers of employees, ranging from laborers to top directors of the French company.Public health measures were ineffective because the role of the mosquito as a diseasevector was then unknown. These conditions made it impossible to maintain an

experienced work force as fearful technical employees quickly returned to France. Eventhe hospitals contributed to the problem, unwittingly providing breeding places formosquitoes inside the unscreened wards. Actual conditions were hushed up in France toavoid recruitment problems.[12]In 1893, after a great deal of work, the French scheme wasabandoned due to disease and the sheer difficulty of building a sea-level canal, as well aslack of French field experience, such as with downpours that caused steel equipment torust.[14] The high toll from disease was one of the major factors in the failure; as many as22,000 workers were estimated to have died during the main period of Frenchconstruction (18811889).[12]

Beyond the hygienic and technical difficulties, financial mismanagement and political

corruption also contributed to the French failure.

U.S. construction

Construction work on the Gaillard Cut is shown in this photograph from 1907

At this time, various interests in the United States were also expressing interest inbuilding a canal across the isthmus, with some favouring a route across Nicaragua (see Nicaragua Canal and Ecocanal) and others advocating the purchase of the Frenchinterests in Panama. Eventually, in June 1902, the U.S. Senate voted in favor of pursuing

the Panamanian option, provided the necessary rights could be obtained. (It is claimedthat the vote was swayed by William Nelson Cromwell.[15])

On January 22, 1903, the Hay-Herran Treaty was signed by United States Secretary ofStateJohn M. Hay and Dr. Toms Herrn of Colombia. It would have granted the UnitedStates a renewable lease in perpetuity from Colombia on the land proposed for the canal.[16] This is often misinterpreted as the "99-year lease" due to misleading wording includedin article 22 of the agreement that refers to property within the land but does not pertain
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-12%23cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-12%23cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-13%23cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_scandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_scandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaraguahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaragua_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocanalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nelson_Cromwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-14%23cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay-Herran_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._Hayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Herr%C3%A1nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-15%23cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panama_Canal_under_construction,_1907.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panama_Canal_under_construction,_1907.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-12%23cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-13%23cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_scandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_scandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaraguahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaragua_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecocanalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Nelson_Cromwellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-14%23cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay-Herran_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Statehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_M._Hayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%C3%A1s_Herr%C3%A1nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-15%23cite_note-15


5/19

to the control of the canal and the right for the United States to renew the leaseindefinitely.[17] It was ratified by the United States Senate on March 14, 1903, but theSenate of Colombia did not ratify the treaty. Philippe Bunau-Varilla, chief engineer of theFrench canal company, told Roosevelt and Hay of a possible revolt and hoped that theU.S. would support it with troops and money. President of the United StatesTheodore

Roosevelt changed tactics, promising support for Panama's intermittent separatistmovement. On November 2, 1903, U.S. warships blocked sealanes for Colombian troopsfrom coming to put down the revolt, while dense jungles blocked land routes. Panamaachieved independence on November 3, 1903 when the United States sent naval forces toencourage Colombia's surrender of the region. The United States quickly recognizedthem. Also, on November 6, 1903, Phillipe Bunau-Varilla, Panama's ambassador to theUnited States, signed the Hay-Bunau Varilla Treaty, granting rights to the United Statesto build and indefinitely administer the Panama Canal. Although Bunau-Varilla wasserving as Panama's ambassador, he was a French citizen and was not authorized to signtreaties on behalf of Panama without Panamanian review.[citation needed] This treaty wouldlater become a contentious diplomatic issue between Panama and the U.S..

The United States, under President Theodore Roosevelt, bought out the Frenchequipment and excavations for US$40 million and began work on May 4, 1904. TheUnited States paid Colombia $25,000,000 in 1921, seven years after completion of thecanal, for redress of President Roosevelt's role in the creation of Panama, and Colombiarecognized Panama under the terms of the Thomson-Urrutia Treaty.

Isthmian Canal Commission

Main article: Isthmian Canal Commission

The U.S. Government created the Isthmian Canal Commission to oversee theconstruction of the Panama Canal in the early years of American involvement.Established in 1904, it was given control of the Panama Canal Zone over which theUnited States exercised sovereignty.[18]The commission reported directly to Secretary ofWarWilliam Taft.

Joseph Bucklin Bishop, an associate of Theodore Roosevelt and a strong editorialadvocate for U.S. participation in the Canal project was appointed Executive Secretary ofthe Isthmian Canal Commission in Washington, D.C. the following year. Bishop wastasked with managing the Commissions day-to-day matters but also with ensuring publicsupport for the canal through public relations and by keeping the projects official

history. Bishops promised $10,000 annual salary was relentlessly criticized byRoosevelts opponents in Congress, mostly because it was twice what each of themmade. Opposition newspapers joined in the criticism. In the summer of 1907, whenescalating allegations of cronyism surrounding Bishops appointment threatenedappropriations for Panama Canal construction, Secretary of War, William Howard Taft,surely with Roosevelts quiet consent, ordered Bishop out of Washington to Panamawhere the partisan political heat would be less intense. I accept your decision withoutreluctance, Bishop informed Taft, and shall go to the Isthmus, not sadly but
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-16%23cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_panama_from_colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_panama_from_colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_interventions_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe-Jean_Bunau-Varillahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay-Bunau_Varilla_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson-Urrutia_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-17%23cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-17%23cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-17%23cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bucklin_Bishophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Tafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-16%23cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senate_of_Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_panama_from_colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_panama_from_colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overseas_interventions_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe-Jean_Bunau-Varillahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hay-Bunau_Varilla_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson-Urrutia_Treatyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-17%23cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Bucklin_Bishophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isthmian_Canal_Commissionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Taft


6/19

cheerfully.[19] It would not be his first trip to Panama. In the fall of the previous year,Bishop had gone ahead to advance Roosevelts historic inspection tour, the first time asitting President had journeyed outside the U.S.

Joseph Bucklin Bishop would, except for month-long summer breaks, remain on the

isthmus for seven years, serving clandestinely at first as Theodore Roosevelts eyes andears. He reported back on the astonishing progress that Army Corps of EngineersColonel George Washington Goethals and his team were making excavating the bigditch and building dams and locks. Before long, Bishop became Goethalss trusted aide,serving as his first line of defense against workers with complaints and grievances. ButBishops greatest achievement in Panama would be as founding editor of The CanalRecord, a weekly newspaper for the thousands of workers in Panama. His regular reportsof cubic yards dug by rival work divisions, and the competitive baseball games theyplayed created a spirit of healthy competition that lifted worker morale and productivity.The good news of The Canal Record also built vital public support on newspapereditorial pages back home and in the halls of the United States Congress where annual

appropriations required to keep the canal project moving forward.

Planning and construction begins

John Frank Stevens, Chief Engineer from 1905 to 1907, successfully argued the caseagainst the incredibly massive excavation required for a sea-level canal like the Frenchhad tried to build and convinced Theodore Roosevelt of the necessity and feasibility of acanal built with dams and locks. One of Stevens' primary achievements in Panama was inbuilding the infrastructure necessary to complete the canal. He had the Panama Railwayrebuilt and upgraded with modern heavy-duty equipment. Implementing therecommendations of Walter Reed and Dr. William Gorgas, Stevens also built proper

housing with screens for canal workers and oversaw investment in extensive sanitationand mosquito-abatement programs that minimized the spread of the deadly mosquito-spread diseasesparticularly malaria and yellow fever. The mosquito had been identifiedas the vector (disease spreading agent) by Cuban physician and scientist Dr. CarlosFinlay in 1881. Finlay's theory and investigative work had recently been confirmed byDr. Walter Reed while in Cuba with the U.S. Army after the Spanish-American War(1898) (see also Health measures during the construction of the Panama Canal).

With the diseases under control, and after significant work on preparing the infrastructureand railroad, construction of an elevated canal with locks began in earnest. Even theconstruction of the Panama Canal with locks still required the excavation of an enormous

volume of material and was envisioned by John Frank Stevens as a massive earth-movingproject using the Panama Railway as efficiently as possible. The railroad, starting in1904, had to be comprehensively upgraded with heavy-duty double-tracked rails overmost of the line to accommodate all the new rolling stock of about 115 heavy-dutylocomotives and 2,300 dirt spoils railroad cars. There were about 102 of the new railroad-mounted steam shovels brought in from the United States and elsewhere. The steamshovels were some of the largest in the world in 1906 when they were introduced. Thenew railroad closely paralleled the canal where it could and was moved and reconstructed
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-18%23cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Corps_of_Engineershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editorial_pagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriation_(law)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frank_Stevenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crawford_Gorgashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Finlayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Finlayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish-American_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_measures_during_the_construction_of_the_Panama_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_shovelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-18%23cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Corps_of_Engineershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editorial_pagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congresshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appropriation_(law)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frank_Stevenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Reedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crawford_Gorgashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquitohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_feverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Finlayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Finlayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Armyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish-American_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_measures_during_the_construction_of_the_Panama_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_shovel


7/19

where it interfered with the canal work. In many places the new Lake Gatun flooded overthe original rail line and a new rail line had to be raised above the water by massive dirtfills and bridges.

A Marion steam shovel excavating the Panama Canal in 1908

The Panama Canal Railway, besides hauling all the millions of tons of men, equipmentand supplies, did much more. Essentially all of the hundreds of millions of cubic yards ofmaterial removed from the required canal cuts were broken up by explosives, loaded by

steam shovels, mounted on one set of railroad tracks, and loaded onto rail cars and hauledout by locomotives pulling the spoils cars on parallel tracks. Most of the cars carrying thedirt spoils were wooden flat cars lined with steel floors that used a crude but effectiveunloading devicethe Lidgerwood system. The railroad cars had only one side and steelaprons bridged the spaces between the cars. The rock and dirt was first blasted loose byexplosives. Two sets of tracks were then built or moved up to where the loosenedmaterial lay. The steam shovels, moving on one set of tracks, picked up the loosened dirtand then piled it on the steel-floored flat cars traveling on a parallel set of tracks. The dirtwas piled high up against the one closed side of the car. The train moved forward as thecars were filled until all cars were filled. A typical train had twenty dirt cars arranged asessentially one long boxcar. On arrival of the train at one of the approximately 60

different dumping grounds, a three-ton steel plow was put on the last car (or a carcarrying the plow was attached as the last car) and a huge winch with a braided steelcable stretching the length of all cars was attached to the engine. The winch, powered bythe trains steam engine, pulled the plow the length of the dirt-loaded train by winchingup the steel cable. The plow scraped the dirt off the railroad cars, allowing the entiretrain-load of dirt cars to be unloaded in about ten minutes or less. The plow and winchwere then detached for use on another train. Another plow, mounted on a steam engine,then plowed the dirt spoils away from the track. [20] When the fill got large enough, thetrack was relocated on top of the old fill to allow almost continuous unloading of new fillwith a minimum amount of effort. When the steam shovels or dirt trains needed to moveto a new section, techniques were developed by William Bierd, former head of the

Panama Railroad, to pick up large sections of track and their attached ties by large steam- powered cranes and relocate them intactwithout disassembling and rebuilding thetrack. A dozen men could move a mile of track a daythe work previously done by up to600 men. This allowed the tracks used by both the steam shovels and dirt trains to bequickly moved to wherever they needed to go. While constructing the Gaillard Cut, about160 loaded dirt trains went out of the cut daily, and returned emptyone train aboutevery one and a half minutes of the day.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Gatunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-19%23cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarioModel90_1908.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarioModel90_1908.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Gatunhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-19%23cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cut


8/19

The railroads, steam shovels, enormous steam-powered cranes, rock crushers, cementmixers, dredges, and pneumatic power drills used to drill holes for explosives (about30,000,000 pounds (14,000 t) were used) were some of the new (in 1906) pieces ofconstruction equipment used to construct the canal. Nearly all this new equipment wasbuilt by new, extensive machine building technology developed and built in the United

States by companies such as the Joshua Hendy Iron Works. In addition, the canal usedlarge refrigeration systems for making ice, extensive large electrical motors to power thepumps and controls on the canal's locks and other new technology. They built extensiveelectrical generation and distribution systemsone of the first wide-scale uses of largeelectrical motors and generators. Electrical-powered donkey engines pulled the shipsthrough the locks on railroad tracks laid parallel to the locks. New technology, notavailable before, allowed massive earth cuts and fills to be used on the new railroad andcanal that were many times larger than those done in the original 18511855 railroadconstruction. The Americans replaced the old French equipment with machinerydesigned for a larger scale of work (such as the giant hydraulic crushers supplied by theJoshua Hendy Iron Works) to quicken the pace of construction.[12] President Roosevelt

had the former French machinery minted into medals for all workers who spent at leasttwo years on the construction to commemorate their contribution to the building of thecanal. These medals featured Roosevelt's likeness on the front, the name of the recipienton one side, and the worker's years of service, as well as a picture of the Culebra Cut onthe back.[21]

SSKroonlandat the Culebra Cut while transiting the Panama Canal on 2 February 1915.

In 1907, when John Frank Stevens resigned, Roosevelt appointed U.S. Army ColonelGeorge Washington Goethals as Chief Engineer of the Panama Canal.

Ellicott Dredges, a Baltimore, Maryland, USA company formerly known as the EllicottMachine Company, built the cutter dredges used in some of the construction of thePanama Canal after the cuts were deep enough to float them. [22] The first machine

delivered was a steam-driven, 900 hp (670 kW), 20-inch dredge. In 1941, EllicottDredges also built the dredge MINDI, a 10,000 hp (7,500 kW), 28-inch cutter suctiondredge still operating in the Panama Canal.

The building of the canal was completed in 1914, two years ahead of the target date ofJune 1, 1916. The canal was formally opened on August 15, 1914 with the passage of thecargo ship SS Ancon.[23] Coincidentally, this was also the same month that fighting inWorld War I (the Great War) began in Europe. The advances in hygiene resulted in a
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Hendy_Iron_Workshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_donkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mintedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-NMAH-20%23cite_note-NMAH-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Kroonlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Kroonlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frank_Stevenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellicott_Dredgeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dredgeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-21%23cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Anconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Anconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-22%23cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygienehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kroonland_in_Panama_Canal,_1915.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kroonland_in_Panama_Canal,_1915.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Hendy_Iron_Workshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_donkeyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-French-11%23cite_note-French-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mintedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-NMAH-20%23cite_note-NMAH-20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Kroonlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Frank_Stevenshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Washington_Goethalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellicott_Dredgeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dredgeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-21%23cite_note-21http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Anconhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-22%23cite_note-22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene


9/19

relatively low death toll during the American construction; still, about 5,600 workers diedduring this period (19041914). This brought the total death toll for the construction ofthe canal to around 27,500.[24]

Construction of locks on the Panama Canal, 1913

Later developments

By the 1930s it was seen that water supply would be an issue for the canal; this promptedthe building of the Madden Dam across the Chagres Riverabove Gatun Lake. The dam,completed in 1935, created Madden Lake (later Alajuela Lake), which acts as additionalwater storage for the canal. In 1939, construction began on a further major improvement:a new set of locks for the canal, large enough to carry the larger warships which theUnited States was building at the time and had planned to continue building. The workproceeded for several years, and significant excavation was carried out on the newapproach channels, but the project was canceled afterWorld War II.[25][26]

Statement on the Panama Canal Treaty SigningJimmy Carter's speech upon signing the Panama Canal treaty, 7 September 1977.

Problems listening to this file? See media help.

After the war, U.S. control of the canal and the Canal Zone surrounding it becamecontentious as relations between Panama and the U.S. became increasingly tense. ManyPanamanians felt that the Canal Zone rightfully belonged to Panama; student protestswere met by the fencing in of the zone and an increased military presence. [27] The unrestculminated in riots in which approximately 20 Panamanians and 35 U.S. soldiers werekilled on Martyr's Day, January 9, 1964. Negotiations toward a new settlement began in

1974, and resulted in the Torrijos-Carter Treaties. Signed by President of the UnitedStatesJimmy Carterand Omar Torrijos of Panama on September 7, 1977, this mobilizedthe process of granting the Panamanians free control of the canal so long as Panamasigned a treaty guaranteeing the permanent neutrality of the canal. The treaty led to fullPanamanian control effective at noon on December 31, 1999, and the Panama CanalAuthority (ACP) assumed command of the waterway.
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-23%23cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maddenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagres_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-24%23cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-25%23cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carter_Panama_Canal_speech.ogghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_helphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-26%23cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyrs'_Day_(Panama)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torrijos-Carter_Treatieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Torrijoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PanamaCanal1913a.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PanamaCanal1913a.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-23%23cite_note-23http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maddenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagres_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-24%23cite_note-24http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-25%23cite_note-25http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carter_Panama_Canal_speech.ogghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_helphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Zonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-26%23cite_note-26http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martyrs'_Day_(Panama)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torrijos-Carter_Treatieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy_Carterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Torrijoshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Authorityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Authority


10/19

Before this handover, the government of Panama held an international bid to negotiate a25-year contract for operation of the container shipping ports located at the canalsAtlantic and Pacific outlets. The contract was not affiliated with the ACP or PanamaCanal operations and was won by the firm Hutchison Whampoa, a Hong Kong-basedshipping concern whose owner is Li Ka Shing.

Layout

USS Missouri passes through the canal in 1945

The canal consists ofartificial lakes, several improved and artificial channels, and three

sets oflocks. An additional artificial lake, Alajuela Lake (known during the American eraas Madden Lake), acts as a reservoirfor the canal. The layout of the canal as seen by aship passing from the Pacific end to the Atlantic is as follows:[28]

From the buoyed entrance channel in the Gulf of Panama (Pacific side), shipstravel 13.2 km (8.2 mi) up the channel to the Miraflores locks, passing under theBridge of the Americas.

The two-stage Miraflores lock system, including the approach wall, is 1.7 km(1.1 mi) long, with a total lift of 16.5 meters (54 ft) at mid-tide.

The artificial Miraflores Lake is the next stage, 1.7 km (1.0 mi) long, and16.5 meters (54 ft) above sea level.

The single-stage Pedro Miguel lock, which is 1.4 km (0.8 mi) long, is the last partof the ascent with a lift of 9.5 meters (31 ft) up to the main level of the canal.

The Gaillard (Culebra) Cut slices 12.6 km (7.8 mi) through the continental divideat an altitude of 26 meters (85 ft), and passes under the Centennial Bridge.

The Chagres River(Ro Chagres), a natural waterway enhanced by the dammingof Lake Gatn, runs west about 8.5 km (5.3 mi), merging into Lake Gatun.

Gatun Lake, an artificial lake formed by the building of the Gatun Dam, carriesvessels 24.2 km (15.0 mi) across the isthmus.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutchison_Whampoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Konghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Ka_Shinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Missouri_(BB-63)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Missouri_(BB-63)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_(geography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal_lockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-27%23cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-27%23cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miraflores_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_dividehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial_Bridge,_Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagres_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Damhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Missouri_panama_canal.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutchison_Whampoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Konghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Ka_Shinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Missouri_(BB-63)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_(geography)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canal_lockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoirhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-27%23cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miraflores_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_dividehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial_Bridge,_Panamahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chagres_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Dam


11/19

The Gatn locks, a three-stage flight of locks 1.9 km (1.2 mi) long, drop shipsback down to sea level.

A 3.2 km (2.0 mi) channel forms the approach to the locks from the Atlantic side. Limn Bay (Baha Limn), a huge natural harbour, provides an anchorage for

some ships awaiting passage, and runs 8.7 km (5.4 mi) to the outer breakwater.

Thus, the total length of the canal is 77.1 km (47.9 mi).

Lock size

Main article: Panama Canal Locks

Miterlockgate at Gatn

Lockgate at Miraflores

The size of the locks determines the maximum size of ships allowed passage. Because ofthe importance of the canal to international trade, many ships are built to the maximumsize allowed. These are known as Panamax vessels.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Lockshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WorkerAtMirafloresLocksPanamaCanal.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gatun_lock_gate.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gatun_lock_gate.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Lockshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamax


12/19

Initially the locks at Gatun had been designed to be 28.5 meters (94 ft) wide. In 1908 theUnited States Navy requested that width be increased to at least 36 meters (118 ft) whichwould allow the passage of U.S. naval ships. Eventually a compromise was made and thelocks were built 33.53 meters (110.0 ft) wide. Each lock is 320 meters (1,050 ft) longwith the walls ranging in thickness from 15 meters (49 ft) at the base to 3 meters (9.8 ft)

at the top. The central wall between the parallel locks at Gatn is 18 meters (59 ft) thickand stands in excess of 24 meters (79 ft) high. The steel lock gates measure an average of2 meters (6.6 ft) thick, 19.5 meters (64 ft) wide and 20 meters (66 ft) high. [29] It is the sizeof the locks, specifically the Pedro Miguel Locks, along with the height of the Bridge ofthe Americas at Balboa, that determine the Panamax metric and limit the size of shipsthat may use the Canal.

The 2006 Third lock lane project will create larger locks, and deeper and wider channels,allowing bigger ships to transit. The allowed dimensions of ships will increase by 25% inlength, 51% in beam, and 26% in draft, as defined by New Panamax.[30]

Tolls

RORO carriers, such as this one at Miraflores locks, are among the largest ships to usethe canal

Tolls for the canal are decided by the Panama Canal Authority and are based on vesseltype, size, and the type of cargo carried.[31]

Forcontainer ships, the toll is assessed per the ship's capacity expressed in twenty-footequivalent units or TEUs. One TEU is the size of a container measuring 20 feet (6.1 m)by 8 feet (2.44 m) by 8.5 feet (2.6 m). Effective May 1, 2009, this toll is US$72.00 per

TEU. A Panamax container ship may carry up to 4,400 TEU. The toll is calculateddifferently for passenger ships and for container ships carrying no cargo (in ballast). Asof May 1, 2009 the ballast rate is US$57.60 per TEU.

Passenger vessels in excess of 30,000 tons (PC/UMS), known popularly as cruise ships,pay a rate based on the number of berths, that is, the number of passengers that can beaccommodated in permanent beds. The per-berth charge is currently $92 for unoccupiedberths and $115 for occupied berths. Started in 2007, this charge has greatly increased
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-28%23cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamax#New_Panamaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-29%23cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll-on/roll-offhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miraflores_(Panama)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-30%23cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_shipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ship_passing_through_Panama_Canal_01.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Navyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-28%23cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Americashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamax#New_Panamaxhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-29%23cite_note-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll-on/roll-offhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miraflores_(Panama)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-30%23cite_note-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_shiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-foot_equivalent_unithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruise_ships


13/19

tolls for such vessels.[32] Passenger vessels of less than 30,000 tons or with less than 33tons per passenger are charged on the same "per-ton" schedule as freighters.[33]

Most other types of vessel pay a toll perPC/UMS net ton, in which one "ton" is actually avolume of 100 cubic feet (2.83 m3). (The calculation oftonnage for commercial vessels is

quite complex.) As of fiscal year 2008, this toll is US$3.90 per ton for the first 10,000tons, US$3.19 per ton for the next 10,000 tons, and US$3.82 per ton for the next 10,000tons, and US$3.76 per ton thereafter. As with container ships, a reduced toll is chargedfor freight ships "in ballast".

Small vessels up to 583 PC/UMS net tons when carrying passengers or cargo, or up to735 PC/UMS net tons when in ballast, or up to 1,048 fully loaded displacement tons, areassessed minimum tolls based upon their length overall, according to the followingtable[citation needed]:

Length of vessel Toll

Up to 15.240 meters (50 ft) US$1,300More than 15.240 meters (50 ft) up to 24.384 meters (80 ft) US$1,400

More than 24.384 meters (80 ft) up to 30.480 meters (100 ft) US$1,500

More than 30.480 meters (100 ft) US$2,400

The most expensive regular toll for canal passage to date was charged on May 16, 2008to theDisney Magic, which paid US$331,200.[34][35]The least expensive toll was 36 centsto American adventurer Richard Halliburton, who swam the canal in 1928.[36] Theaverage toll is around US$54,000. The highest fee for priority passage charged throughthe Transit Slot Auction System was US$220,300, paid on August 24, 2006 by thePanamax tanker Erikoussa,[37] bypassing a 90-ship queue waiting for the end of

maintenance works on the Gatun locks, thus avoiding a seven-day delay. The normal feewould have been just US$13,430.[38]

Current issues

Panorama of Pacific entrance of the canal. Left: Pacific and Puente de las Americas (PanAmerican Highway); far right: Miraflores locks.

Ninety-six years since its opening, the canal continues to enjoy great success. Eventhough world shippingand the size of ships themselveshas changed markedly since
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-31%23cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-32%23cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_foothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_overallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Magichttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-33%23cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-34%23cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-34%23cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cent_(currency)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Halliburtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpfaq-35%23cite_note-acpfaq-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestion_pricing#Panama_Canal_Transit_Booking_System_and_Transit_Slot_Auctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-36%23cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-36%23cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Lockshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-37%23cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-31%23cite_note-31http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-32%23cite_note-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_foothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metrehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Length_overallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disney_Magichttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-33%23cite_note-33http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-34%23cite_note-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cent_(currency)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Halliburtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpfaq-35%23cite_note-acpfaq-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestion_pricing#Panama_Canal_Transit_Booking_System_and_Transit_Slot_Auctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship)http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-36%23cite_note-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_Lockshttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-37%23cite_note-37


14/19

the canal was designed, it continues to be a vital link in world trade, carrying more cargothan ever before, with fewer overhead costs.[citation needed] Nevertheless, the canal faces anumber of potential problems.

Efficiency and maintenance

There were fears that efficiency and maintenance would suffer following the U.S.withdrawal; however, this does not appear to have been the case. Capitalizing onpractices developed during the American administration, canal operations are improvingunder Panamanian control.[39] Canal Waters Time (CWT), the average time it takes avessel to navigate the canal, including waiting time, is a key measure of efficiency;according to the ACP, since 2000, it has oscillated between 20 and 30 hours. Theaccident rate has also not changed appreciably in the past decade, varying between 10and 30 accidents each year across approximately 14,000 total annual transits.[40][41][42] Anofficial accident is one in which a formal investigation is requested and conducted.

Increasing volumes of imports from Asia which previously landed on the U.S. west-coastports are now passing through the canal to the American east coast.[43] The total numberof oceangoing transits increased from 11,725 in 2003 to 13,233 in 2007, falling to 12,855in 2009. (the Canals fiscal year runs from October to September).[44] This has beencoupled with a steady rise in average ship size and in the numbers of Panamax vesselspassing, so that the total tonnage carried rose from 227.9 million PC/UMS tons in fiscalyear 1999 to a record high of 312.9 million tons in 2007, falling to 299.1 million tons in2009.[4][44][45]Despite the reduction in total transits due to the negative impact of vesselsize (e.g., the inability of large vessels to pass each other in the Gaillard Cut), thisrepresents significant overall growth in canal capacity.

Abucket dredgeworks to deepen and widen the canal.

The Panama Canal Authority (ACP) has invested nearly US$1 billion in widening and

modernising the canal, with the aim of increasing capacity by 20%.[46]

The ACP cites anumber of major improvements, including the widening and straightening of the GaillardCut to reduce restrictions on passing vessels, the deepening of the navigational channel inGatun Lake to reduce draft restrictions and improve water supply, and the deepening ofthe Atlantic and Pacific entrances of the canal. This is supported by new equipment, suchas a new drill barge and suction dredger, and an increase of the tug boat fleet by 20%. Inaddition, improvements have been made to the operating machinery of the canal,including an increased and improved tug locomotive fleet, the replacement of more than
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-38%23cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-annualreport2005-39%23cite_note-annualreport2005-39http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-metrics2008-40%23cite_note-metrics2008-40http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-metrics2009-41%23cite_note-metrics2009-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-42%23cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-annualreport2009-43%23cite_note-annualreport2009-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acptraffic-3%23cite_note-acptraffic-3http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-annualreport2009-43%23cite_note-annualreport2009-43http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-44%23cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-44%23cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dredgerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dredgerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-45%23cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-45%23cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panama_Canal_Bucket_Dredge.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panama_Canal_Bucket_Dredge.jpeghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-38%23cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-annualreport2005-39%23cite_note-annualreport2005-39http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-metrics2008-40%23cite_note-metrics2008-40http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-metrics2009-41%23cite_note-metrics2009-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-42%23cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-annualreport2009-43%23cite_note-annualreport2009-43http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonnagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acptraffic-3%23cite_note-acptraffic-3http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-annualreport2009-43%23cite_note-annualreport2009-43http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-44%23cite_note-44http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaillard_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dredgerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-45%23cite_note-45http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboat


15/19

16 km of locomotive track, and new lock machinery controls. Improvements have beenmade to the traffic management system to allow more efficient control over ships in thecanal.[47]

In December 2010, record breaking rain totals caused a 17 hour closure of the canal; this

was the first closure since the American invasion in 1989.[48][49]

Also, an access road tothe Centenario bridge collapsed.[50][51][52][53]

Capacity

The canal is presently handling more vessel traffic than had ever been envisioned by itsbuilders. In 1934 it was estimated that the maximum capacity of the canal would bearound 80 million tons per year;[54] as noted above, canal traffic in 2009 consisted of299.1 million tons of shipping.

The water that is used to raise and lower vessels in the Canal is fed by gravity from GatunLake (pictured above) into each set of locks.

To improve capacity a number of improvements have been imposed on the current canalsystem. These improvements aim to maximise the possible use of current locking system:[55]

Implementation of an enhanced locks lighting system; Construction of two tie-up stations in Gaillard Cut; Gaillard Cut widening from 192 to 218 metres (630 to 715 ft); Improvements to the tugboat fleet; Implementation of the carousel lockage system in Gatun locks; Development of an improved vessel scheduling system; Deepening of Gatun Lake navigational channels from 10.4 to 11.3 metres (34 to

37 ft) PLD Modification of all locks structures to allow an additional draft of about

0.30 metres (0.98 ft); Deepening of the Pacific and Atlantic entrances; Construction of a new spillway in Gatun, for flood control.

These improvements will enlarge the capacity from 280290 million PCUMS (2008) to330340 PCUMS (2012).
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-46%23cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-47%23cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-48%23cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-49%23cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-50%23cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-51%23cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-52%23cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-53%23cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-3rdLockProposal-54%23cite_note-3rdLockProposal-54http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gatun_Lake.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-46%23cite_note-46http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-47%23cite_note-47http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-48%23cite_note-48http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-49%23cite_note-49http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-50%23cite_note-50http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-51%23cite_note-51http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-52%23cite_note-52http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-53%23cite_note-53http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-3rdLockProposal-54%23cite_note-3rdLockProposal-54


16/19

Competition

Despite having enjoyed a privileged position for many years, the canal is increasinglyfacing competition from other quarters. Because canal tolls are expected to rise, somecritics[56] have suggested that the Suez Canal may become a viable alternative for cargo

en route from Asia to the U.S. east coast.[citation needed]

The Panama Canal, however,continues to serve more than 144 of the worlds trade routes and the majority of canaltraffic comes from the "All-Water Route" (the route from Asia to the U.S. East and GulfCoasts via the Panama Canal).[citation needed]

The increasing rate of melting of ice in the Arctic Ocean has led to speculation that theNorthwest Passage orArctic Bridge may become viable for commercial shipping at somepoint in the future. This route would save 9,300 km (5,800 mi) on the route from Asia toEurope compared with the Panama Canal, possibly leading to a diversion of some trafficto that route. However, such a route is beset by unresolved territorial issues and wouldstill hold significant problems due to ice.[57]

Water issues

Gatun Lake is filled with rainwater, and the lake accumulates excess water during wetmonths. The water is lost to the oceans at a rate of 101,000 m 3 (26,700,000 US gal;22,200,000 imp gal) per lock-cycle going downwards. Since a ship will have to goupward to Lake Gatun first and then descend, a single passing will cost double theamount, but the same waterflow cycle can be used for another ship passing in theopposite direction. The ship's submerged volume is not relevant to the amount of water.[36][58]During the dry season, when there is less rainfall, there is also a shortfall of water inGatun Lake.[citation needed]

As a signatory to the United Nations Global Compact and a member of the WorldBusiness Council for Sustainable Development, the ACP has developed anenvironmentally and socially sustainable program for expansion, which will protect theaquatic and terrestrial resources of the Canal Watershed. After completion, expansionwill guarantee the availability and quality of water resources by using unique water-saving basins at each new lock. These water-saving basins will diminish water loss andpreserve freshwater resources along the waterway by reusing water from the basins intothe locks. Each lock chamber will have three water-saving basins, which will reuse 60percent of the water in each transit. There are a total of nine basins for each of the twolock complexes, and a total of 18 basins for the entire project. [citation needed]

The Pacific side sea level is about 20 centimeters (8 inches) higher than that of theAtlantic side due to differences in ocean conditions such as water densities and weatherconditions.[59]

The future
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-55%23cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Passagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-56%23cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpfaq-35%23cite_note-acpfaq-35http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-57%23cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-57%23cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Compacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-58%23cite_note-58http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-55%23cite_note-55http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suez_Canalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Passagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Bridgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-56%23cite_note-56http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpfaq-35%23cite_note-acpfaq-35http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-57%23cite_note-57http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_seasonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Compacthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-58%23cite_note-58


17/19

As demand is rising, the canal is positioned to be a significant feature of world shippingfor the foreseeable future. However, changes in shipping patternsparticularly theincreasing numbers of post-Panamax shipswill necessitate changes to the canal if it isto retain a significant market share. It is anticipated that by 2011, 37% of the world'scontainer ships will be too large for the present canal, and hence a failure to expand

would result in a significant loss of market share. The maximum sustainable capacity ofthe present canal, given some relatively minor improvement work, is estimated atbetween 330 and 340 million PC/UMS tons per year; it is anticipated that this capacitywill be reached between 2009 and 2012. Close to 50% of transiting vessels are alreadyusing the full width of the locks.[60]

An enlargement scheme similar to the 1939 Third Lock Scheme, to allow for a greaternumber of transits and the ability to handle larger ships, has been under consideration forsome time,[61] has been approved by the government of Panama,[62] and is in progress,with completion expected in 2014.[63] The cost is estimated at US$5.25 billion, and theproject will double the canal's capacity and allow more traffic and the passage of longer

and wider ships. This proposal to expand the canal was approved in a nationalreferendumby approximately 80% on October 22, 2006.[64]

Third set of locks project

Main article: Panama Canal expansion project

The current plan is for two new flights of locks to be built parallel to, and operated inaddition to, the old locks: one to the east of the existing Gatn locks, and one south westof Miraflores locks, each supported by approach channels. Each flight will ascend fromocean level direct to the Gatn Lake level; the existing two-stage ascent at Miraflores /

Pedro Miguel will not be replicated. The new lock chambers will feature sliding gates,doubled for safety, and will be 427 meters (1,400 ft) long, 55 meters (180 ft) wide, and18.3 meters (60 ft) deep; this will allow the transit of vessels with a beam of up to49 meters (160 ft), an overall length of up to 366 meters (1,200 ft) and a draft of up to15 meters (50 ft), equivalent to a container ship carrying around 12,000 twenty-foot(6.1 m) long containers (TEU).

The new locks will be supported by new approach channels, including a 6.2 km (3.8 mi)channel at Miraflores from the locks to the Gaillard Cut, skirting around Miraflores Lake.Each of these channels will be 218 meters (715 ft) wide, which will require post-Panamax vessels to navigate the channels in one direction at a time. The Gaillard Cut and

the channel through Gatn Lake will be widened to no less than 280 meters (918 ft) onthe straight portions and no less than 366 meters (1,200 ft) on the bends. The maximumlevel of Gatn Lake will be raised from reference height 26.7 meters (87.5 ft) to27.1 meters (89 ft).

Each flight of locks will be accompanied by nine water reutilization basins (three per lockchamber), each basin being approximately 70 meters (230 ft) wide, 430 meters (1410 ft)long and 5.50 meters (18 ft) deep. These gravity-fed basins will allow 60% of the water
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_sharehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpthird-59%23cite_note-acpthird-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Panama_Canal#The_Third_Locks_Schemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-60%23cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-60%23cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-61%23cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-62%23cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_referendum,_2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_referendum,_2006http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-63%23cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_projecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_sharehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpthird-59%23cite_note-acpthird-59http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Panama_Canal#The_Third_Locks_Schemehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-60%23cite_note-60http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-61%23cite_note-61http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-62%23cite_note-62http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_referendum,_2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_referendum,_2006http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-63%23cite_note-63http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama_Canal_expansion_project


18/19

used in each transit to be reused; the new locks will consequently use 7% less water pertransit than each of the existing lock lanes. The deepening of Gatn Lake, and the raisingof its maximum water level, will also provide significant extra water storage capacity.These measures are intended to allow the expanded canal to operate without theconstruction of new reservoirs.

The estimated cost of the project is US$5.25 billion. The project is designed to allow foran anticipated growth in traffic from 280 million PC/UMS tons in 2005 to nearly 510million PC/UMS tons in 2025; the expanded canal will have a maximum sustainablecapacity of approximately 600 million PC/UMS tons per year. Tolls will continue to becalculated based on vessel tonnage, and will not depend on the locks used.

The new locks are expected to open for traffic in 2015. The present locks, which will be100 years old by that time, will then have greater access for maintenance, and areprojected to continue operating indefinitely.[60] An article in the February 2007 issue of Popular Mechanics magazine describes the plans for the canal, focusing on the

engineering aspects of the expansion project.

[65]

There is also a follow-up article in theFebruary 2010 issue ofPopular Mechanics magazine.[66]

On September 3, 2007, thousands ofPanamanians stood across Paraso Hill in Panama towitness a huge explosion and the launch of the Expansion Program. The first phase of theproject will be dry excavations of the 218 meter (715 ft) wide trench connecting theCulebra Cut with the Pacific coast, removing 47 million cubic meters of earth and rock.[67]

Building the new canal

It was announced in July 2009 that the Belgian dredging company Jan De Nul, togetherwith a consortium of contractors consisting of the Spanish Sacyr Vallehermoso, theItalian Impregilo and the Panamanian company Cusa, had been awarded the contract tobuild the six new locks. The contract will result in $100 million in dredging works overthe next few years for the company, and a great deal of work for the company'sconstruction division. The design of the locks is a carbon copy of the Berendrecht lockwhich is 68m wide and 500m long, making it the largest lock in the world. Completed in1989 by the Port of Antwerp, which De Nul helped build, the company still has engineersand specialists who were part of that project.[68]

Rival Colombia rail link

China is looking into constructing a 220 km railway between Colombia's Pacific andCaribbean coasts.[69][70][71][72]

Canal Pilots

During the last one hundred years, the Autoridad del Canal de Panam has appointed afew "Panama Canal Honorary Pilots". The most recent of these were Commodore Ronald
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpthird-59%23cite_note-acpthird-59http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-64%23cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-65%23cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-65%23cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamanianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para%C3%ADsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culebra_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metershttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-66%23cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_De_Nulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Antwerphttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-67%23cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-67%23cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-68%23cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-69%23cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-70%23cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-ch-co-rail-71%23cite_note-ch-co-rail-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoridad_del_Canal_de_Panam%C3%A1http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-acpthird-59%23cite_note-acpthird-59http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-64%23cite_note-64http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-65%23cite_note-65http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamanianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para%C3%ADsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trenchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culebra_Cuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_coasthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_metershttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-66%23cite_note-66http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_De_Nulhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_Antwerphttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-67%23cite_note-67http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-68%23cite_note-68http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-69%23cite_note-69http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-70%23cite_note-70http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-ch-co-rail-71%23cite_note-ch-co-rail-71http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autoridad_del_Canal_de_Panam%C3%A1


19/19

Warwick,[73] a former Master of the Cunard Line's RMS Queen Elizabeth 2, who hastraversed the Canal more than 50 times, and Captain Raffaele Minotauro, Master SeniorGrade, of the former Italian governmental navigation company known in the shippingworld as the "Italian Line".[citation needed]

Gatun Lake

Created in 1913 by the damming of the Charges River, Gatun Lake is an essential part ofthe Panama Canal which forms a water passage between the Atlantic Ocean and thePacific Ocean, permitting ship transit in both directions. At the time it was formed GatunLake was the largest man-made lake in the world. The impassable rain-forest aroundGatun Lake has been the best defense of the Panama Canal. Today these areas haveendured practically unscathed by human interference and are one of the few accessibleareas on earth that various native Central American animal and plant species can beobserved undisturbed in their natural habitat. World famous Barro Colorado Island,which was established for scientific study when the lake was formed and is today

operated by the Smithsonian Institution, is the largest island on Gatun Lake. Many of themost important ground breaking scientific and biological discoveries of the tropicalanimal and plant kingdom originated here. Lake Gatun encompasses approximately 180square miles (470 km2), a vast tropical ecological zone part of the Atlantic ForestCorridor and Eco-tourism on Gatun Lake has become a worthwhile industry forPanamanians. Gatun Lake also serves to provide the millions of gallons of waternecessary to operate the Panama Canal locks each time a ship passes through andprovides drinking water for Panama City and Colon. Angling is one of the primaryrecreational pursuits on Gatun Lake. It is suspected that the Cichla Pleiozona species ofPeacock Bass was introduced by accident to Gatun Lake by a renowned Panamanianaquarist and doctor in 1958. Locally called Sargento these peacock bass are not a native

game fish of Panama but originate from the Amazon, Rio Negro and Orinoco river basinsof South America where they are called Tucanare or Pavon and are considered a premiergame fish. Since 1958 the Cichla Pleiozona species of Peacock Bass have flourished to become the dominant angling game fish in Gatun Lake of the Panama Canal. Theaggressive fish is an angler's dream come true. They hit topwater lures, subsurface luresimitating baitfish, and a variety of fly patterns. When hooked, they perform admirably,generating a respectable fight on appropriate tackle. Oddly, they have a preference forfeeding during daylight hours. Lake Gatun remains to this day, as it has been for morethan 50 years, one of the best peacock bass angling lakes in the world.
http://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-72%23cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(nautical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunard_Linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Queen_Elizabeth_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Queen_Elizabeth_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Queen_Elizabeth_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Lakehttp://en.wikipedia.org/?title=Panama_Canal#cite_note-72%23cite_note-72http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain_(nautical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cunard_Linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Queen_Elizabeth_2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Linehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_neededhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatun_Lake

Documents

Panama Encyclopaedia