Orissa Review * May-June - 2010 - Odishamagazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2010/May-June/engpdf/may-june-2010.pdf · Orissa Review * May-June - 2010 1 ... Vol. XXI pp. 23-25). It

Orissa Review * May-June - 2010

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In the absence of authentic historical records, it isdifficult to trace out the exact period of origin ofVisnu worship and the spread of Vaisnavism inOrissa. Some archaeological evidence in supportof worship of Visnu during the rule of the Mathardynasty in Kalinga has come to light. The imageof Visnu used to be worshipped as a two or four-armed deity. From a copper plate found in thevillage Sarsandha in the Parlakhemundi sub-division, it is learnt that Maharaja Visakha Verma(314-330 A.D.) of the Mathar dynasty declaredhimself as Parama Daivata and ParamaBhattaraka Padabhakta (Epigraphia Indica,Vol. XXI pp. 23-25).

It has been mentioned in the copper plateof Ananta Sakti Verman (392-426 A.D) of thisdynasty that he was Kamala nilayakrantaBaksosa Narayana Svaminah Padabhakta(Epigraphia Indica, Vol. XXVIII pp. 175 ff). Theplate reveals that he was a devotee of LaksmiNarayana.

In the second copper plate of MaharajaChanda Verman (426-441 A.D.) a mention hasbeen made of the gift of the village Kohatra to theBrahman Brahmachari Devasarma on the 5th dayof the lunar fortnight of the month of Chaitra(March-April) during the 6th year of his reign. Hecalls himself Parama Bhagavata in this copperinscription.

Visnu Worship, Jayadeva and Vaisnavism in Orissa

Ajit Kumar Tripathy

Maharaja Prabhanjan Verman II (521-536 A.D.) has in his Nigondi copper inscription,termed himself as Bhagavata Swami NarayanaPadabhakta (Epigraphia Indica,Vol. XXVIII pp.175 ff). From an inscription of 3rd century A.D.found in Nagarjun Konda, it is learnt thatNarayana was regarded as Parama Daivata.The term Daivata is applicable to the sun. In the1st and the 155-6th sloka of the Rig Veda,Narayana and Savita (Sun) are taken to beidentical.

In the kindom ruled by the kings ofMathar dynasty there was the Mahendrachala(Mahendra hills). A district Mahendra Bhoga wascreated in the kingdom named after it. Thewooden image worshipped by the Savaras onthe Mahendra hills was worshipped by the kingsof Mathar dynasty as the State deity. In course oftime, this image of the tribal people wasworshipped as Narayana or Purusottama. (TheCult of Jaganath, pp. 4-5 ff)

The territory lying between Kalinga andTosali was known as Kangoda and it constitutedone independent kingdom. The major portion ofKhallikote in the district of Ganjam and aconsiderable portion of the present Khurda sub-division of undivided Puri district were includedin this kingdom known as Kangoda. Accordingto the Kanas copper plate of king Sri Loka

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Vigraha of Vigraha dynasty of Kangod, he hadissued royal orders from Tatichha Pattanam, avillage in the district of Satid in Tosali to beVisayapati (Collector) and other officers of theState to the effect that the village Urddhvasrngalocated in the same district was for the worshipof Jaya Varaha gifted at the feet of ParamaDaivatadhi Daivata Parama Bhattaraka(OHRJ Vol. IV p.6, p.233). There are twosambats mentioned in this copper inscription. Thefirst one, if calculated according to Gupta era 200may date back to 520 A.D. and the secondcalculated according to Mana to 240 A.D. Butthis has to be confirmed by further scientificresearch. Jaya Varaha mentioned in the copperinscription must certainly have been the VarahaAvatar of the ten incarnations of Srikrsna or Visnu.

After the defeat of Sasanka byHarsavardhan, Maharaja Madhav Roy (590-604A.D.) conquered the kingdom of Loka Vigrahaof Kangod and established himself as anindependent king assuming the title SakalaKalingadhipati. According to a copperinscription found in the Khurda region heintroduced himself as Sailodbhavanvavaya

nata sakala Kalingadhipatyah sakalakalavapta kaumudeva jagata pramadahpravrtta chakra chakradharaiva BhagavanMadhavah Sri Madhavarajah. From anotherinscription, it is seen that Madhavaraja boreanother name Sri Sainyabhita(O.H.R.J. Vol IINos. 3 & 4, pp-20-24 ff).

During the reign of Madhavaraja theimage of Visnu was worshipped in Kalinga underthe name Madhava. In the densely populatedregion of the kingdom of Kangod and the adjacentold valley of the river Prachi, shrines of worshipof Madhava Visnu were established. By the by itmay be mentioned that the present Prachi valleycomprising some parts of Sadar sub-division and

Bhubaneswar of undivided Puri district, Sadar andJagatsinghpur Sub-divisions of the district ofCuttack must have belonged to the kingdom ofthe then Nala dynasty named after Nalaraja ruledfrom a place Puskari near Nowrangpur of Orissa.Their predecessors had been ruling over Vidarbhaterritory. A rock inscription of 13 lines of SkandhaVerman, son of Bhabadutta Verman of thisdynasty is found at a little distance of thedilapidated Siva temple in the village Potagarh inthe Umarkote taluk of the district of Koraput. Inthis inscription salutations have been offered toHari at the outset.Harinajitam jayati Jesyatyesa gunastutirnnahimsa,

Nanu bhagavaneva jayajetavya chadhijeta cha .

(Epigraphia Indica,Vol. XXI pp. 135 f).

Scholars are of opinion that this rockinscription belongs to the 5th century A.D.Skandha Verman had installed a stone slab withthe foot prints of Lord Visnu engraved on it in atemple and worshipped it.

The Saravapuriya royal dynasty ruledover south Kosala. Mahasudeva Raj (6th centuryA.D.) bore the title of Parama Bhagavata asrecorded in his Koutavalla copper plate. In hiscopper plate the image of Gajalaksmi (GoddessLaksmi with elephants) was engraved. The figureof Gajalaksmi was set on a full-blown lotus withtwo elephants on both sides sprinkling water.

After the reign of Saravapur royal dynasty,Mahasiva Tibira Deva became the king of thewhole of Kosala. In his copper plate he declaredhimself as Parama Vaisnava (Odisara Itihas,p. 484). In the coins of the State the figure ofGaruda, the conveyor of Visnu was engraved.

Tibira Deva ruled in the latter part of the7th century A.D. His son Mahananna Raj was adevotee of Visnu and had conquered the kingdomof Utkal in the 9th year of his reign. In the copper



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plates he has described the Brahmins asBhagavata.

After Mahananna Raj Mahasiva GuptaBalarjuna became the king of Sakala Kosala.There are 42 verses of Mahasiva Gupta engravedin a long rock inscription of Siripur (EP Ind. Vol.XI pp. 184-202 ff). As it contains at the outsetthe expressions Om Namah Purusottamayah ,it may be considered the first inscription of its kindin 8th century A.D. The name of Jagannath as SriPurusottama has been recorded for the first time.After this there are salutations to the Nrsinghincarnation, to Lord Krsna the destroyer ofKamsa and to Lord Balarama. It is clear fromthis that Mahasiva Tibira Deva and his fore-fathersof Pandu dynasty worshipped Sri Jagannatha,Laksmi, Nrsingha, Krsna, Balarama as theirancestral Gods. So the figure of Laksmi wasengraved as the royal emblem.

As king of Sarava dynasty who ruledbefore the Pandu dynasty termed themselves asParama Bhagavata, it is clear that Visnu worshipwas widely in vogue in south Kosala before 7th

century A.D. It is learnt from another rockinscription at Siripur that Mahasiva GuptaBalarjuna, son of Sri Harsa Gupta (SwabhabaTunga) and queen Vasata (daughter of SuryaVerma) had engaged the florists of Nabahatta atSripura to make beautiful garlands every day tobe offered to Lord Visnu. In the Sambal regionof Kosala, Indrabhuti (714 A.D.) in his workJnanasiddhi has offered his salutations to LordJagannatha. In the lyrics or religious scriptures thismention of Lord Jagannatha is the first of its kind.The name of Lord Jagannatha did not find placein any scripture before this.

Pranipatya Jagannatham sarvajina vararchitam,Sarva Buddhamayam siddi vyapinam gaganopamam

(Jnansiddhi, 1/1)

Indrabhuti is also known as the expounderof Vajrayana, a school of Tantrayana Buddhism.His sister Laksmikara and his adopted son PadmaSambhava went as far as Tibet on their assignmentto preach this religion. Padma Sambhava is evennow regarded as the founder of TibetanLamahood. The Sahajayana cult of Buddhismdeveloped from the Mahayana cult. The bliss ofinter-communion with God is transformed toMaharasa. In this Maharasa the soul merges inBrahma. Indrabhuti has offered his oblations toLord Jagannatha as the deity worshipped by theMahajinas. Among the ten incarnations, theincarnation of Buddha is taken to be LordJagannatha Himself. On the left walls of theBhogamandapa behind the Garuda pillar insidethe temple and upon the upper part of the Lion sgate (Singhadvara) in the engravings of the tenincarnations the image of Lord Jagannatha issubstituted later in place of Buddha which is highlymeaningful though objectionable. The Oriyaliterature also sings of the glory of Buddha, as anincarnation of Lord Jagannatha. Instances of thiscan be found in the figures pictured on the oldpalm-leaf scriptures of Orissa. It is believed thatthe stuff placed in the navel part of LordJagannatha which is regarded as Brahma, is thetooth of Buddha. But some others believe it to bethe unburnt navel portion of Srikrsna.

Hiuen Tsang has in his account describedthe Buddhist Burma region as Sriksetra. Puri, theabode of Lord Jagannatha, is also termed asSriksetra. Consequent upon the spread ofSahajiya Buddhism, people of the lower castesof the society were attracted to it. This led to amixture of Brahmanism and Buddhism. Almost atevery home Buddhist pillars set up earlier gotconverted to bases of Tulsi plants andworshipped daily. These were converted to tulasichaura and they were widely spread to all partsof India. In this way Buddhist consciousness


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merged into the vast arena of Hinduism and gaverise to the development of a new religious order.

It is ascertained from Daspalla copperplate that Sri Satrubhanja Deva Tribhuban Vilas,the king of Visnubalka was a great devotee ofVaisnavism. In the copper plate there is mentionof the name of a village Santosa Madhava. Thiscopper plate belonged to Bhauma era 198 or 812A.D.

During the reign of Bhaumakara dynasty,Tribhubana Mahadevi, the chief queen of SantikarI (846 A.D.) termed herself, in a copper plateinscription, (Ep. Ind. Vol. XXIX pp. 210-220 ff)as Parama Vaisnavi Parama Bhattarika-Maharajadhiraja Parama Paramesvari.Subhakar Dev II (836 A.D) bore the name ofSinghadhvaja or Singhaketu and was a greatpatron of Buddhism. But from his Hindol copperplate it is confirmed that he also sang the glory ofLaksmi-Narayana and Chandrasekhar (p. 450,Odisa Itihas). His other name was Ramdev.

Madhavi Devi, the chief queen ofSubhakara Deva, had built the Madhavesvartemple on the mountain top of Udayagiri. Theverse Khyatoayambhuvi Madhavesvara itiSriman Bhavasyalayam (p. 447, Odisa Itihas/ Neulapur copper plate Ep. Ind. Vol. XVpp.1-8 ff). has been inscribed on the wall of theHamsesvar temple. As her husband SubhakarDeva posed himself as a great worshipper ofParama Saugata (E.I., Vol XV pp 1-8), it canbe assumed that he was a patron of Buddhism.But Maharani Madhavi Devi having already builtthe temple of Madhavesvar also established manyshrines of Visnu worship which shows her religioustolerance and patronisation of Brahmanism. Thisresulted in a strange co-ordination of Brahmanismand Buddhism. Side by side with the worship ofBuddhist gods and goddesses, the worship ofMadhava spread far and wide in Orissa.

In the east of the Mahendra hills adjacentto the southern part of the kingdom of Kangod,there was an independent kingdom namedSvetaka. After the kings of Sailodbhava dynasty,the kings of Ganga dynasty of the city of Kalingaconquered the southern territory upto the riverRsikulya. In course of time the Svetakas mingledwith the Bhauma kingdom and establishedthemselves as feudatory chiefs of Bhauma kings.According to Sankhimedi copper plate, MaharajaIndraverma of this dynasty had gifted a village forworship of Loka Madhava Visnu andSvayambhukesvara Visnu and Siva and hadappointed some Brahmins to take care of the ritesof worship. Among them were Somapa andSavaripa the great saints.

It is learnt from a copper plate of queenTribhubana Mahadevi (895 A.D.) found fromBoudh that after the death of her husbandLalitabhara, she took over the charge of theadministration of the kingdom. The Chedi kingLaksman Raj conquered the kingdoms of Kosalaand Udra and carried away from the latter thevaluable Kaliya image beset with gold and jewelsas ascertained from Bilhari rock-inscription.

Jitva Kosalanathamodranrpateraptastu yah kaliyo,Ratna svarnamayah sa yena vihita somesvarabhyarcchanam

(Ep. Ind., Vol I, p. 256 ff )

From this it is learnt that Laksaman Rajahad stolen away the image without encounteringUdra Raj in a battle. This incident took placeduring the reign of Kosala king JanmejayMahabhava Gupta Svabhava Tunga and queenMahadevi Tribhubana. To take revenge,Janmejaya waged a war against the Chedi kingand burnt his territory to ashes. This has also beenmentioned in the copper plate of Yajati, son ofJanmejay found in Bolangir Patna. (Odisar Itihas,p. 459). Probably the Chedi king Laksaman Rajwas living in the 10th century A.D.



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But what is this Kaliya image spoken of above ?It may probably be either the Kaliya-Dalana(killing of the serpent Kali) posture of LordSrikrsna or the image of Lord Jagannatha (blackin colour) adorned with gold and jewels.

Maharaja Yajati II of Soma dynastybecame the king of Kosala, Kangod and Utkalaand built the temple of Lord Lingaraj known thenas Kirtibaseswara at Bhubaneswar. Though hehad made the preliminary arrangements forconstruction of the temple of Sri Jagannatha, hecould not implement it. It has been mentioned inthe Madala Panji (chronicle of important eventsin Jagannatha temple) that 146 years before Yajati,Lord Jagannatha was buried underground atSonepur (Suvarnapur) in fear of the invasion ofRaktabahu. Yajati Kesari had unearthed the divineimages and had reinstalled them at Puri.Afterwards, the Ganga emperor ChodagangaDeva had built the present lofty and majestictemple. It is generally believed that one LalatenduKesari had built the Lingaraj temple ofBhubaneswar. But history does not record anysuch name. Though the kings of Soma dynastywere Saivas themselves, they made equally sincerewholehearted efforts for establishing Visnuworship.

The images of Nila Madhava andSidhesvara Siva Linga at Gandharadhi nearBoudh situated at the south-valley of the riverMahanadi were probably constructed in eighthor ninth century A.D. The simultaneous worshipof Lord Hari (Visnu) and Hara (Siva) in the samepart of the country bears ample proof that in theKosala region these two worships had long beenin vogue concurrently. Similarly the image ofLaksmi Nrsingha inside the Lingaraj temple wallsat Bhubaneswar symbolises joint worship ofVaisnavism and Saivism at this holy place ofpilgrimage. On the western border of the Boudhtown, the temple of Ramesvar Visnu is built. Close

to this there are two small temples which maydate back to 9th century A.D.

In the district of Dhenkanal near Talcher,the biggest image of Lord Visnu in India is foundin a sleeping posture. From tip to toe it is 41'.5"feet in length. Historians are of opinion that theconstruction of this image may date back to 8th

century A.D. In the Svarna Jalesvar temple atBhubaneswar built in the 7th or 8th century A.D.,the beautiful figures of Saptasala Chhedan of SriRama and crushing of the Kaliya serpent bySrikrsna are found. The Kaliya Dalana image ofSrikrsna has been preserved in the State Museumat Bhubaneswar.

To the south of the Lingaraj temple builtduring the reign of the Soma dynasty there areengravings of figures of Nanda, Yasoda and babyKrsna. Such figures have been engraved in a smalltemple at the north-east corner of the Brahmesvartemple at Bhubaneswar. In this picture Nanda hasbeard and Yasoda is seen churning curd and babyKrsna found to be curiously watching it. Duringthe reign of the same Soma dynasty an attractiveimage of Lord Visnu has been installed at Jalaukanear Chhatia in the district of Cuttack. ThusViasnavism was in vogue in present Orissa formore than eight centuries before the advent ofGanga dynasty.

At the advent of the Ganga dynasty,Ananta Verman Chodaganga Deva (1078-1174A.D.) at first worshipped Gokarnesvar installedon Mahendrachala (Mahendra hill). In thisconnection, it has been discussed before that onthe Mahendra hill the indigenous Savaras hadbeen worshipping the wooden image which wasconsidered to be their State deity by the kings ofMathar dynasty. It is learnt form the Korne copperplate that through the influence of his ancestralpreceptor Ramanuj, Chodaganga Deva was


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attracted towards Visnu worship. His copper platesays that at the beginning of his reign he had builtthe temple of Laksmi Narayan at the sea shore.

Laksmi janmagrham payonidhirasau sambhavitasyasthitiraNodhanni svasurasya pujyata iti ksirabdhi basaddhrvam,Nivignah purusottamah pramuditasta damalabhadramaBaitad bhartrgrham baram pitrgrhat prapya pramodanvita .

There was an old temple of LordJagannatha at Jagannath Puri which was in adilapidated condition and Chodaganga Devarenovated this old temple and rebuilt it totally. Thisis supported by the description in VaisnavaLilamrita composed by Madhav Patnaik in thefirst part of sixteenth century during the reign ofGajapati Pratap Rudra Deva.

The same temple which had been builtfor installation of Laksmi Narayan is now thetemple of Lord Jagannatha. It is Purusottama whois also Lord Jagannatha. Since the reign ofChodaganga Deva, Visnu worship got widelyspread in Orissa as he got the worship institutedwith all the arrangements physical and financial.That became the model for other princes of Orissato construct Jagannatha temple and provide landfor their puja. Purusottam Puri, the abode of LordJagannatha was the centre of Visnu worship andVaisnavism. After the preaching of Advaitphilosophy by Sankaracharya, there appeared onthe scene Madhvacharya, Visnusvami,Ramanujam and Nimbarka the preachers ofDualism. For propagation of their own teachingsthey had established several shrines at Puri. Fromthe ten slokas composed by Nimbarka, it is learntthat he was a staunch supporter of the worship ofRadha-Krsna. The fifth of these ten slokas readsas follows :

Angetu vame vrsabhanujam mudabirajamanamanurupasaubhagam sakhisahasreih parisebitam

sada amarema devim sakalestakamadam .

(Sri Jayadeva O Sri Gitagovinda, p. 147)

It means that Radha the daughter ofVrsabhanu who resembles Laksmi and is everblissful sits on the left of Srikrsna surrounded bythousands of mates devoted to her service. She,who is the bestower of peace and grants alldesires, is ever memorable and worthy of devotionand worship. The followers of Nimbarka are ofopinion that Srikrsna is the beloved of the Gopisand Radha resembling Laksmi is conjoined withhim as his pleasing counterpart. But the conjoinedimage of Radha and Krsna as conceived byNimbarka has not yet been discovered.Nimbarka has prepared a commentary on theprinciples of Vedanta named Vedanta ParijataSaurabha .

After this in the middle of the 12th centuryA.D. the Gitagovinda of Sri Jayadevaconsiderably influenced the common people inOrissa. The sweet and melodious verses of theGitagovinda based on the blissful divine unionof Radha and Madhava resounded all around andeven penetrated to the distant interiors of Orissaand India. The influence of Vaisnavism on the thensociety in Orissa and the inspiration derived fromdualism might have prompted Jayadeva tocompose the love episode of Radha and Krsna.Though there was an impact of teachings ofBuddha and Nimbarka in the mind of Jayadeva,his Gitagovinda was unique in its own way andinvoked devotional and enchanting feelings in thehearts of the common mass of Orissa. In lattertimes literature, music, art and architecture inOrissa were greatly influenced by theGitagovinda .

The four-armed image of Madhava-Visnuholding the conch, wheel, mace and lotus, withKrsna consciousness installed into it, wassubsequently found to be holding the conch andthe wheel in upper two hands and the flute by thelower two hands. This image in the pose ofstanding in triflection is adorned with the engraving



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of ten incarnations all around. Among such typeof images in Orissa one found in Dharmasala ofCuttack (now in Jajpur district), has beenpreserved in the Orissa State Museum,Bhubaneswar. Of the other images, one ispreserved in the Jagannatha Ballabha matha andanother in the Gouranga matha at Puri.

The intense devotional ardour containedin the Gitagovinda of Jayadeva brought in courseof time, the transformation of the image ofMadhava to that of two armed Krsna with flute.Gradually, this image assumed the form of Krsna-Gopinatha with two arms holding the flute andwas worshipped all over Orissa. The mode ofsculpture of the image of Krsna-Gopinatha allover Orissa resembles that of KsirachoraGopinatha of Remuna in the district of Balasore.

Close to the village Kenduli, the birthplaceof Jayadeva, in the villages of Balianta, Sarkana,Hirapur, Naharakanta and Barimund in theundivided Puri district, Nagari, Adaspur andVarahapur in this sadar sub-division of Cuttackdistrict such types of images are installed andworshipped. In the Brahmin sasanas near Purithe images of Gopinatha are worshipped but theimage of Krsna with two hands is without hiscounterpart Radha. The date of sculpture of theseimages may be in the later part of 12th or themiddle of 13th century A.D. In the Alarpur copperplate of the emperor Narasingha Deva IV, thereis mention of installation of three images ofGopinatha at (1) Alarpur, (2) Sarkana and (3)Hirapur. (Alarpur plate of Narasingh Dev II E.I,Vol XXI, No. 3 pp. 17-24)

Again Maharani Chandrika Devi, thedaughter of Anangabhima Deva II (1211 -1238A.D.) of 13th century A.D., was a devotee of LordVisnu. On the eastern bank of Bindusagar Tankof Bhubaneswar, she built the temple for worshipof Ananta Vasudeva and Subhadra and mentioned

this in a long rock inscription set in the templewhich records as follows :

(i) Krsnena trsnavati (6th sloka),(ii) tathirthamandanasyasya tire nanavani ghane, Srikrsna,Sribalavasa vasite nandanayite (13th sloka)(iii) mukuta dairalankaraih saktya bhaktyamudanvita, balakrsnau subhadranchasreyasesa vabhusayat .

The rock inscription referred to above hasbeen removed elsewhere. In its place, some onehostile has set up a rock inscription of Bhavanatha,the king of Burdwan.

Images resembling those of Krsna,Balaram and Subhadra in the Ananta Vasudevatemple are found inKaliyuga Bagalpur and Shisilo(Sri-Shailo) near the village Kenduli. This has alsobeen discussed elsewhere.

Due to popularity the Srimad Bhagavathad earned among the people in Orissa, SridharaSvami has prepared a commentary on it. SridharSvami belonged to the village Maraigarh at adistance of 4 kilometres from the temple ofKsirachora Gopinatha at Remuna in Balasoredistrict. This village Maraigarh was a sasan ofBrahmins belonging to the Paipalada cult of theAtharva Veda. In the Atharva Veda there aremany verses of the Tapini Upanisad containingdescriptions of Krsna, Radha, Vrndavan etc.

It was in Orissa that the Tapini literatureoriginated and influenced the growth of VaisnavaBhagavata in Orissa. As a result, Visnu wasworshipped as Krsna or Gopinatha. After thepropagation of image worship in Orissa, theGitagovinda of Jayadeva was composed andgot wide circulation in Vaisnava literature. Theworship of Radha was not in vogue from 13th toearly 15th century in Orissa or Bengal. It has beenmentioned in the Chaitanya Charitamrta byKrsnadas Kaviraj in the 17th century A.D. that


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Sri Chaitanya used to listen to the slokas of theGitagovinda and songs of Chandidas andVidyapati recited to him by Ray Ramananda.Vidyapati Chandidas Sri GitagovindaBhabanurupa sloka padhen Ray Ramananda(Anta Lila)Vidyapati Jayadeva Chandidaser gitaAsvadena Ramananda Svarupa sahita (Adi Lila)

Sri Chaitanya stayed at Rajamahendri onthe bank of the river Godavari with RayRamananda, for ten days. Ray Ramanandaexplained to him in details, the philosophy ofVaisnavism and the cult of Radha-Krsna orGopinatha. He explained to him the texts of theSrimad Bhagavat, Brahma Samhita, SrikrsnaKarnamrta and Gitagovinda. Radha tatva ormarga is the best way of worshipping Krsna andSri Chaitanya learnt it from Ray Ramanandaaccording to the Vaisnava Lilamrta of MadhavaPattnayak. It, therefore, goes without saying thatnobody before Chaitanya in Bengal had heard ofthe Gitagovinda. Had the Gitagovinda spreadbefore in Bengal, a saint like Sri Chaitanya wouldhave surely heard of it earlier.

According to the ChaitanyaCharitamrta Madhavendra Puri had at firstinstalled the image of Gopal-Krsna onGovardhana Giri. On his way from Vrndavana toPuri he had spent a night in the temple ofGopinatha at Remuna. Legends say thatGopinatha himself had stolen the cream to feedhis devotee Madhavendra and hence the imageof Gopinatha was popularly known as Ksirachora(Stealer of milk cream) Gopinatha.

After Madhavendra Puri, Sri Chaitanyavisited Vrndavana. While returning fromVrndavan, Sri Chaitanya had left instructions withRupa Gosvami and Sanatan Gosvami forrestoring Vrndavan to its former glory. It has beenmentioned in the middle part of Chaitanya

Charitamrta that these two saints made sincereefforts, for reviving Vrndavana. The deities ofMadana Gopal and Govinda in Vrndavan wereinstalled by Sanatana and Rupa Gosvami. Butthe image of Radha had not been installed at thattime. Madhavendra Puri had installed there thebaby Krsna on Giri Govardhana. It was BalGopal.

Sanatana and Rupa Gosvami had metat Vrndavan Jiva Gosvami, Raghunatha Bhatta,Gopal Bhatta and Raghunatha Das. These sixsaints are known as six Gosvamis. They madestrenuous efforts to turn Vrndavan to a holy andfinished the composition of ChaitanyaCharitamrta in 1615 A.D. and in this scripturethere is no mention of worship of Radha with theimages of Madan Gopal and Govinda. So it iscertain that worship of Radha had not beenintroduced by the six Gosvamis at Vrndavan. Inthe Chaitanya Chandrodaya Nataka written in1579 A.D., there is mention of the conjoinedimages of Radha and Krsna. In the 7th chapter ofthis play, Sri Chaitanya has enquired fromRamananda regarding the deity worthy to beworshipped. In reply Ramananda said that it wasproper to worship the conjoined image of Radhaand Krsna.Bhagawan (Sri Chaitanya) : Kimpasyamatra ?Ramananda : Mahasi Srikrsna Radhamedhe

In the Brahma Vaivarta Purana thereis mention of the marriage of Radha and Krsna.As described in the Purana the marriage ofRadha and Krsna had been performed before themarriage of Yasoda s brother Ayana. It is peculiarthat Yasoda s brother Ayana in the literature ofBengal and other places in India is known asChandrasena in Oriya.

Maharaj, sa khalu sahaja vaisnava bhavatiPurvamayamasmakamupahasapatra masita sampratibhagavadanugrahe jate tanmahimajnata no yata .



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(Maharaja, he is follower of this Sahaja cult ofVaisnavism. Previously he was a person of ridiculeby us. Now being favoured by Bhagavan we areapprised of his power.)

(Souvenir on Jayadev-1968 Page 59 publishedby J.S.P., BBSR)

On his way to Puri, Sri Chaitanyawitnessed the images of Gopinatha with flute inhand at Remuna, Cuttack, Balianta, Hirapur,Sarkana, Danda Mukundapur worshipped. Allthese discussions go to prove the fact that theworship of the image of Gopinatha was widely invogue in Orissa. As mentioned earlier, the Allarpurcopper plate inscription of Narasingha Deva IIof Ganga dynasty (1238-1264 A.D.) throws lighton this.

After composition of the ChaitanyaCharitamrt, Narahari Chakravorty in hisBhaktiRatnakara has recorded the achievementsof Vaisnavas of Goudiya Branch. This workbelongs to the 18th century A.D. and it recordsthat the image of Radha was taken from Utkaland was installed beside Madan Gopal andGovinda at Vrndavan. In the 6th chapter of BhaktiRatnakara the following verses are found :

Sri Govinda ye samaye prakata hoila,Se samaya srimati Radhika nahin chhilaChhilen Sri Madanamohan prabhu echheSanmksepe kahiye sri jugal haila jaichhe

The above verses prove that the imageof Radha had not been worshipped earlier besideMadanamohan and Govinda.

According to Bhakti Ratnakar aBrahmin of south India named Vrsabhanu wasliving at Radhanagar in Utkal. He had installedthe image of Radha as his daughter. After the deathof the Brahmin, the Gajapati emperor, on receiptof the news, came to Radhanagar and witnessedthe image of Radha, who appeared before the

Gajapati emperor of Utkal in a dream andinstructed him to place her in the chakrabedhaof Srimandira compound. After her installationin the Srimandira compound, when the time ofher retreat to Vrndavan came, she again appearedin a dream before Gajapati emperor PurusottamDeva and directed him to send her image toVrndavan. So the image of Radha was removedto Vrndavan where it was installed on the left ofGovinda. These stories have been recorded inthe Sadhana Dipika. Again it has been mentionedin the 13th chapter of the Bhakti Ratnakara thatJahnavi Devi, the wife of Nityananda had installedthe image of Radha beside Gopinatha at Vrndavan.There is a place named Radhanagar close toKisnanagar (Krsnanagar) in the district ofCuttack. Similarly, there is another place namedRadhanagar at Remuna near the temple ofKsirachora Gopinatha. These two villages are kinto Radhanagar mentioned in the Bhakti Ratnakarand might have been the centre for origin of Radhaworship. But there is absolutely no truth in thesestories.

Purusottama Jena of BhaktiRatnakarwas the Gajapati emperor Purusottam Deva(1607-1623 A.D.) of Bhoi dynasty of Khurda.Rasikananda is considered to be the expounderof joint worship of Radha and Krsna. But heappears to be ignorant of the image of Radha ofRadhanagar, its installation in Srimandiracompound and its transport to Vrndavan. Butsurely enough the joint worship of Radha andKrsna had its origin form Orissa. In the 17th

century A.D. it was carried to Vrndavan and fromthere it spread all over India.

The greatest mission of Sri Chaitanya wasthe revival of Hindu culture and restoration ofVrndavanDham. The strenuous efforts which thesix Gosvamis had made for the revival ofVrndavan has been stated before. With a view topreaching Vaisnava literature and the Gospels of


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Vaisnavism at Gauda and Utkal, these sixGosvamis had deputed Narottam Thakur,Srinivas Acharya and Syamananda to the easternof India. While carrying the palm leaf scripturesin a bullock cart, these were robbed away ontheir way near Bankuda and were rescued by ViraHamir, the then king of Visnupur. This incidenttook place during 1600-1605 A.D. up to whichJiva Gosvami was alive.

Syamananda was commissioned forpreaching Vaisnavism in Orissa. He enlistedRasikananda Deva Gosvami as his disciple whichrepresented the Syamananda school of the cultof Vaisnavism. One Baladeva Vidyabhusan ofOrissa belonged to this school. During theplundering raids of the Moghul emperorAurangzeb on Hindu images and monuments, theimages of Vrndavan were transported for safetyat Galta in the kingdom of Ambar in Rajputanaand preserved there. Sawai Jayasingha, the kingof Ambar (1699-1743 A.D.) had built the city ofJayapur in 1728 A.D. and removed his capitalthere. Jayasingha belonged to the Syamanandacult and was an avid worshipper of Radha-Krsna.But the Vaisnavas of south India who werebelievers in the Vedanta Philosophy wereopposed to worship of Radha beside the imageof Krsna. Jayasingha and the supporters ofRadha-worship failed to prevail upon theVaisnavas of south India for worship of Radha.As a result, Raja Jayasingha recorded hisdiscourses on Radha-worship and invited thelearned saints of Vrndavan for a discussion onthe matter. At that time Visvanath Chakravarti wasthe head of the Gaudiya cult of Vaisnavism. Butdue to advanced old age he could not come toJayapur and deputed Pundit BaladevaVidyabhusan of Orissa, another exponent ofGaudiya Vaisnavism.

Baladeva Vidyabhusan was born nearRemuna in the district of Balasore of Orissa. He

had acquired vast learning on Vaisnava literatureand on Radha worship. He joined the religiousconference of the Pundits at Jayapur and listenedcarefully to the arguments put forth by the scholarsof the south against the worship of Radha. Hehad composed the Govindabhasya (BhagavatGita and Dasopanisad) which he presented atthe conference of the scholars putting forth soundand logical arguments in support of joint worshipof Radha and Krsna. This convinced the scholarsof the south and they had to accept both Radhaand Krsna as the obverse and converse of oneand the same reality. Since then the joint worshipof Radha and Krsna spread like wild fire in thewhole of India.

To sum up, Nimbarka, is the firstpropagator of Radha-Krsna worship in India andno definite date or place of birth of Nimbarka isavailable. He came to Orissa, stayed in Puri andestablished an Asram there which still exists.

Late Dr. J.N. Banerjee in his workPanchopasana recorded that Nimbarka orNimbaditya was the founder of the SanakaSampradaya. In a place Nimba or Nimbapur insouth India, Nimbarka was born in a Brahminfamily. The religious life of Nimbarka was spentat Vrndavan and at Puri. He preached Vaisnavismbased on the conception of the theory of Radhaand Krsna. He prepared a short commentary onthe Vedanta Sutra called the Vedanta ParijataSaurabha and his teachings were embodied inten verses known as Dasaslokis. The main deitiesof worship of the disciples of Nimbarka andSanaka Sampradaya were Gopijana-Vallabha-Gopalkrsna and His beloved counterpart SrimatiRadhika. From these discussions it is learnt thatthe worship of Radha-Krsna dates back to the12th century A.D. But, no image representing thethen worship of Radha-Krsna has beendiscovered so far.



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Probably the name Radha has beenborrowed by Nimbarka from the Sanskritscripture Dhvanyaloka and SuvasitaRatnakara. The scripture Sadukti Karnamrtamby Sridhara Das was finished in 1205 A.D. Butno definite mention of either the name of Jayadevaor Nimbarka has been made in it. Nocontemporary writing regarding worship ofRadha-Krsna as propagated by Nimbarka hascome to light so far. Therefore, it is clear that thecredit of popularising the joint worship of RadhaKrsna and the Radha Bhakti as the way to getKrsna goes to Jayadeva s Gitagovinda.

Vallabhacharya and Sri Chaitanya werecontemporaries. Vallabhacharya was born in1479 A.D. and lived upto 1531 A.D. SriChaitanya took his birth in 1485 A.D. and passedaway in 1533 A.D. Vallabhacharya haddiscourses with Chaitanya at Puri on thecommentary of the Bhagavata. Vallabhacharyahad also attempted to introduce the worship ofthe joint image of Radha and Krsna.

The twin images of man and womandiscovered from the pillar of Pahadpur in WestBengal are believed to be the images of Radhaand Krsna and are considered to belong to the7th century A.D. In the Annual Report of theArchaeological Survey of India published in 1923-27, the then Director of ArchaeologicalDepartment, Roy Bahadur K.M.Dikshit has

accepted them as images of Radha and Krsna.Dr. Suniti Kumar Chatterjee has accepted thefemale image as Radha. Dr. Sukumar Sen hastaken the woman image to be that of a Gopi. Butthe historian S.K.Saraswati in his book EarlySculptors of Bengal published in 1937, hasdiscarded the idea of treating these images of manand woman as those of Radha and Krsna. Hesays that the male image without the peacockfeather on its head and the flute in hand cannot betaken as Krsna. It is not known how this ideaspread among the people. So this can never be afact that the twin stone images discovered atPahadpur of the 7th century A.D. were those ofRadha and Krsna. We are yet to come acrossany image of Krsna in India without these symbolsof peacock feather or flute. Worshipping of afemale goddess is as old as Mahenjodaro andHarappa in Pakistan and therefore, any twin imageof man and woman joint cannot be taken to bethat of Krsna and Radha. If it is taken that Radhaand Krsna worship pervailed in Bengal from the7th century A.D., then there would have beennumerous such twin images found out by now.Krsna was not known as Madhava in Bengal tillthe 16th century A.D., when Chaitanya came.

Ajit Kumar Tripathy lives at 6R/1, Unit-6, Near IndiraEnglish Medium School, Bhubaneswar-751001.


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Srikrsna is the Parama Purusa and SrimatiRadhika, his loving consort is the Prakrti. She istermed as Para Prakrti. In Sanskrit as well as inOriya Para means another or other .According to our scriptures the word Para alsorefers to Srestha or Supreme Chief which isPurusa. So Prakrti is always at work to pleasePurusa. She has completely surrendered herheart and soul for the satisfaction of Purusa. ButPurusa, though feigning indifference, is pleasedat heart and charmed at the selfless love andrestlessness of Prakrti to please Him. The wholecreation is immersed in everlasting joy at this sweetselfless and blissful intercourse between thePurusa and Prakrti. Prakrti is always eager toexecute the longing of her beloved in thephenomenal world for which she is very swift,agile and always on at her heels. Though enjoyingthe full bliss of being merged with NirgunaPurusa, she does not have the slightest trace ofdesire. She merges completely with Purusa. Thewhole creation is transformed to Vrndavana, theplace of sportive union of Radha and Krsna.Prakrti goes into samadhi while in communionwith Purusa. The playful and loving activities ofPrakrti move her beloved counterpart Purusawho is overwhelmed with intensity of divine loveand forgetting his consciousness entreats Radha,the prakrti, with the expression dehi padapallavamudaram .

The Philosophy of the Gitagovinda

Prafulla Chandra Tripathy

At the advent of spring prakrti in formof nature throbs with new life and inspires thewhole creation. She has assumed this inspiringform for the pleasure and happiness of Purusa.In the words of the poet Prakrti is rtunamkusumakarah . Having adorned the bosom ofthe blue-coloured Lord with all that is best andpleasing, the every playfulPrakrti merges herselfwith Purusa and it is this blissful conjoined unionof Purusa and Prakrti which has beentransformed into the heavenly inter-communionof Radha and Madhava. The Vasanta Lila(Rasa)as described in the Gitagovinda is only a sparkof the eternal Lila of Radha and Madhava goingon infinitely. On the infinite powers of God themain three are : 1. maya, 2. svarupa, 3.tatastha. By His mayasakti God has createdthe world, Svarupa Sakti is that with which herests in the eternal lila and by His tatasthapower the universe is regulated and governed.

The svarupa sakti again can be dividedinto three composites i.e. sat, chit and ananda.The term sat means real and existing for evermeaning he who always exists. The entire worldis His manifestation. God being the ultimate sourceof power lends a spark to others and createsthem. This is what is known as sandhini powerof God. Chit means intellect knowledge,wisdom and consciousness. From the continuous



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flow of his wisdom or consciousness a particle ofconsciousness has come down to this worldmaking it aware of itself conscious. He is theSupreme of all consciousness. He makes othersconscious by His own power. This is known assambit power of God. Lastly God is ananda orbliss incarnate. Ananda means joy, delight andbliss. All bliss owe their origin to God. The animateworld feels pleasure or ananda only through Hisgrace. The power with which He delights others,is known as the alhadini sakti or the pleasingpower. As the soul is in constant communion withGod, he feels the pleasure and there lurks in hismind a thirst for enjoying the bliss of life. But dueto spell of maya or illusion, he forgets. It is Godwho feels the pleasure and pain in the creation inform of man. By reaching Brahma, theembodiment of permanent bliss the thirst of soulfor real joy and happiness is quenched. So theUpanisads say rasovaisati, rasam habyamlabdhanti bhavati . In other words soul enjoysthe fullness of heavenly joy by obtaining the graceof God, the source of permanent bliss.

Every jiva or soul pines for testing thepleasures of life. But to taste the bliss of life, oneshould intensify his feelings for divine love of God.When the feelings for love of God are intensifiedthis is known as bhava. Unless bhava isawakened at heart, it is not possible to realiseGod and His bliss. The permanent joy andhappiness which one derives by communion withGod is termed as nectar and is far above the socalled happiness and material comforts of thematerial world. Whenbhava grows intense it turnsinto mahabhava which links the self with theSupreme Self of God. We cannot hope for thegrace of God for ensuring the fulfilment of ourworldly desires. But on the other hand we shouldbe prepared to sacrifice all we have in a selflessspirit to gain Him. Love of God should becultivated at heart for the sake of God and not

for any ulterior motive. The great poet Jayadevahas mentioned in the Gitagovinda :

Hariravimani rajaniridani miyamapijativiramkurumamavachanam sattvara rachanam

purayamadhuripukamam

(Gitagovinda 11-7)

It is Krsna who is Madhuripu. His will isthe only truth. The jiva or soul should exert himselfheart and soul to fit into His divine will. One whois deeply engrossed in the material comforts ofthe world can hardly think of God. So the jiva orsoul should proceed cautiously on the path ofspiritual discipline and sing and hear the gloriouslila or activities of God with a purified heart freefrom worldliness and then obtain His grace.

Love is supernatural and God is loveincarnate and the only source of Divine joy. Thisworld has been designed by God, as a universalschool of love. Love is divinely bestowed uponman. Out of ignorance the jiva or soul cannotrealise that feelings of Love are the gifts of Godwhich lead him to the kingdom of heaven. Loveis the essence of His creation. The Lord orPurusottama appears as the universe with thenectar of divine love and his loving manifestationin every object of this phenomenal world turns itto a paradise.

God exists both within and without theanimate world. The primary stage of Divine Loveis bhakti or intensive yearning and restlessnessfor God which ultimately leads the jiva to thebosom of God. By His will this universe is oceanof love. This instinct of love which God hasbestowed on his creation, should be fully utilisedby the jiva to reach the summit of God-realisationand enjoy perpetual Love. The aspirant who ismad for this Divine Love shall consider thematerial world as vile dust polluted with the mostdisagreeable stuff. In order to achieve the God inhimself one should practise karmayoga,


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jnanayoga and bhaktiyoga. For this, many saintsand sages in the past had to undergo most severeyogic penance and austerities to be blessed withlove of God. It is a pity that some others do nothave the rudimentary conception of God and thedivine love. They equate love with carnal desire.God has created this world for His lila. As longas there is the creation this continuous flow ofDivine Love will enliven the heart of every livingbeing wherein the seed of love shall germinate.

Unless the desires of the mind arecompletely annihilated, love of God can never beacquired. Spiritual austerity is the only way to puta stop to the desires of the mind. Desirelessnessleads to acquisition of love of God which in courseof time is transformed to mahabhava that mergesthe soul with the Supreme Self or Brahma. Thegopis had gained this desirelessness of mindthrough varied modes of spiritual discipline andpenance as a result of which they were blessedwith co-union with God. It is very difficult todiscriminate between one s desire and the will ofGod without purification of heart. Many believetheir own desires to be those of the Lord whichonly exposes their foolishness. One can hope torealise the will of God if he reaches the level ofthe gopis in the plane of selfless love for God andto enjoy the bliss of Gods grace even withoutany spiritual penance. This is the real samadhiwhich is possible only due to passionate andintense love for God.

The Rasalila of God marks the climax ofdivine love. It is this love which has beentransformed to ananda or eternal bliss. To loveGod and His creation is what is known as premaor divine love. Attachment to sensual objects ofthis material world is Kama or lust whereasattachment to God is termed as love. Kama orlust leads the jiva to darkness of ignorancewhereas love for God shines out like the sundispelling darkness. In the Rasalila of Vrndavana,

lust or carnal delight was controlled and divertedto blissful eternal love of God. In the scripturesMadana is considered to be the god of Love. Ashe originates from mind, He is known asmanasija. Mind is always fickle which swaysbetween real and unreal tendencies. In theordinary sense kama or lust that is physicalintercourse and real love as some say cannot beconceived separately in this world. Instead ofcurbing Madana, the God of love, his blessingsare to be invoked for diverting the lust towardsinter-communion with God to attain perfection inlife. It is Rasalila itself which is love incarnatefree from any sexual tendency. This representsthe very soul of the Bhagavata and the Vedanta.

The essence and the principles underlyingthe conception of Radha and Krsna should bestudied first before coming to the lila itself. Inorder to understand and assimilate the lila ofRadha and Krsna as described in theGitagovinda, one should first try to conceive atheart the philosophy of life in the context of selfand the Supreme Self and the connective link inbetween. It is difficult to follow the importance ofthe lila without a purified heart. So this is knownas achintya bhedabheda.

Srikrsna who is omnipotent andomnipresent is the sole guide of this creation. Hispeerless blue-coloured body resembling the blackclouds embodies numberless stars and planetswhich are governed by His direction. Can anybody expect to conceive Him or win Him who isso powerful ? Yes, He can be conceived and wonover only by love or selfless and passionateyearning for Him. Unlike the sages who underwentgreat spiritual penance and physical privations, adevotee can attract Him by virtue of intensity ofbhava or mahabhava termed as prema, thehighest spiritual stage. Srimati Radhika, the primalpower or the Adyasakti is the most perfectillustration of such selfless intense love for her



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beloved Srikrsna. Brahma is nirguna andformless. But he has the longing to taste his ownbliss, through this creation which is known as love.He incarnates Himself in the world to enjoy thelove and devotion of His devotees. Prakrti inform of Srimati Radhika is able to quench his thirstfor infinite and selfless love.

On reaching the highest stage ofknowledge one enters into the kingdom of bhaktiwhich intensifies to bhava, the inner feelings ofthe heart. Every atom of the creation is changedwith love of God. A spark of consciousnessdescends from God which constitutes the soul.The formless God is to be meditated in the Lotusof the heart of a devotee with intensified feelingsof bhava. It is difficult for the average man toconceive at heart the formless God without aconcrete shape to meditate upon which serves asa medium and this leads to image worship of God.In the process of spiritual meditation, an aspiranthas to proceed from the gross to the subtle bythe help of an image of God in a form accordingto his own fancy and liking.

Without this, meditation becomes verydifficult. This is the basis of Idol or Image worshipadopted by the Hindus. The gopis belong to thekingdom of love who won the love of Godthrough passionate yearning and restlessness andSrimati Radhika was the central figure among themand also the most glorifying illustration of this sortof love for God. By entertaining at heart the imageand spirit of Srimati Radhika, the aspirant canachieve success and realise God.

In the Upanisads the bliss of God isconsidered to be the Brahma Itself. The universeowes its creation and destruction for fulfillment ofthis bliss of God. It is this bliss of God or Brahmawhich was incarnated as Nandanandana (son ofNanda) Srikrsna. The most arduous penancemade by the sages in the dense forest culminated

in the Vrndavana Lila of God. The yogis andthe sages eagerly waiting for ages together fortheir union with that heavenly form of peerlessbeauty, plunged at last in the ocean of Nitya Lilaat Vrndavan and obtained blissful contentmentby testing the nectar thereof. The sakti whichcreates this nitya lila of God is his pleasingcounterpart known as alhadini sakti or SrimatiRadhika. One has to shelter himself under a truepreceptor without which it is not possible to obtainthe grace of Srimati Radhika, the blessful powerand the embodiment of mahabhava, the mostintensified form of bhakti.

The jiva cannot taste the divine love ofVrndavana lila without enkindling at heart thespirit of Radha. This intense love for God ispossible only when the jiva is free from the worldlyattachments. In the heart of the emancipated soulthe formless Divine Love blossoms and it isconsidered to be Vrndavana. The pleasingcounterpart Srimati Radhika is the goddess ofVrndavana. The jiva eagers to obtain its spirit,runs after Srimati Radhika who is always on eternalquest for her beloved Madhava. There is blissfulunion of Radha and Madhava after pangs ofseparation. This process of hide and seekbetween the lover and the beloved shall continueas long as the creation exists.

To realise the God-consciousness it isnecessary to purify the heart. For this the aspirantshould surrender his heart and soul at the lotusfeet of God. Purusa, the beloved of prakrti isthe object of love and devotion of an aspirant.The principle of Purusottama of Sri Aurovindo isbased on this. After reaching the highest stage ofspiritual enlightenment, the jiva merges withBrahma and becomes soham according toadvaita philosophy. It is only by selfless love andintense yearning at heart that a deovtee can haverealisation of God. One may enter to rigid andsevere yogic discipline and penance for obtaining


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grace of God, but it is easier to realise Him byvirtue of pure and stainless love. A true devoteealways thinks of God, weeps for him and his hairsstand at the end, the moment he utters or hearsthe name of God. By considering God to be hisown, the aspirant feels a divine impulse in his heartand sees in it the reflection of blissful communionof jiva and Brahma. God resides in the heart ofthe devotee in the nitya lila place which isVrndavana. Entering into the kingdom of loveand devotion the jiva shall merge into perpetualbliss and reach the climax of Divine love. Intenselove for God is based on bhava or innermostfeelings of the heart which gains intensity and termsinto mahabhava. Srimati Radhika was thepersonification of mahabhava. So the ultimategoal of a devotee is to cultivate and assimilate thespirit of Radha for the sake of achieving the God-head.

There is manifestation of the power ofGod in the minutest particles of the world and theanimal world. That is why the whole creationappears beautiful. An elastic mind with child likesimplicity is required to appreciate and realise thisheavenly beauty.

In the kaliyuga, the path of bhakti hasbeen recommended by the sages as the easiestmeans to realise God. But this has been picturedin such a way that an average man cannotcomprehend it. The human society has in courseof the evolutionary process reached the presentstage of its development. The mysterious secretsunderlying the spiritual sphere shall be unfolded

and people will realise their greatness in promotingreligious development.

The heavenly saints of God in theirmission to enlighten mankind on the spiritual pathand to preach their gospels on the divinity of thecreation appear in human society in shape ofincarnations of God or holy preceptors toacquaint mankind with the mysterious and playfulactivities of the creation of God and enkindle thelight of God in the heart of purified liberated soulthus fulfilling their mission. They do not aim atemancipation of their own souls by spiritualdiscipline, but their chief mission is to bring abouta super-human transformation of the world. Thepower of the soul is to be rejuvenated and thisawakening of the soul shall in communion withthe supreme self be greatest achievement of aspiritual aspirant. This spiritual odour shall spreadfrom the individual to the society taking refuge inthe lotus feet of the Lord and the society shall bethat of the Yogis or spiritual aspirants. Jayadevawas one of such heavenly saints with a mission. Itwas a different mission not to preach andsermonise, but to teach and entertain. It wasentertainment with a divine purpose of God-realization.

Prafulla Chandra Tripathy lives at 1181, DevrajVidyapeeth Road, Govind Prasad (Bomikhal),Po-Rasulgarh, Bhubaneswar-10.



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Yadi Hari Smaranay Sarasam Manoyadi Bilasakalasu Kutuhalam

madhura Komalakanta Padabalimsrunutada Jayadev Saraswatim

That Means reading and listening GeetaGovinda is so heart touching that if you rememberHari, can get nectar as a devotee or can feelRomance having a curiosity for learning luxuriousart of education. Geeta Govinda, written by greatOriya Poet Sri Jayadev was composed in simpleSanskrit language including vernacular idiomswhich was easily understood for common people.It was taken as dance-drama including manyworks of dramatized prose dealing with the themeof love between Radha and Krishna.

Sri Jayadev s Geeta Govinda is a greatpoetry in Indian Literature. The hole song of eightPadas (also called as Astapadi) comprises twelveSargas or Cantos containing 24 Songs (72Slokas) which is rhythmic and perfectly lyrical tosing. It was written in the period of rise of regionalliteratures in ancient India. From the beginning ofthe Christian era to the end of the 10th century,the poets like Bhasa, Kalidas, Asvaghose,Bharavi, Bhartrihari, Bhababhuti, Banabhata,Magha, Sriharsa and others had fueled the lampof Sanskrit poetry and kept it glowing. Thesepoets raised the flame of golden lamp of Sanskritliterature to great heights and extended the area

Sri Jayadev - A Rare Personality

Madhumita Misra

of illumination all around and Sri Jayadev s GeetaGovinda was the closing song of that era whichconsists of soul stirring and heart penetrating lyrics.After reading the English translation of GeetaGovinda, the German Poet Goethe was soimpressed that he translated Geeta Govinda inGerman Language as it engendered feelings ofwonder in him. He compared Geeta Govinda withMeghadutam by Mahakabi Kalidas.

Sri Jayadev was born in Kenduli villagesurrounded by Kendu and Bilwa trees, situatednear Prachi Valley of Puri District. Like Bhakta-Kabi Jagannath Dash s Bhagabata , SriJayadev s Geeta Govinda (composed in thesecond half of the 12th century A.D.) was spreaddue to its rhythmic musical excellence which wasso dear to Sri Jagannath. At that time, peopleappreciated and sing songs of Geeta Govindawithout understanding the theme, because of itssweet, soft and soothing (komala kanta padabali)lyrics. An example of popularity of Geeta Govindais one moon-lit autumn night a Malini (daughterof a Gardener) was deeply merged in therecitation of the songs of Geeta Govinda whileplucking brinjal from garden. Lord Jagannath wasso attracted by her song that He left Sri Mandirand listended song before her. His valuable silkdresses were torn due to thorns of brinjal plants.Next morning in Sri Mandir, priests and Gajapati


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pointed out the cloth of Lord Jagannath werepierced with thrones and torn into pieces.Gajapati became worried and prayed LordJagannath and at the last part of the night SriJagannath appeared in a dream and disclosed thetruth and expressed his desire to listen GeetaGovinda everyday. Then Gajapati ordered thatgirl (Malini) to sing Geeta Govinda in front of LordJagannath as a daily ritual. Another example ofGeeta Govinda is like Sri Jayadev s GeetaGovinda,Gajapati wrote Abhinaba GeetaGovinda about the same story. The Pandits, whowere jealous on Sri Jayadev s Geeta Govinda ,appreciated Abhinaba Geeta Govind andrequested Gajapati to sing his poetry instead ofSri Jayadev s Geeta Govinda in front of LordJagannath. So controversy started and allsuggested to keep both books in front of LordJagannath before closing the inner sanctum. Nextday while opening the inner door, all foundGeeeta Govinda of Sri Jayadev was placed up

and Abhinaba Geeta Govinda of Gajapati wasput below. Everybody there experienced that SriJayadeva s Geeta Govinda was really of superiorquality. Another example was- GajapatiPrataprudra Dev ordered the Maharies to singonly Sri Jayadev s Geeta Govinda in theirNrutyaseba. Since then everyday afterBadasimhara Besa (before sleep) Lord Jagannathlistens Geeta Govinda. So how important GeetaGovinda was ? Another example was- GajapatiKamarnaba Dev (of Ganga Dynasty) took watereveryday after listening Geeta Govinda. Manypoets of inside and outside Orissa were soinfluenced by Geeta Govinda that they wrotethousands of Chhandas, Chaupadis, Chautisas,Pois and Padis. Geeta Govinda was translated invarious languages like English, German, Dutch,French, Latin and many local Indian Languagesetc. It is so popular that the pictorial representationof Geeta Govind was found in many places of

India before Mughal paintings. We findmanuscripts at Nepal (1248 AD) and Gujarat(1295 A.D) before we find at Orissa. It is clearthat the Geeta Govinda had travelled to botheNepal and Gujarat within 50 years from the dateof its composition. We also find Geeta Govinda spopularity in various ways. In some part of Indialike Bengal, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan andGujarat as pictorial representation whether we findas singing or dramatic traditions in AndhraPradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Nabadvipa andManipur. Singing Geeta Govinda in variousoccasions is also various types. Solo singingperforms inside the sanctum of Guruvayoor templeat Kerala and other times it is collective in thecourtyard. In Tamil Nadu, it is in the form ofcollective singing in Radhaklayanam Tradition andin the form of collective singing at marriage inMithila. So Geeta Govinda plays a pivotal role inthe evolution of theological doctrines, literarygenres, pictorial styles and music and danceschools.

Except his poetic talent he was a Danceand Music Director also. In one of his stanza, hewrote

Bagdebata Charita Chitrita ChittasadmaPadmavati Charana Charana ChakravartiSri Basudev Ratikeli Katha SametaMetam Karoti Jayadev Kabini Prabandham.

Padmavati, wife of Sri Jayadev was anexcellent dancer. Everyday she performed dancebefore Lord Jagannath singing the songs in chorusaccompanied by Jayadev and merged in thethoughts of Lord Jagannath. Sri Jayadev directedPadmavati how to perform. Both the couple alsodanced before the God. So he said himself asPadmavati Charana (her feet) Chharana (whoactivates) Chakravarti (Himself).



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Except dance and music direction, SriJayadev was specialist in Raga and Tala andChhanda. He mentioned different Ragas for 24songs. These Ragas are Mangala Gurjari, Baradi,Desh Baradi, Ramakeri, Gujari, Gundakeri,Karnata, Desakhya, Bharabi, Basanta etc. whichare used in Odissi Songs. So he laid foundationstone for Odissi Music. The birth place of Odissidance was from Srimandir and Sri Jayadev wasthe creditor of this art. Geeta Govinda isperformed in all forms of Indian dance mainlyOdissi, Bharatnatyam, Manipuri, Kuchipudi,Kathak. The Geeta Govinda padas have beenrendered in the sophisticated Classical Musicalstyles of both Hindustani and Karnataki Music.So, due to its purely musical excellence dealingwith different Ragas, Talas and Chhandas, theartists of music and dance appreciate GeetaGovinda widely.

Sri Jayadev was a nature poet also. InGeet Govind he explained the seasons. Such asin "lalita labanga lata pari silan" he explained theyouthful flowering, the hum of bees and cuckoobird in spring season, and in "ChandanaCharchita" he explains summer and in "RasayHari Miha" he explains cloud, peacock andrainbow in rainy season.

Sri Jayadev took a special position inOrissan cultural History. In case of changes inOrissan Religion, Sri Jayadev's role wasimportant. At that time, Jainas, Baudhas, Shaktasopinion was so high that Baishnavism cult wasdeemed. For Sri Jayadev's Bhaktidhara forBaishnavism, this cult took its position in OrissanReligion History. Before Sri Chaitanya's arrivalto Orissa, Sri Jayadev established Radha-Madhava in Orissan Religion History. Jayadevwas the first person who has literally createdRadha. In Geeta Govinda, he named Hari as SriKrishna, Madhava, Basudeva, Jagadish, Kesaba,Purusottama, Murari etc. He found Lord Krishnain Lord Jagannath. In "Dasabatara" sloka he

combined Buddhism, Ramaism and Madhavism.He also spread Sri Jagannath cult all over Indiaas a pilgrim in the last stage of his life.

The first song "Dasabatara" written by SriJayadev is remarkable and different from otherwriters Dasabatara. Many Puranas, Aranyakas,Bramhanas say about Sri Bishnus's differentAbataras. In Mahabharata we find serially suchas Hansa, Kurma, Mastya, Baraha, Narasimha.In Agni and Baraha Purana the serials are Mastya,Kurma, Baraha, Narasimha, Bamana,Parasurama, Rama, Krushna, Buddha and Kalki.The poets like Shankaracharya, Khemendra,Sriharsa also wrote Dasavatara. But Sri Jayadev'sDasabatara is science oriented. In 1800 centuryCharles Darwin, a Swiss Scientist was famousfor his "Theory of Evolution" which is similar toSri Jayadev's Dasabatara of 12th century. SriJayadev started his avatar from Mastya originatedfrom water and Darwin also said life originatedfrom water. Second is Kurma which is amphibian.Third is Sukara which is land oriented, 4th isNarasimha which is half-animal and half-man. 5this Bamana i.e. the origination of short-height man.6th is Parasurama, a complete man. 7th is Rama,a good quality man. 8th is Haladhara, a cultivatedman. 9th is Buddha, a peace oriented man andlast is Kalki, a skilled man or future generationman with various skills. So Darwin's Evolutiontheory also says from generation to generationlife develops.

So Sri Jayadev's Geeta Govind is theimmortal work which enlightened the literature,art, architecture, music, dance, painting and textilein many ways. So he was really a polestar ofIndian Culture and Literature. We should try topreserve and spread Geeta Govind and thethinkings of Sri Jayadev.

Madhumita Mishra lives at 3198 / 5113, Gouri Vihar,Bhubaneswar-2.


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Verily, Jayadeva was the last of the ancients andthe first of the moderns of the Indo-Aryanliterature. His rare poetic creation ShreeGitagovinda is a Kavya of world eminence. Heflourished in the 2nd half of 12th Century A.D.during the regime of the Ganga Rulers of Orissa.On the basis of discovery of a copper plate grantat Kenduli Village i.e. ancient Kendu Vilva it hasbeen conclusively proved that Jayadeva was bornin Orissa at Kenduli village on the bank of ancientPrachi Valley. His ancestry and life history isshrouded in mystery. His name comes at the lastamong the series of classic poets of Sanskrit likeHarshadeva, Bharavi, Bhagabati, Somadeva,Bilhana and Sriharsha. Through his single workthe Gitagovinda he became comparable to greatpoet Kalidasa. He has articulated the erotic loveof Krishna and Radha in sublimated idiom givinga mystic and spiritual aura. His Gitagovindaobtained the status of a religious work as he wasa saint poet devoted to Vaisnavism. His name andfame as much his work has come down to allsections of the people right from 12th CenturyA.D. Stories about him have become the part ofdevotional romance which has exalted the life ofcommon man.

In the legends of mediaeval Vaisnavism,there is legendary accounts of Jayadeva. Someof them do not have historical connotation. One

Saint Poet Shree JayadevaB.C. Jena

Jayadeva has been depicted as a great Vaisnavasaint prior to Guru Nanak by the Shikhs. Thisindicates that Shikhs have accepted Jayadeva asa Vaisnava saint of eminence. There are severalother authors named Jayadeva in various Sanskritliterature. Excepting the Poet of Gitagovindanothing more is known about other Jayadevas.We find one Jayadeva who has authored a seriesof aphorisms on metrics.

The opening verse of the Gitagovinda isexhilarating and enchanting. The composition ofworks is unique:

"meghair meduram ambaram, vana-bhuvassyamas tamala-drumair : naktam;

bhirur ayam, tvam eva tad imam, Radhe !grham prapaya;"

ittham nanda-nidesatas calitayohpratyadhva-kunja-drumam,

"Radha-Madhavyor jayanti Yamuna-kulerahah-kelayah."

Because of the lucid style of composition,Shree Jayadeva has earned a niche in the heart ofall.

As is gleaned historical Jayadeva wasinfact a secular poet of love and romanticism whileJayadeva the saint and mystic poet of love was adevotee of Krisha. This dual character of the poetis reflected in the various verses of Geeta



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Govinda. The 26 verses of Jayadeva which isquoted in the Sadukti-Karnamrita are indicativeof the wide range of his poetic interest andachievement which were confined to both loveand eroticism. There is an undercurrent of Vaisnavfaith and devotion in his articulation. Literaryflavour is predominant in his work in the dictionof Sringara i.e. love and love play.

His fame spread over the whole of Indiarapidly during his life time because of the lucidityof the composition. His work satisfied the literarymen both in Sanskrit and vernacular language.Legend and romance are the old Hindurenaissance through Bhakti Movement. This waspresented in enchanting manner in the GeetaGovinda. For this in a short span of one hundredyears of its existence we find a verse being quotedas a benedictory invocation in an inscription indistance Gujarat in Patan dated to 1292 A.D. Theearly Gujrati poem the Basanta Vilasa composedabout 1450 A.D. has echoes of the GeetaGovinda. Some 40 commentaries of the GeetaGovinda have been enumerated by Dr. H.K.Mukherjee in his comprehensive study of theGeeta Govinda. One of the earliest of these is therasika priya by Rana Kumbha of Mewar whichis a very learned work. Thus the Geeta Govindawas one of the most commented works ofSanskrit literature. The commentators belong todifferent regions of India. There were a numberof middle Bengali and middle Oriya translationof Geeta Gonvinda. We know from the inscriptionin the Jagannath Temple at Puri dated 1499 A.D.which has been written by the orders of KingPratap Rudra Deva that from the said date thesongs and poems of the gita Govinda were beingsung and recited by the Deva Dasis i.e. the templedancers and singers of the temple. The Europeanscholars also immensely appreciated thearticulation of Jayadeva in unequivocal terms. SirWilliam Jones and Friedrich Rueckert translated

into English and German respectively. Later on itwas translated into France, English and Germanby many a European scholar. Now, Gitagovindahas been accepted as one of the masterpieces ofworld literary heritage.

Jayadeva's work imbided the spirit ofclassical Sanskrit poetic tradition and that ofApabhransa and Early Bhasha Poetry. The 12sargas or cantos contain 24 songs. The framework of the poem; as in the verses form thedescriptive portion. It is in the orthodox style ofclassic Sanskrit in manner, meter, ideas andvocabulary . The songs breathe the atmosphereof Apabhransa or Early Bhasa i.e. New Indo-Aryan literature. Many scholars have suspectedthat the songs were originally written in OldBhasha. Being a narrative poem it has a dramaticdiction in it.. The songs recited by the Gopis,friends of Radha and Krishna are like speeches.This speaks of its association with Yatra or Songs-drama of the Old Style prevailed in Orissa. It isdefined as a Khanda Kavya or a smaller portionof a descriptive narrative character. From thepoint of view of subject matter it can be said tohave association with Sanskrit poems likeRitusambhar and Meghaduta. This specialcharacter of the work consists in its combinationof account of love with an undercurrent ofconversational style. It is also combination of twostyle viz.the descriptive portion and the songportions. The Poem consists of all total 386verses. In the descriptive portions and in the 24songs which are spread throughout the 12 sargasor cantos into which the poem has been divided.The cantos have one theme. After a briefintroduction in the first canto which is benedictoryverses with two invocations to Vishnu hedescribes 10 incarnations of God and the poemmakes its beginning. Thus every way the creationof Shree Jayadeva was multifaceted andmulticoloured.


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The supreme beauty of his verbal melodyis just untranslatable in any other languages. Theline should be heard as chanted or recited in orderto appreciate appropriately. Love i.e.Sringara orphysical love and sexual union and love play orfrank profane love is the centre of attraction inliterary composition of Gitagovinda. There isbackground of nature in spring time embracingtrees,creepers and flowers amidst hills and dalisand flowing streamlets, the singing of birds andbuzzing of bees. Love in it describes Kama orphysical love and Sringara or sexual union in itsmundane and material plane. Love and lovesituations as reflected in the Gitagovinda isuniversally appreciated. But amidst erotism thereis undercurrent of true devotional love with God.Because of this lucid presentation, the themes ofGitagovinda finds reflection in Indian paintingstraditions. In different schools of mediaevalpaintings of North and South India we findconspicuous presence of Gitagovinda. In eroticsculptures of contgemporary North India andOrissan temple arachitecture we find best plasticillustrations of Gitagovinda scenes and situations.This has also inspired the artists of Gujarat andRajsthan. In Orissa even now the paintingstradition and sculpturisation takes inspiration fromGitagovinda idiom. Jayadeva's Gitagovinda alsogave birth to the new cult of Radha Krishnaworship.

The name of his father was Bhojadevaand his mother was Radha Devi or Ramadevi.He has married to Padmavati. But some scholars

believe that he had two wives Bijaya and Jayawho were very beautiful. Jaya was Padmavati whowas dear to Jayadeva who used to sing and dancewith her. Bijaya was looking his home affairs whowas expert in discharging household dutiesmeticulously. Padmavati was a cultured lady withproficiency in scriptures and Gandharva lore. Herbehaviour was enchanting and her devotion toJayadeva was unprecedented. Because of hercelestial countenance she was dear to everybody.It is said that behind the success of a man thereremains a woman and in case of JayadevaPadmavati was the source of inspiration for him.

At the fag end of his life Jayadeva ledthe life of a Sadhu in a sacred place foremancipation. He proceeded to Benaras with hisbeloved wife Padmavati. There he madefriendship with the Maharaja of Benaras whotreated him with honour and affection. But anotherschool of scholars opined that Jayadeva along withPadmavati spent their last part of life at Puripraying at the feet of Lord Jagannath. In factJayadeva was the blessed son of Saraswati whocould create an immortal creation like ShreeGitagovinda. At present he efflorescently andsingularly stands as a luminary of opulence in thefirmament of Kalingan horizon.

B.C. Jena lives at HIG - 1/40, Kapilaprasad BDA Colony,Bhubaneswar.



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The cycles of creation and destruction are anintegral part of Hindu philosophy, which alsoreaffirm the notion of the ten Avataras. Thisconcept of the Avataras reestablishes the idea thatGod has time and again taken a human form torid the earth of suffering and evil. The Avatarascome at a juncture when the world is in a crisiswhen evil, injustice and inequality rule. Heremoves negativity from this world and anchorsin a positive new change creating a whole newworld- a Golden Age.

The formulation of Dasavatara of Visnuis a significant contribution of Sri Jayadeva, Krsnaas an Avatara is not included in the Dasavatarahymns. The enumerated list of Avataras variesfrom four, six, ten, twenty-five and thirty-nine. Thepost narrates only ten Avataras which is universallyaccepted. Considering the importance of Buddhain the socio cultural matrix of Orissa SriJayadeva very wisely and appropriatelyincorporated Buddha in the pantheon.

The concept of Visnu s avatara datesback to the Mahabharata age spread sporadicallyeither, in individual form or in group (the numberof Avataras varying from period to period andfrom author to author). Historically,archaeologically and literally the avataravada ofVisnu became an integral part of Vaisnava faithfrom the early centuries of Christian era. Following

Dasavatara in Sri Jayadev s Gita Govinda

Dr. Bhagyalipi Malla

the earlier Dasavatara tradition Sri Jayadeva madethe cult more popular in the society in his luciddescription. People irrespective of castes, sects,sex and creed continuously chant the Dasavatarasdevotionally in the temples, shrines and even intheir own houses, very often not knowing themeaning of the hymns and the songs. By the timeSri Jayadeva appeared in the socio religiousarena of Orissa, the idiom of Dasavatara hadalready flourished in Orissa. The ending versionof each avatara Jai jagadisa hare was invokedto Sri Jagannath. The inscription of avatarasranging from 7th century A.D. onwards the profusesculptural depiction of the avataras in the Vaisnavatemples with high concentration in Prachi valley,in the Jagannatha Kshetra delineate deeply rootedtradition in the sacred soil of Orissa. The imagesof avataras so far come to light in Orissa are toonumerous to allude here. Undoubtedly the culthad a great influence on the mind s eye of thesaint poet devotee Sri Jayadeva, who made itmore popular and more acceptable in his lucidand lyrical description.

In the first section of the famous GitaGovinda the poet writes about the ten incarnationsof Lord Vishnu and he evokes Vishnu as Krishna-Keshava.

Vedan uddharate jaganti vahate bhu-golamudbibhrate daityam darayate balim chalayate


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ksatra-ksayam kurvatepaulastyam jayate halam kalayate karunyamatanvate mlecchan murchayate dasakrti-krte

krsnaya tubhyam namah

O Krishna, I offer my obeisance to You,who appear in ten incarnations. In yourappearance as Matsya, You rescued the Vedas,and as Kurma, You supported the MountMandara on Your back. As Varaha, You lift theearth with Your tusks, and as the Narasimha, Youtore open the chest of the demon Hiranyakasyapu.In the form of Vamana, You tricked Bali by askinghim for three steps of land, and then you tookaway the entire universe from him by expandingYour steps. As Parashurama, You annihilated allthe wicked Kshatriya kings, and as Ramachandra,You killed the demon king, Ravana. In the formof Balarama, You drew the River Yamuna towardsYou. As Lord Buddha, You showed compassiontowards everyone and at the end in Kaliyuga, Youappear as Kalki to slay the (mlecchas) low-classmen.

1. Matsyavatara: The Fish Incarnation of Vishnu

Pralaya-payodhijale dhrtavanasi vihitavahitra-caritra-makhedam Kesava dhrta minasarira

jaya jagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu)! In the form of Fish(minasarira), Holding the Vedas like a vesselundeflected from its course in the deluge topreserve the knowledge of Vedas, You took theincarnation of Fish! Praise be to Jagadish! Lordof the universe!

Matsya or the sacred fish is Vishnu s firstincarnation in the avatar doctrine. The ShatpathBrahmana is the earliest text to mention theMatsyavatara of Vishnu and associates this storyto Vaivasvata Manu who helped save the worldand the human race from the Great Deluge(Mahapralaya). The Padma Purana relates theMatsyavatara to the demon Shankhasura and the

Matsya Purana associates it with the demonHayagriva.

Manu was the grandson of Brahma. Oneday, while he was doing penance he went to theriver Kritamala to bathe. As he took some waterin his palms as an offering a tiny fish came into hishands. The fish prayed to Manu requesting himnot to throw him back into the river because thebigger fish would eat him. Manu brought this tinyfish home. To his amazement the fish grew largereveryday. He then put it in a larger pot but it grewbigger, he then placed it in an enormous lake andfinally in the Holy Ganges. But it didn t stopgrowing and outgrew the large river. The dismayedManu asked the fish to reveal its identity. The fishtold Manu that after seven days there would be agreat flood and the waters would cover the entireearth. He instructed him to construct a large boat,take the seven sages (Saptarishi), carry all varietiesof seeds in it and escape. When the Mahapralayafinally came everything was submerged in water.A fish with a golden horn appeared. Manu tiedhis boat to the horn of this big fish and reachedthe summit of the Himalayas. After the torrentialrains ended, everything in the world ceased toexist except Manu and the seven sages. In thisway Vishnu as Matsyavatara saved his devoteesfrom destruction.

According to the Padma Purana SageKashyapa s wife Diti gave birth to a demon-sonMakara who stole the Vedas from Brahma. Asthe Vedas were no longer there to guide mankindall manner of sin and vice increased. On Brahma srequest Vishnu incarnated as Matsya killedMakara or Shankasura hiding in the conchPanchajana and recovered the lost Vedas.

In this typical Uniara painting, Vishnu isportrayed in half human half fish form emergingfrom the waters after vanquishing the demonHayagriva who is hiding in the Panchajanya conch.Here the artist has shown the Shankasura episode



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where the demon also assumes a half demon halfconch form. Brahma is shown with folded handsrequesting Lord Vishnu to recover the stolenVedas from the demon. This is a well-knownversion of the Matsyavatara from the PadmaPurana.

2. Kurmavatara: The Tortoise Incarnation of Vishnu

Ksitirati-vipulatare tava tisthati prsthe dharani-dharanakina-cakragaristhe Kesava dhrta

kacchaparupa jaya jagagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu)! In the form ofTortoise (kacchaparupa), On your broad and vastback the world rests, creating circular marks.Praise be to Jagadish! Lord of the universe!

Kurmavatara or Vishnu s incarnation asa tortoise relates to the legend of the Samudra-manthana or the churning of the ocean. Once sageDurvasa visited Indraloka. Indra was riding hiswhite elephant Airavata in a procession. The sagegarlanded Indra with a divine garland but thearrogant Indra tied it to Airavata s tusk. Irritatedby the bees that swarmed to collect nectar fromthe flowers; Airavata threw the garland from histusk on to the ground and trampled upon it. Indra sinsensitive behaviour infuriated the Sage whocursed him saying that the devas would loose alltheir power. Instantly the three worldsdisappeared. Indra prayed to Vishnu- thePreserver. Vishnu told them that they wouldrecover their glory if they all drank Amrita thenectar of immortality. This could only be obtainedby the churning of the ocean. Lord Vishnusuggested that they lift Mount Mandara, place itin the ocean use it as a churn drill or rod andemploy the serpent Vasuki to act as the churningrope. The Asuras agreed. Mount Mandara wasplaced in the ocean. Without support the mountainwould surely have sunk, so Vishnu took the formof a tortoise and supported the mountain on hisback. Vasuki coiled himself around the mountain

acting as a perfect churning rope. Thus thechurning of the ocean began.

As the Asuras and Devas began churning,fourteen precious objects or Caturdasha- ratnambegan to appearing from the Kshirasagara. Thefirst to emerge was a deadly poison calledHalahala or Kalakuta which signified the impuritiesof the ocean and was very lethal. Shiva, the lordof destruction responded to the prayers of theAsuras and Devas. He drank the poison but keptit in his throat. Henceforth Shiva was also knownas Neelakanta or the Blue Throated One.Thereafter emerged Surabhi or Kamadhenu- thewish fulfilling cow which was given to the SaptaRishis, Vaaruni or the Goddess of wine, theParijata tree, Apsara or the celestial nymphRambha, the sun, the moon which now adornsthe head of Shiva, Sri or Mahalakshmi,Uchaisravas- the seven headed white steed givento Bali, Indra s future vehicle Airavata, the Conch-Panchajanya, the Bow-Sharnga, the Mace-Kaumodaki, the Jewel-Kaustabhamani and lastlyto appear was Dhanvantari- the divine physician.He held a golden pitcher full of ambrosia orAmrita the nectar of immortality - an elixir of life.Thus the nectar was obtained.

A strong battle ensued between the devasand the Asuras for this Nectar. Lord Vishnu thenassumed the form of a beautiful apsara Mohiniwho was entrusted the task of distributing thenectar amongst all. She began by distributing thenectar to the Devas while the Asuras waitedpatiently for their turn. By the time she reachedthe Asuras there was not a drop of nectar left inthe pitcher.

3. Varahavatara: The Boar Incarnation of Vishnu

Vasati dasanasikhare dharani tava lagnasasini kalankakaleva nimagna

Kesava dhrta sukararupajaya jagadisa hare


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O Kesava (Vishnu)! In the form of theBoar (sukara) ! Fixed on the tips of your tusksthe earth did dwell peacefully, resembling the digitof the moon. Praise be to Jagadish! Lord of theuniverse !

Vishnu s incarnation as a Boar is knownas Varahavatara. This incarnation is described ina number of texts and associated with it are atleast three legends. The first text to mention theearth being lifted from the depths of the lowerregions by a boar called Emusha is the SatapathaBrahmana.

It is said that once the four Manasaputra sof Brahma - Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanaatana andSanatkumara went to Vaikuntha to visit Vishnu.At the seventh gate the two gatekeepers Vijayaand Jaya prevented the sages from entering. Thisangered the sage Sanaka who cursed Vijaya andJaya that they would be reborn as demons. Onlyif they were slain thrice by Vishnu Himself couldthey regain their present position.

In their first birth as demons they wereborn as Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakasipu. Jaya asHiranyaksha was slain by Vishnu in hisVarahavatara and Vijiya as Hiranyakasipu waskilled by Vishnu in his Narasimhavatar. They thentook birth as Ravana and Kumbakarna and werekilled during Visnhu s Ramavatara. Finally, theywere born as Sisupala and Dantavaktra andannihilated by Vishnu in his Krishnavatara.

The demon Hiranyaksha caused damageand destruction to all those who opposed him.After capturing Bhudevi- the Earth Goddess hedescended into the Patalaloka or the nether worldand began beating the waters of the ocean withhis cudgel, thus causing trouble for Varuna, theLord of the Ocean. Vishnu assumed the lowlyform of a boar to kill the tyrannous Hiranyakshaand rescue Bhudevi. As he manifested himself,the three worlds resounded with loud thundering

sounds. The Boar carried Bhudevi on his goldentusks out of the waters of the ocean. Hiranyakshathen challenged Varaha to a fight. A titanic battleensued between Varaha and Hiranyaksha.Ironically, the same tusks that had tenderly heldBhudevi also ripped the demon apart and killedhim.

Varaha images can be depicted eitherAnthropomorphic as the Nrvaraha orZoomorphic as the Yajnavaraha associated withsacrifice. The Vishnudharmottara Purana mentionsa form of the Varaha which has four faces andeight hands holding the weapons Gada, Khadga,Bana, Chakra, Sankha, Khetaka and Dhanus.

4. Narasimhavatara:The Man - Lion Incarnation of Vishnu

Tava kara kamalavare nakhamadbhutasrngamdalita hiranyakasipu varabhrngam

Kesava dhrta naraharirupajaya jagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu) ! In the form of Man-Lion (Naraharirupa) ! Your lotus hands with sharpnails became wonderful claws that tore andshredded the body of demon Hiranyakasyapuprotecting your devotee Prahlada. Praise be toJagadish! Lord of the universe !

Hiranyakasyapu was deeply hurt andenraged by the death of his brother, Hiranyakshaby Vishnu. He decided to avenge his brother sdeath by killing Vishnu and all those who prayedand worshipped him. Hiranyakasyapu prayed toBrahma who granted him the boon that he couldnot be killed by anyone on earth or in the sky,during the day or at night, inside or outside ahouse, by beast or man or by any weapon. Thus,believing that he was invincible he became veryarrogant.

During her pregnancy, Hiranyakasypu swife heard of the glory of Vishnu from Sage



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Narada. The unborn child Prahlada listened tothe glories of Vishnu and became an ardentdevotee. Hiranyakasyapu made great efforts todivert his son s mind from his devotion of Vishnu.At an early age Prahlada was sent to a Gurukulawhere he was taught that his father Hrianyakasipuwas the all-powerful god but his little mind couldnot be influenced. He then ordered that Prahladabe put to death. He is thrown into the ocean, thenhurled from the top of a mountain but Prahladaescaped unharmed each time. This reinforced andstrengthened Prahlada s belief of Vishnu somnipresence. Infuriated by this Hiranyakasipumockingly asked Prahlada if Vishnu was alsopresent in a pillar of his palace. The little childreplied that as he was all pervading, omnipresentand dwelt in all beings, living and non-living hewas also present in the pillar. The pillar suddenlybroke open and Vishnu as Narasimha half manhalf lion form emerged. He lifted Hiranyakasipuon to his lap and crushed him with his embrace.Discarding his conventional weapons Narasimhaconverted his claws as a weapon and tore openthe demon s abdomen. The time was dusk andhe was seated on the doorstep which was neitherinside nor outside a house.

According to the Padma Purana,Narasimha is white in colour and wears redgarments with suitable ornaments, and a Karandamukuta.

5. Vamanavatara: The Dwarf Incarnation of Vishnu

Chalayasi vikramane balim adbhutavamanapadanakhanira-janita-janapavana

kesava dhrta vamanarupajaya jagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu) ! In the form of theDwarf (Vamana) You cleverly deceived the Kingof the world, Bali. Cleanser of the people through

the sweat of your toenails. Praise be to Jagadish!Lord of the universe !

Bali was the grandson of the virtuous KingPrahalad. He got the name Mahabali because ofhis great prowess and was the mighty King of theAsuras. He performed a sacrifice called Viswajitto master the three worlds. Out of the sacrificialfire came armour, a golden chariot and a coat ofarms. Thus he became unconquerable and drovethe Devatas and Indra out of Indraloka to thenether world.

Sage Kasyapa s wife Aditi who was themother of the Devas was devastated by the defeatof her sons. The holy sage suggested that sheobserve the Dvadashi-vrata (Fast of the twelfthlunar night) which is dedicated to Lord Vishnu.Pleased by Aditi s penance he granted her, herwish to be born as her child and thus help Indrarecover his lost supremacy. Soon after Aditi gavebirth to a dwarf who had an enormous brillianceon his face. He instantly grew to maturity butremained a short statured Brahmin and was namedVamana.

After the demons, under Bali defeated thegods and deprived them of their lands, Vamana -Vishnu led the vanquished God s to the mightyking Bali to beg for a piece of land. Bali wasperforming the Aswamedha Yajna. He receivedhim with full honour and agreed to grant himanything he desired. Vishnu in the form of Vamanaasked the great king for as much land as he couldcover in His three strides. Bali readily agreed tothis. King Bali asked the dwarf to measure withthree strides the land that he wanted. Immediatelythe dwarf Vamana grew to a gigantic size andassuming the form of Trivikrama he measured intwo paces the earth and the heavens. For his thirdstep he asked Bali for a place to put his foot. Balibowed before Vishnu and offered him his head.


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Lord Vishnu blessed the mighty king and sent himto the nether world.

The Dwarf incarnation of Vishnudemonstrates to us that valour can only be realizedif we surrender to the Lord completely.

6. Parshuramavatara

Ksatriyarudhiramaye jagadapagata papamsnapayasi payasi samitabhavatapam

kesava dhrta bhrgupatirupajaya jagadisa hare.

O Kesava (Vishnu) ! In the form of theLord of Bhrigus (Parshurama), You have rid theearth of its tyrannous rulers, thus purifying it of sinand destroying the suffering of the world. Praisebe to Jagadish ! Lord of the universe !

Parshurama is revered as the sixth ofVishnu s ten incarnations. It is said that the KingKarttavirya of Mahishmatinagar was a great andpious king. He underwent rigorous penance andpleased Sage Atri s son, Dattatreya who grantedhim his desire for one thousand hands.

Sage Jamadagni lived in a hermitage withhis wife and sons, including Parshurama. KingKarttavirya was out hunting. He reached thehermitage of Sage Jamadagni looking for a placeto rest and food for his retinue. The Sage calledupon his celestial cow Kamadhenu to providefood for the king and his retinue. As the king wasleaving he asked the sage to give him this celestialcow. When the sage refused to part with it theking took it away by force. On Parshurama sreturn his father told him all that had transpired.The enraged Parshurama set out forMahishmatinagar to avenge his father s insult. Hesingle-handedly killed King Karttaviryarjuna andcut off his thousand arms with his axe or Parasu.He retrieved his father s celestial cow and broughther back to the hermitage.

Renuka - Parshurama s mother went tothe river to fetch water. A Gandharva or demigod named Chitraratha was bathing in the river.Renuka happened to look at him and wasmesmerized by his beauty. The Sage Jamadagnisaw this through his spiritual vision and wasenraged by her act. Upon her return, the infuriatedsage commanded each of his sons to cut off theirmother s head. None of the sons complied exceptParshurama who instantly beheaded her. Pleasedby this act of obedience Sage Jamadagni grantedhim a boon. Parshurama asked that his mother tobe brought back to life immediately. The sagetherefore granted him his wish.

After the death of King Karttaviryarjunahis sons to avenge their father s death stormedthe hermitage. They cut off Sage Jamadagni shead. While lamenting the death of her husbandRenuka beat her chest twenty-one times.Parshurama then vowed to destroy twenty-onegenerations of the Kshatriyas. He first killed allthe sons of Karttaviryarjuna, then he travelled overthe entire world twenty-one times killing everyKshatriyas king that he found.

7. Ramavatara of VishnuVitarasi diksu rane dikpathiamaniyamdasamukha-mauli-balim ramaniyam

kesava dhrta ramasarirajaya jagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu)! In the form of LordRama to uphold dharma or righteousness, Youspread the ten heads of Ravana in the fourdirections, rendering the guardians there ofresplendent ! O Kesava ! You assumed the formof Rama ! Praise be to Jagadish ! Lord of theuniverse !

The Ramayana the story of Rama, theseventh incarnation of Vishnu is the first AdiKavya or ornate poem. It was composed by sageValmiki. Rama was born to Dasharatha- the Ra]a



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of Ayodhya. He accompanied the sageVishvamitra to Mithila where they witnessed theSvayamvara of Raja Janaka s daughter Sita. RajaJanak had vowed to wed his daughter to the manwho could string Shiva s bow. Many mighty kingshad failed. Then sage commanded Rama to stringthe bow. As Lord Rama began to bend the bowin order to string it, it broke into two pieces.Amidst great festivities Rama was married to Sita.After the festivities were over and they werereturning to Ayodhya, the news of the breakingof Shiva s bow reached Parashurama a greatdevotee of Shiva and the sixth incarnation ofVishnu. He was enraged by this act and came topunish the perpetrator of this deed. On seeingRama, Parashurama realised that he wasPurushottama, the indestructible Vishnu andinstead bowed down to him in reverence.

Raja Dasaratha announced that Ramawould be coronated as the next king of Ayodhya.Bharata s mother Kaikeyi unhappy with thisannouncement, reminded Dasaratha of the twoboons he had granted her earlier. She staked herson Bharata s claim to the throne of Ayodhya anddemanded that Rama be exiled to the forest for aperiod of fourteen years.

After Rama left Ayodhya with Sita andLakshmana, he continued southward towardsPanchavati and decided to pass the rest of hisperiod in exile. Ravana s sister Surpanakhahappened to see the handsome Rama in the forestand was besotted by his appearance. She firsttried to lure Rama and then Lakshmana. Whenshe failed, she assumed a horrible appearance tofrighten them. To punish her, Lakshmana cut offSurpanakha s nose and ears. Surpanakha thenwent to complain to her brother, Ravana. Enragedon seeing her condition, he decided to avengeher insult. Ravana devised a plan to abduct Sita.He commanded the demon Maricha to assume

the form a magical deer. Sita enticed by the beautyof this golden deer requested Rama to capture itfor her. Rama wounded Maricha who imitatingRama s voice cried out to Lakshmana for help.Sita ordered Lakshmana who was guarding herto go and help Rama. Ravana hiding behind thetrees near the hermitage assumed the form of amendicant and appeared before her begging foralms. Ignorant of his evil intentions Sita fell intohis trap. He abducted her and returned to Lanka.When the brothers returned to their hut, they foundSita missing and set out in search of her. Ramareached a mountain named Rishyamuka wherehe met Sugriva and Hanuman.

Sugriva s monkey army set forth in searchof Sita. They learnt that Sita was in the AshokaVatika in Lanka. Hanuman set forth for Lankaand crossed the great ocean. He found Sita in theAshoka Vatika and gave her Rama s ring as amark of identification. Before returning with theSita s jewel Hanuman caused great destructionto Lanka, setting the entire city ablaze, exceptthe Ashoka Vatika.

Rama decided to attack Lanka. A GreatWar began between the demons and themonkeys. At last a fierce battle ensued betweenRama and Ravana. Finally Rama killed the mightRavana. Thus the forces of evil were destroyed.The fourteen years period of exile was now nearcompletion. Rama returned to Ayodhya. Thisincarnation demonstrates how it is possible for ahuman being to rise to the level of divinity byadhering to the law of his Dharma.

8. Balaramavataravahasi vapusi visade vasanamjaladabham

hala-hati-milita-yamunabhamkesava dhrta-haladhararupa

jaya jagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu) ! In the form ofBalarama, the plough bearer ! You wear on your


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glowing body garments the colour of the cloud,blue like the river Yamuna, flowing because ofthe fear of your plough ! O Kesava ! You assumedthe form of Balarama. Praise be to Jagadish! Lordof the universe.

Vishnu s incarnation as Balarama orBalabhadra or Baladeva as the elder brother ofKrishna is considered His eighth incarnation inthe series of Avatars.

When Bhudevi approached Vishnu forhelp he assured her that he would take birth asDevaki s two sons, Krishna and Balarama andend the atrocities of the wicked King of Mathura,Kamsa. Some ancient texts proclaim that Vishnuin the form of Krishna is the Purnavatara orcomplete incarnation and Balarama is hisAnshavatara or part manifestation. There is agreater agreement to the suggestion that it wasthe Great Serpent Shesha who incarnated asBalarama on the behest of Lord Vishnu to helphim when he took birth as Krishna.

Balarama had great physical prowess. Hewas the master of two celestial weapons the Hala(plough) and the Musala (pestle) which were theoriginal weapons of Ananta. According to theVisnhudharmottar Purana his plough is symbolicof Kala (time) the destroyer. He has a closerelation with the earth and is often associated withagriculture. His standard was the tala (palm),therefore he is sometimes known as Taladhvajaor Talaketu. He always wore one earring on hisleft ear an ornament gifted to him by Lakshmi,blue clothes and a lotus garland which the riverYamuna had presented to him.

It is stated in the Bhagavata Purana thatjealous of Krishna s union with the river YamunaBalarama one day summoned the river to cometo him as he wanted to bathe in it. Yamunaunderstood his intention and evaded his command.This infuriated Balarama who diverted the course

of the river with his plough. The anxious riverYamuna begged him for forgiveness and appeasedhim by offering him unfading lotus flowers andblue garments which would never deteriorate.

9. Buddha: The Enlightened OneNindasi yajnavidhe-rahaha srutijatamsadaya-hrdaya darsitapasughatam

kesava dhrta buddhasarirajaya jagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu) ! In the form ofBuddha, the enlightened one! Out of compassionin your heart you have condemned the ritualisticfraction of the Vedas proclaiming the killing ofinnocent animals. Praise be to Jagadish ! Lord ofthe universe!

The Puranic tradition highlights Buddhaas Vishnu s ninth incarnation. The sixteen chapterof the Agnipurana states that Vishnu incarnatedas the son of Suddhodana under the name ofSiddhartha later to be known as Buddha - theEnlightened One.

The historical Buddha is identified asSiddhartha. He was born in 563-483 B.C. as theprince of Kapilavastu today an area identifiedclose to the Indo - Nepalese border. Prior toBuddha s birth Mayadevi had a dream that a whiteelephant entered her womb. At the time of theprince s birth astrologers predicted that he wouldrenounce the world and would become a greatspiritual teacher. Distressed by these predictions,King Suddhodana did everything in his power tokeep Siddhartha totally engrossed in worldlyactivities. One day this young prince saw thedistressing sights of an old man, a sick man, acorpse and a monk. These sights made him reflecton life- its pain and sufferings. In the dark of thenight he left the comforts of the palace to becomea monk. For many years he wandered in vain.Then he sat to meditate under the Bodhi tree atBodhgaya searching within himself for the meaning



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and purpose of life and finally gainedEnlightenment. He gave his first sermon at Sarnathto five ascetics and it is known as The Turning ofthe Wheel of Law or Dharmachakrapravartana.He preached a middle path to attain Nirvana orsalvation.

His message and teachings are extremelysimple yet tremendously powerful. He preachedthat to break out of the cycle of life, death andrebirth one must overcome ignorance byunderstanding the four noble truths:

1. Life is full of suffering.

2. Ignorance causes suffering, which is dueto craving and illusion.

3. There is an end to this suffering and thatstate is known as Nirvana, the end ofrebirth where the self is free from the egoand bondage to this material world.

4. The only way to achieve this state ofNirvana is through the eightfold pathwhich consists of right views, rightthinking, right living, right speech, righteffort, right memory, right action and rightmeditation.

The symbolic significance of Buddhavatarof Vishnu is that he is an embodiment ofcompassion.

10. Kalkiavatara: The Horse Incarnation of Vishnu

Mleccha-nivaha-nidhane kalayasi karavaiamdhumaketumiva kimapi karalam

kesava dhrta Kalkisarirajaya jagadisa hare

O Kesava (Vishnu) ! In the form of thesevere Kalkii to destroy the wicked, You carry acomet like sword in your hand, trailing asuccession of disasters upon the wicked and evil.Praise be to Jagadish ! Lord of the universe !

Vishnu in his last Avatar will be Kalki- anAvatar meant for removing human ignorance andawakening Divine Consciousness. After Vishnu sincarnation as Krishna at the end of Dvaprayugaevil forces will slowly gain supremacy. It is thenthat Vishnu will descend from Vaikuntha, hisheavenly abode for the last time to redeem hisfollowers.

Vishnu s incarnation as Kalki isprophesized in the Agni Purana. He will hold asword, a conch, a discus and a mace and will beseated on a horse. This Avatara will manifest inthe Kaliyuga. There will be atheism, disbelief andanarchy, the Vedas and their laws will lose theirimportance, the Kshatriyas will be eliminated andthe Brahmins will give up their yajnas and rituals.People will plead for someone to relieve them oftheir suffering and to bring a change into their lives.Then Lord Vishnu will appear in the form of Kalki,the son of Vishnuvyasa a Brahmin priest and hiswife Sumathi of Shambhala village on the banksof the Ganges. He will appear seated on a whitehorse named Devadatta. Blazing like a comet,Kalki- the apocalyptic redeemer will emerge witha massive scimitar drawn in one hand and a largespear and a mighty bow in the other. It is believedthat Lord Vishnu in this Avatara will destroy evil,restore morals and order in the world. He willeliminate all evil forces, wrong-doers in threenights. Thus he will establish peace and be theharbinger of the next golden age, restoring Dharmato society, and this will be an era of peace andprosperity.

Dr. Bhagyalipi Malla is the Curator, Manuscript inOdisha State Museum, Bhubaneswar.


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The traditional school of classical music presentlypopular as Odissi was referred to by Bharatmuni, Matanga muni, Saraangadev under anindependent nomenclature Udramugudhiprabritti, which was oncepopular as Kaling music,Utkal music or Jayadevi musicin different periods. One doesnot require to survey the history,delve deep into texts andcharacteristic features of Odissisystem to understand its classystyle if he atleast reads andlistens to Gitagovinda of SriJayadev. As this sacred pieceof lyrical poem contains all thesalient and distinguishingfeatures of classical music, thereader or listener mustappreciate the uniqueness andwholesomeness of Odissi as thethird system of classical musicin the domain of Indian music.

Sri Jayadev has composed this illustriousGitagovindas as per the specifications ofUdramagadthi prabritt i, Ardha magadhiPadasrita giti, Bhinna swarasrita giti andnavatalasrita giti. The songs of Gitagovinda areset to talas (rhythems) such as Rupaka Nisarah

Jayadev : The Progenitor of Odissi Music

Kirtan Narayan Parhi

Ragaputra Kalinga Kangra,Pahari, Circa AD 1790

Jati Astatala, & ekatali, which are included innavatalas, commonly used in Odissi till to-day.

The raga repertoire used in Gitagovindasuch as Malava, Gurjjari, Vasanta, Ramakiri,

Malavagouda, Gundakiri,Karnata, Desakhya,Desavaradi, Bhairavi, Varadietc. are being recited in LordJagannath temple as well as allthe corners of Odissa since 12thcentury. Can we not claimwithout oddity that these arenative ragas of Odissa ? Afteraround 100 years of SriJayadev, Sri Sarangadev hasidentified some of the aforesaidragas as kriyangh oradhunaprasidha raga s. By the14th century the ragas ofGitagovinda had become sopopular throughout India thatLochan kavi of Mithiladistinguished these ragas as

Jayadevi ragas because these were being recited,delineated and developed by Sri Jayadev withdistinctive musical entity.

The characteristic features ofardhamagadhi padashrita giti is clearly understoodfrom the titles of the cantos such as Samoda-



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Damodara, Aklesha-Keshava, MugdhaMadhusudana, Snigdha-Madhava,Sakankhya-Pundari-kakhya, Sotkantha-Vaikuntha, Nagara-Narayana, Bilakhya-Lakhmipati, Mugdha-Mukunda, Chatura-Chaturbhuja, Sananda-Damodara andSuprita-Pitambara.

About characterist ic features ofardhamagadhi giti, Dattila has said -Ardhakala nibruttaistu varnadhya

Charddhamagadhi. (Dattilam 2:238B) i.e.Ardhamagadhi is rich in varnas and has repetitionsmade in half that time.

Sarangadev has also written in SangitRatnakara that -Purvayoh padayoaryodhai Charame

diryadodite. Sri Jayadev has composedGitagovinda according to this principles.

The recital of Gitagovinda follows thespecifications of Bhinna-giti. According toMattanga muni, Bhinnagiti is said to be mobile,curved, subtle, spread out, attractive with cadenceand made to shine up wards.

Sukshmaischa prachalairvakrarullasitaprasaritaih. / Lalitaistaramandraischa bhinnagitirudahruta. (Brihaddesi 3:276)

Prior to Jayadev (12th century AD), thetradition of music in Kalinga, Utkal was rich butthe gities (style of recital) flourished during Jainperiod was almost lost. But the essence ofBuddhist music which had reached the zenithduring 7th to 11th century maintained its identityat-least till Jayadev s time. According to MadanlalVyasa, Sri Jayadev was a smarta (ardentbrahmin) means an erudite scholar in smruti shastraand a devotee of five deities. Supporting the viewsand statements of others, he has again said thatJayadev was a follower of Sahajajana (easier

path) and was well versed in charya gitika. Fromthe Odiya daily, the Sambad dt. 20.8.03 we comeacross a news item that Prof. Satyakam Sangupta(a scholar of West Bengal) has said Jayadev hasplaced Buddhadev as an incarnation of LordVishnu in his Dasavatara prabandha of GitaGobinda. Therefore, it is perspicuous thatJayadev had knowledge about Charyagiti i.e.Buddhist music. One has to acknowledge thatGitagovinda was written in order to be sung beforeLord Jagannath exclusively and since then (12thcentury) the recital is being continued as daily ritualin Srimandira to propitiate the Lord. We can notconstrue that the conventional rendition style ofGita Gobinda is completely lost. The rhetoricwords, symphonic syntax set to rhymes, rhythmsand ragas of Gita Gobinda fascinate the heartsand minds of each listener with rapture. Jayadevhas engirdled the transcendence hence with thetransient in simple Sanskrit grandiloquence. Hehas elucidated with lucidity the supreme losebetween Lord Krishna (Parama) and Radha(Jiva) in earthly mood. This unparalleled andsuperb piece of lyrical literature and classical musictransgress all human hearts.

Gita means song and Govinda is asynonym for Lord Krishna. Go is the metonymfor cow, world, heaven, veda mata, gayatri, vak(speech) and vani (voice). He who knows thetheology of vak and vani is called Govinda. SriJayadev has composed Gitagovinda in conjuctionwith his musical skill and magical vocal genres.At the outset he has paid auspicious salutation tothe Goddess of learning, Sri Saraswati, who staysin his heart. In comparison with Umapatidhar,Sarana, Dhoi and Gobardhanacharya he hasranked himself as the best for his composition withsweet words, romantic and erotic sentiments,amorous love story of Radha-Krishna and aboveall aesthetic essence; the articulation of which


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A folio of Gitagovinda, palm leaf, 18th centuryA.D.

imbues ecstasy and alacrity in each heart. ShriJayadev has again confirmed in the 12th cantothat let the dilettantes know the theme ofgandharva (art of music), skill of recital, essenceof romantic sentiments, the art of writing lyricalpoems and clandestine love affairs of Radha-Krishna from Gita Gobinda.

Jat gandharvakalasu kousala manudhyanacha jat vaishnavamJachhrungaravivekatattwamapi jat kavyesulilayitam.Tatsarbam Jayadev pandita kavehKrushnaikatanatmanah.Sanandah Parisodhayantu Sudhiyah SriGitagovindatah.

In Gitagovinda Sri Jayadev has not onlyembellished his lyrical poems with music andmelodious versifications but also with philosophy,metaphysics, ontology and mysticism. His musicis meant not only for the purpose to please but toenlighten through entertainment creating aestheticemotions, a sense of spiritual love, supremebeauty and perpetual peace. ThereforeGitagovinda has maintained ascendancy since itis written.

A palm-leaf manuscript of Gitagovindawritten in Odiya script in 18th century is preservedin National Museum, New Delhi. In which, theicons of Lord Jagannath, Balabhadra andSubhadra are drawn in letters.

In Ragamala painting, we find RagaputraKalinga (Kangra, pahari, circa AD 1790) whichis analogical with a stanza in the 12th canto ofGitagovinda.

Paryankikrutanaganayak aphanasranimaninaganeSankranta pratibimba sanklanayabibratbibhubikriyam.Padambhoruhadharibaridhi sutamkshyanam didrukshyuh sataih.Kayabyuhamiba charannu pachitakutoharih pata bah.

The above stanza written in sanskrit bySri Jayadev has been translated by Adwin Arnoldas under -

Hari keep you ! He whose might,On the king of Serpents seated,Flashes forth in dazzling lightFrom the great snake s gems repeated.Hari keep you ! He whose graces,Manifold in majesty, -Multiplied in heavenly places -Multiply on earth to see



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Better with a hundred eyesHer bright charms who by him lies.

Sri Jayadev s Hari means Srikrushna isseated on the hood of the king of serpents with aflute and lotus. Through the dazzling flashes ofgems in the hoods, Hari wants to see Lakshmi inhis uncounted eyes. Probably for that he tookmultiplied shapes. Let him save you. A stonemade serpent with seven hoods is found in thevillage Kendubilow, Khurda district (erstwhilePuri), the birth place of Sri Jayadev. This indicatesthat Ragaputra Kalinga is a native raga of the thenKalinga music, now known as Odissi.

The quintessence of Odissi music isdiscerned in the intrinsic vision of the learners andlisteners, who repose in Gitagovinda, for its traitslike composition, improvisation, raga repertoire,treatment of rhythms and rhymes, usage andgenre. Sri Jayadev has not only originated aspecific music tradition, systematic form anddefinite melodic pattern, raga-tala repertoires butalso built a socio-cultural community. The purity,sanctity and characteristic features of Odissi musichave been enriched, refined and pervaded itshorizon through Gitagovinda of Sri Jayadev. Wehave the first evidence of Odissi music in anarticulated and systematic form from theversifications of Gitagovinda. This sent and seer,poet and musician, Sri Jayadev was born atKendubillow of Odissa. We adore him as theprogenitor of Odissi system of classical music.Mr. HA Popley said in his work, The Music ofIndia (1st edition 1921) that The first northIndian musician whom we can definitely locateboth in time and place is Jayadeva, who lived atthe end of twelfth century. He was born atKendula, near Bolpur, where lives today the poetLaureate of Bengal and modern India. Kendulastill celebrates an annual fair at which the bestmusical pieces are regularly performed. Jayadevwrote and sang Gitagovinda, a series of songsdescriptive of the amours of Krishna, and so

belongs to the number of India s lyrical songstersconnected withbhakti revival. Though each songhas the name of the raga and tala to which it wassung these are not intelligible to-day to Indianmusicians.

By the time (1921) Mr. Popley wrote thesaid text, probably no modern Odiya scholarshave protested the dubious information about birthplace of Sri Jayadev although he belongs toOdissa. However now many researchers,scholars, poets, pandits and musicians of Odissaas well as West Bengal have clarified withsupporting evidences that the real birth place ofJayadev is Kendubilow of Khurda district(erstwhile Puri), Odissa.

As per version of Mr. Popley if Jayadevis the first north Indian musician, then why he isnot recognized as the progenitor of Hindustanisystem ? Yes, it is a fact that Gitagovinda is recitedin all parts of India including the north and south.It may be said that music of ancient India is notintelligible to many extents, but not Jayadeva smusic, which is regularly being recited in thetemple of Lord Jagannath as a daily ritual as wellas in all corners of Odissa. If there is doubt everybody is free to make further research and studyto accentuate the truth. When Sri Jayadev is anOdiya and his Gitagovinda is set to native ragas,talas and sung according to Ardhamagadhipadasrita giti, Bhinna swarashrita giti, Odissi vocalwhich follows it s traits and tradition is alsoclassical. Truly Odissi vocal is classical and it is adifferent system from Hindustani and Carnatic.Therefore, Sri Jayadev is the progenitor of Odissimusic.

Kirtan Narayan Parhi lives at HIG-85, Phase-I, KananVihar, Bhubaneswar - 751 031.


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Poetic Beauty of Jayadeva s Gitagovinda

Prof. Raghunath Panda

The Gitagovinda is a coherent Sanskrit Kavyacomposed by Jayadeva in the 12th century inOrissa.1 Poetry is the highest form of all arts.2 InGitagovinda we not only come across refinedpoetry but also excellent musical compositions indifferent tunes (ragas) and talas (beating in termsof time units). Regarding the poetic style ofGitagovinda critics and historians of literatureare found confused. As such Hassen consideredthe poem as a lyrical drama and Jones called it apastoral drama. Levi regarded it as an opera andPischel placed it in the category between songand drama. Schroder regarded it as a refinedyatra. Keith equates it with the festival plays inBengal3 which resembles the rasa of Mathura,where the short story of krishna lila is shownaccompanied by song and music.4

Further, due to the division of GitaGovinda in to cantos (Sarga), Keith pointed outthat it has belonging to the generic type ofkavya.5

S.K. De observes that as a creative work ofart, it has a form of its own and it definedconventional classifications. 6

The Present Observation :Undoubtedly, the Gitagovinda is an

original piece of small Sanskrit poem of uniquecharacter which defies the traditional settings ofKhandakavya or laghukavya of the genre of

meghaduta. It does not confirm to muktukatype, since it has got a connected subject matterthroughout. The poet Jayadeva, himself calls it aprabandha. (etam karoti jayadeva kaviprabondham). So far as the division of sarga sor cantos are concerned, the design of amahakavya is found in it.

Some commentators and critics have alsonot hesitated to call it a mahakavya.8 It is dividedinto 12 cantos in which traditional verses intraditional metres are found intermingled withsongs having different popular ragas or tunes tobe sung by specific talas, etc. The generaldescription are found in metres likevasantatilaka, Sragdhara, Sikharini, etc;where as the portions depicting emotional andsubtle feelings of human heart are mostly presentedin popular ragas or tunes like Malavagauda,Gujjari, Ramakeri, Vasanta and so on.9

Conclusion on its Genre :Considering the emotional factors relating

to flowing human spirit studded with songs, weare inclined to put it at par with the modernwestern lyric with an unique indegenous Indianmusicological garb. Thus it can be said aGitakavya or Gitikavya par excellence.

In Indian aesthetic tradition rasa, dhvani,riti and Guna, Vakrokti, Awitya and above all



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ramaniyata or total attractiveness have beenestimated as the essence of poetry by differentrhetoricians and their followers from time to time.Among all of them rasa, dhvani and theramaniyata traditions hold good and are moreappreciated by the connoisseurs of literature.

Rasah has been derived as rasyateasvadyate iti or asvadayanti manasatasmannatya resasmrta. 10, which is relished inthe mind. The term rasah finds mention for thefirst time in the Taittiriyopanisad11 in connectionwith the interpretation of creation, the manifestationof Sat and the principle which enjoins for blissfulconditions of the medicant. He should know Him,realise Him in the self, which enables oneself forrealisation of eternal happiness. By way ofimitation the same term has been adopted inliterature which quite befittingly has been describedas brahma & vadasuhodara.12

The western concept of Aesthetics notonly includes the relish of rasah (though not saidin that term) but also accepts any aspect ofliterature which pleases the mind of theconnoisseur with its living impact. It is just theother way round put by Magha as :Ksanam ksanam yannavatamupaiti tadevarupam ramaniyatayah /

Hence, not only the amount of srngarahasya or karuna displayed and relished in ourpresent work Gitagovinda attracts us forexamination but also the beauties of the depictionof feminine charm, descriptions of the nature,dialogues with brevity and emotions enrich theaesthetic experience of the reader or audienceand critic as well.

In Indian aesthetics Rasah enjoyes aprominent place in literature. Here, inGitagovinda as indicated by the poet propitiatesthe erotic understanding as well as the devotionalfervour of the readers.

Yadiharismarane Sarasam manoadivilasakatasukutuhalam /Madhura Komala-kanta-padavalim Srnutada-jayadevasarasvatim // Gita Govinda 1/3

It is also said as good saying srngaricetkavih kavyam yatam rasahmayamjagat.

The whole kavya is replete with eroticdescriptions since the subject matter of the kavyaconstitutes the slender plot of separation and unionof Radha and Krsna in Vrndavana occuring inonly less than two days time. Besides, the twoprayers offered to Lord Jagadisa, the plot beginswith the revelling of Krsna with the cowherd-women in the mirthful spring season, which beginswith the sloka :anekanariparirambha - sambhramasphuranmanohari vilasalasam /murarimaradupadarsayantayasausakhi samaksam punuraha radhikam// 1/37

Then the whole fourth prabandhachandana charcitanila kalevara etc, is full ofSanbhogasrngara or erotics in union whereKrsna freely mixes with these beautiful womendancing, singing and rejoicing in whatever pleasantmanner he likes. For example -Slisyati kamapi cumbti kamapi kamapi

ramayati ramam / pasyati sasmitacaruparamaparamanu gachati vamam // haririhamugdhavadhunikare vilasini vilasati kalipare.1/44

The whole song has been summerised inthe subsquent verse by the poet in thesardulavikridita metre -visvesam anuranjanena jayayann anandam

indivara sreni - syamala - momalairupanayann angair arun - gotsavam / sva-

cchandam varasa-sundaribhir abhitahpratya-ngam alingitah. - Srngarah sakhi


38


murtimaniva madhau mugdho harih kridati/ Gita Govinda, 1/46

It has been translated by B.S. Miller inthe following way :

When the quickens all thingsTo create bliss in the world,

His soft black sinuous lotus limbs,Begin the festival of love.

And beautiful cowherd girl s wildlywind him in their bodies

Friend, in spring young Hari playsLike erotic mood incarnate.

Again Sambhoga-srngara occurs in theremembrance of Radha of the past amorousactivities in the sixth song where she requests hercompanion to do the needful for her union withKrsna. According to the poet -nibhrta-nikunja-grham gataya nise rahasi-

niliya vasantam/ cakita-vilokita-sakala-disarati-rabhasa-bharena hasantam // Sakhi

he kesi - Mathanam udaram.sakhi he kesi-mathannum udaram.

ramayamaya saha madhuna-manoratha-bhavitaya savikaram/ 2/11

The next situation where erotic union getshighlighted in a hypothetic union of Krsna with ayouthful woman to whom Radha thinks to bemore attractive than her due to her envy in thesong No.14 sung in tune of Vasanta and readslike :-

smarasamarocitaviracitavesagalitakusumadaravilulitakesa kapi

madhuripuna vilasati yuvatiradhikaguna 6/13The same context continues in the

subsequent 15th song in Gurjjari tune. The textof the first line is -

Samuditamadane ramanivadanecumbanavalitadhare Mrgamadetilakam

likhati sapulakam mrgamiva rajanikare/ramate yamunapulinavane vijayi

murariradhana. 6/22Further, excellence in union can be

marked in the advice of the companion to Radhawhile she impells her for rendezevous with Krsnain Song No. eleven for example :

Urasi murarerupahitahare ghana ivataralavatake/ tadidiva pite rativipariterajase sukrtavipake// vigalitavasanam

parihrtarasanam ghatala jaghanamapidhanam / kisalayasayane

pankajanayane nidhimiva harsanidanam //5/12

The climax of erotic union occurs in the22nd and 23rd songs and subsequent verses. Forexample :Maranke ratikelisamkularanarambhe tayasahasa prayam kantajayaya kincidupariprarambhi yatsambhramat / nispanda

jaghanasthali sithilita dorvallirutkampitamvaksyo militamaksi paurusarasah strinam

kutahsidhyati // 12/10Erotic in separation or vipralambha is

the real life force of the erotic sentiment withoutwhich depiction of erotics never attains its fullgrowth (na vina vipralambhena srngarapustima-snute)

Vipralambha in Gita Govinda beginswith the remorse of Radha when she returns toher bower after finding Krsna revelling with othercowherd women. This is reflected from thebeginning of the second canto, in song five andthe subsequent verse. They are the verseviharativane-radha and so on. The songsancaradadharasudha-madhuradhvani and

Ganayatiguna-gramam etc. reflect the typicalmood of Radh. The feeling of vipralambha on



39

Krsna is well expressed in the whole third cantowhich is evident from the verses like :

itastatastam anusrtya radhikam

ananga bana vranakhinna manasatra

krtanutapah sa kalinda-nandini

tatanta-kunje visasada madhavah // 3/2The following mamiyamcalita vilokya

vrttam vadhunicayena reveals the same feelingin a vivid manner.

The best expression of Krsna s feelingsin separation is expressed in the subsequent fiveverses beginning from hrdivisalata haro to theverse bhrupallavam dhanurpangatarangitani.To cite just one example through virodhabhasaalamkara shall be captivating for the readers :

bhrucape nihitah kataksa-visikho nirmatumarmavyatham syamatma

syamatma kutilah karotu kabari-bharopimarodyamam

moham tavaayam ca tanvi tanutambimbadharoragavan

sad-vrttah stana-mandalas-tava kathampranair mama kridati // 3/3

Some people often blame Jayadevaunder the charges of depiction of sensuality forthe lines like pinapayodhara-parisara-mardana - conca lakarayugasali etc. In answerto which it can be said that srngara reallygenerates the highest pleasure among the relishof all the sentiments, according toAnandavardhana -

Srngara eva madhurah parah prahlladanorasah / tanmayan kavyamasritya madhuryampratitisthati // srngare vipralambhakse karuneca prakarsavat / madhuryamardratam yatiyattatradhikam manah Dhvanyaloka, 2/7-8.

Hence, the allegation regarding sensualitydoes not stand valid. On the other hand theenormous popularity of the text tells a differentstory rather in contrast to the said allegation.The Popularity of the Gitagovinda :

Due to the popularity of the GitaGovinda more than ninety commentaries and 132imitations on this Kavya have been recorded.13

Moreover, the songs of Gita Govindaare enacted in many classical dance forms likethe odisi, the Manipuri, the Bharatnatyam andso on.

In the worship of Lord Jagannath aspecially hand-cooven silken cloth namedGitagovinda Khandua is offered to the deitiesin the great temple at Puri. The prayer songs ofGitagovinda are charted every night of ritual justbefore the deities go for asleep and attired inbadasimhara vesa. Regarding the chanting of thesongs of the Gita Govinda in the daily service ofthe deities, there is a definite proclaimation of kingPrataparudradeva in the form of an inscription onthe left side of the jayavijaya door-way, writtenin Oriya language and script in A.D. 1499.14

RitiRitis are usually of four kinds in Sanskrit

literature, they are vaidarbhi Gaudi pancali andLati. In Gita Govinda Jayadeva makes use ofVaidarbhi and the Gaudi styles. Verses likeGanayati guna-gramam bhamam

bhramadapi nehate or recaya kucayo patramcitram kurusva kapolayor can be cited asexamples of vaidarbhi style, whereasunmilanmadhugundha lubdhamadhupa-

vyadhutacutan kura etc. can be put-forth asexample of Gaudi.

But one thing more regarding style ofJayadeva is striking that besides these verses intraditional metres he has added twenty-four


40


beautiful and melodious songs in different tunesor ragas which can be cast in classical odisimusic. These ragas are Malava, Gursijari,Vasanta, Karnata and so on keeping in view thesonorous and sweet dictions, the poet himself callshis composition as madhura komalakantapadavati . For example - candana-carcita-nilakalevara-pitavasana vanamali /Kel icalanmanikundalamanditagandayugasmita sali / haririha mugdhabadhunikarevilasini vilastic kelipare / 1/38

Riti depends on the qualities of words orGuna (both sabda guna and Arthaguna). Henceobviously for generating vaidarbhi style all theGunas required to be present according to theancient rhetoricians believe onlymadhurya typeof Guna alongwith softer use of words give riseto the Vaidarbhi style. From the beginning to theend Jayadeva stands faithful to his declaration ofcomposing the madhura-komata-kanta-padavali ..The Alankaras

As regards the use of alankarasJayadeva is a superb artist. There is almost in everyverse and song the dancing effect of Anuprasatouches the sense of the ears. May it be ca karain vagdevata caritacitritacittasadma or Makara and dha kara in unmilanmadhu-gandalubdha etc.15

Among the Arthalankaras Upama,Rupaka, Utpraksa, Kavyalinga, Visesokti,Vyatireka, Dipaka, Arthantaranyasa,Samuccaya, Anumana, Bhrantiman, etc. areintroduced.

To cite just one example of Bhrantimanshall be quite heartening to test one for the relishof the connoisseurs :hrdibisalataharo nayam bhusangamanyakalkuvalayadala sreni kanthe na sa garaladyutih

/ malayajarojao nedam bhasma priyarahitemayi prahara na harabhrantyananga krdhakimudhavasi // 3/11Musical Niceities -

Jayadeva at the introduction of his kavyaGita Govinda informs his readers that he wasgoing to compose a prabandha kavya, etamkarotiJayadeva kavih prabandham). 1/2

Prabandha is a veriety of Khandakavyaat the same time prabandha is also a veriety ofmusical piece. Since Jayadeva s Gita Govindaabounds in a large number of songs and everysong is titled as Prabandhas, viz -prabandha-I,Prabandha-II etc. it is nearer to the prabandhasong type of kavya, rather than a prabandha incontrast to the muktaka variety. Prabandha hasbeen defined in Sangita cuamani as :caturbhidhatubhih sadbhi scangair yasmatprabadhyate / tasmat prabandhahkathito ....// 16

The prabandha songs have severaldetails and due to its importance sarngadeva hasdevoted a full chapter on the prabandha songsin his sangita-ratnakara, an ex-haustive treatiseon musicology. The musicological texts written inOrissa like the sangitakalpalata,sangitarnavacandrika, Gitaprakasa etc. - allof them have cited examples from the GitaGovinda in appreciation of its musical value.Its influence on the regional Sanskrit andOriya Litarature

Gitagovinda, has widely excercised itsinfluence on the later literature to such an extentthat it can be felt from the Sanskrit authors likePurusottama Deva, Divakara Mishra, RayaRamananda Sitikanthakavi and Oriya writers likeAbhimanyu Samanta Singhara, Upendra Bhanja,Dinakrsna Das, Kavi Surya Baladeva Rath : Oneand all have been sufficiently influenced by the



41

memorable lines and songs of the model GitaGovinda. That is why Orissa has developed arich, profound and highly entertaining lyrical,musical as well as lyrico-dramatic literature ofsignificantly commendable dimensions.

Covering all the aesthetic aspects ofGitaGovinda shall constitute a voluminous work,therefore lack of scope in a single paper forbidsus to delve deep and discuss extensively here atthis insant.References :1. Panda R.N. & Nanda G.C. Contribution of Orissa

to Sanskrit literature, Bhubaneswar; 1994,pp.29-45.

2. K.C. Pande; comparative Aesthetics, Vol.I, p-1.

3. Obviously based on the errorneous belief thatJayadeva belonged to Bengal.

4. A.B. Keith, A History of Sanskrit Literature,p.191.

5. Ibid.

6. S.K. De; Indian studies past and present, p.647.

7. Gita Govinda, I.2.

8. Ref. Gita Govinda with Sarvangasundari andSrutiranjani, commentaries ed.B. Panda, Deptt.of Culture, Govt. of Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1985.

9. In some editions of Gita Govinda the forms orsvarupa of different ragas are also described.

For, example, malava-raga is depicted asn i t a m b i n i - c u m b i t a - v a k t r a p a d m asukadyutikundalavan pramatta/ sangitasatam

pravisan pradose maladharo malavaragaraja// Gg, Manamohan Press, Cuttack, no date, p.81.

10. Natyasastram, Ch. VI. 38.

11. rasam hyevayam labdhavanandibhavati /Taittiriyopanisad, Ramakrishna math, madras,1965, p.116.

12. Sahitya-Darpana, Ch.III, 2.

13. See, Raghunatha Panda, Orissa s Contributionin Sanskrit Lyrics, Abhijeet publications, Delhi-94, pp.82-123; Suryamani Ratha, Gitagovindam(ed) with Rasikarangada commentary;introduction; Banamali Rath, Iminations of theGitagovinda, Kalyani Prakasana, Berhampur.

14. Manmohan Chakravarti, Uriya inscriptions ofthe 15th and 16th centuries. Journal of theAsiatic Society of Bengal, 62, pt.I (1894),88-104; see, K.C. Misra, Cult of Jagannath,pp.54-55.

15. Chekanuprasa; 1.2, 5, 6, 10, 26, 27 etc.;vrttyanuprasa, 1.1, 2, 9, 12, 13, 15 etc;Antyanuprasa; 1.5, 8, 39, 42 etc.

16. R.N. Panda; Orissa s Contribution in SanskritLyrics, p.105.

The author works as a Professor of Sanskrit, in UtkalUniversity, Vanivihar, Bhubaneswar-4.


42


I had been in Orissa since 1967 but had neverheard that in the past there was any French Schoolthere. It was only in 2000, that when in the courseof my research on the French Loge at Balasore, Ivisited that town that this fact came to light.Accompanied by the District Collector, I wentaround the area where the French Loge stood inthe past. We talked to some old people of thearea. One of them, a relative of the erstwhileteacher in the French school Padma LochanBindhani, gave valuable information about theschool and shared some photocopies of thecorrespondence about the school with the thenFrench authorities.

These are letters written by the successiveFrench Administrators of Chandernagor toPadma Locahan Bindhani, the teacher of theFrench school at Balasore. In fact in the lateryears, this school was the only visible manifestationof the French legacy of the Loge there. Theseletters, in French, short and to the point, coverthe period 1940-1945. Though these relate tothe matters connected with the running of theschool, they do throw light on some social issuesof the period in that area.

But first a general view of the schooleducation in Balasore in the nineteenth centurymay be takeninto account. By the middle of theNineteenth century, Balasore became an importantpoint in the educational map of Orissa. TheAmerican Baptists founded an English School in

1853 and a High school was established by themin 1893. The first English High School known asBaleshwar Zilla School was established byGovernment here on 1st November 1853. Adistinguished person of the area, Raja BaikunthNath Dey Bahadur was a champion of the Englishlanguage and founded an English school atBarabati in the centre of Balasore town.Subsequently the school was shifted toMalikaspur and was raised to the entrancestandard in 1853. Interestingly Raja BaikunthNath was also the lessee of the French Loge forquite some time.1 In fact inhabitants of Balasorehad been pressing the British for it for quite sometime. With the opening of this school, Balasorebecame one of the 3 towns in Orissa to have sucha school- the other two being at Cuttack and atPuri. The exact date/year of the setting up of theFrench school in Balasore is difficult to trace. Butrecords do show that the French were givingregular aid to the primary school located in FrenchBalasore till their departure in 1947.

This correspondence between Bindhani,the teacher of the French school and the Frenchauthorities throws light on a number of issues. Letus take a look at some of the information comingout of this correspondence.

In October 1940, the teacher of thisschool was informed that the amount of the yearlyschool allowance was being brought to Rs.120/-for the year 1941. In order to get a flavour of the

The French School in Balasore,Orissa Till September, 1947

K. J. S. Chatrath



43

set up, let us see copy of an order2 issued by theFrench Governor at Pondicherry about thisschool. It shows how the school was beingregularly and systematically funded by the FrenchGovernment.

The Governor of the Colonies Louis Bonvin,Chevalier de la Legion d Honneur,

Governor of French Settlements in India,Member of the Committee for the Defence of

French Empire.Pondicherry, the 23rd February, 1943.

As per the provisions of the Ordinance of 23rd

July 1840;As per the provisions of the budget; Order;

Article 1.- A grant of Rs.200/- is granted to theschool of the French Loge at Balasore for theyear 1943.As per the provisions of Chapter XIV of the LocalBudget exercise, this grant shall be released atthe end of each quarter.Article 2.- The present decision will be registeredand communicated for the information of allconcerned.

Pondicherry, the 23rd February 1943.Signed.

Louis BonvinCertified Copy :

The Head of Office.Signed.P. Brutinel

Copy to: Cabinet-1, Ist Bureau-1, Treasury -1,Additional Chander -1, Education Deptt. 1.

Pondicherry, the 25th February 1943.Attested copy. Sd/-

Taken note of.Sd/- BindhaniDated 8.3.43.

Copy of a similar Order issued in Frenchin 1945 3 sanctioning a grant of Rs. 120/- for theyear is also available.

There is an amusing letter written inJanuary 1941 4 conveying sanction for funds forthe purchase of furniture for this French school.5The letter conveyed that His Excellency theGovernor of French India had kindly granted asum of Rs.180/- (subject to 10% deduction) tothe French school for the purchase of schoolfurnitures of Balasore. It advised that consequentlya bill should be drawn in Padma LochanBindhani s name for the sum of Rs.162/-. Toregularize this bill, he was asked to submit to theFrench Administrator, on the receipt of this letter,a list of articles to be bought for the school withinthe limit of the sum of Rs.162/- deducting Re.1-as 12/- for Money Order fees. It was made clearto him that all excess to this sum will not be paid.It was added at the end that these articles, whenbought, will be verified by the District Magistrate,Balasore. This letter is amusing as it shows theinterdependence of the French and the BritishIndia at the grass root level. Since the Frenchdid not have any functionary at the FrenchBalasore, except perhaps a Sub-Inspector ofPolice called Brigadier, they involved the BritishDistrict Magistrate of Balasore for helping in thepurchase/verification of the furniture so bought.

We get an idea about the efficiency ofthe communication system in the areas of FrenchIndia. For example there is a letter written in May19416 sanctioning four days leave to Bindhani tobe enjoyed in Chandernagore . Delivery of thisletter points out towards a quick system ofmovement of mail. Bindhani wrote and sent hisapplication to Chandernagore on 15th May. TheFrench Administrator there sanctioned it on the17th of May and sent the letter. Bindhani receivedthe letter in French Balasore on the 19th of May.


44


The French involvement in this school didnot limit itself to payment of a yearly grant. It hada fairly tight control over various aspects of itsfunctioning. The yearly academic calendar for theschool used to be communicated by the FrenchAdministrator from Chandernagore. In July 1941,Bindhani was communicated 7 the annual schoolacademic calendar. It informed that:

(i) The school would remain closed on everyThursday;

(ii) Summer vacation would be from 16th Mayto 30th June.

(iii) Puja vacation would be from 25 th

September to 15th October, and

(iv) The Winter Vacation would be from 24th

December to 7th January (next year.)

One may note that there was no teachingon one day in a week besides the Sunday, whichis the French system. The traditional schedule inFrench schools even today involves teaching fromMonday to Friday with no classes onWednesdays and a half-day on Saturdays. Thisschedule remains one of the hotly debated issuesin the French educational system.

The same letter also clarified that for theyearly subsidy of the school a sum of Rs.100/-only was sanctioned and not Rs.120/-. Out ofthis amount too, a sum of Rs.10/- had beendeducted as levy, at the rate of 10% of the sum,as prescribed by the French Government.Bindhani had also made two requests - forcontingency of Rs.10/- and a sum of Rs.5/- forthe garden. He was informed that these matterswould be submitted to His Excellency theGovernor of French Colonies, at the time of thevisit of the French Administrator ofChandernagore to Pondicherry. It shows that theFrench system was quite bureaucratic and alsofairly tight fisted.

This set of letters show, the human faceof the French at a micro level. We get to know ofthe French consideration for, and sensitivity to,the local religious and social sentiments fromanother of these documents. It seems thatBindhani and a few others had written toMassoutier, the French Administrator atChandernagore asking for 3 days holidays forBasant Puja . The response of the Administrator8

was positive. Bindhani and others were informedthat as a very special case, permission toceleberate Basant Puja from 24th to 26th Marchwas accorded. This letter was sent care of theBrigadier (Sub-Inspector) of Police Post ofBalasore showing that by then a policeman fromthe French side had been posted and had joinedin the French Balasore.

Subsequently in the June of the sameyear, one Mohone Bindhani and others wrote tothe French Administrator requesting for permissionto celeberate the festival Raja Sankranti . TheAdministrator conveyed to them9 that thepermission asked for celeberating a Hindureligious festival on the occasion of RajaSankranti 10 had been accorded for three days,

A photograph showing some students, teachersand Police Officials.

(Source : Late Bindhani s family)



45

on the condition that it would be celebrated fromsunrise to sunset and no event will be organisedduring the time of the Black-Out during the night.This letter too was sent care of the Brigadier (Sub-Inspector) of Police Post of Balasore. One comesto know that black out at night, due to the SecondWorld War was being enforced in the FrenchBalasore also.

Some letters reveal that emergencymedicines were being supplied to French Balasorethough the residents had access to the dispensaryin the British Balasore too. There is a letter writtenin May, 1942 11 by which Bindhani was told thatas per his request a packet containing 15 grammesof compressed aspirine had been sent to him.

Bindhani, the Teacher again wrote to theFrench Chief Medical Officer at Chandernagorerequesting for some more medicines. Thefollowing medicines were sent to him12 fromChandernagore:

(i) Medicine for digestion: Alcoolat dementhe 13 X to XX drops per day in one ounceof water;

(ii) Medicine for throat and tooth complaint:Glycerine iodee for touching.

In October of the same year Bindhaniagain asked for some more medicines. The ChiefMedical Officer of Chandernagore sent him14

15 grammes of quinine bi-hydro-chlor tablets (togive 2 tablets per day for adults.). After twomonths Bindhani asked for anti-cholera medicines.The French Chief Medical Officer again obligedhim by sending15 100 doses of anti-choleric bili-vaccine and asked him to send back, as soon aspossible, the list of persons vaccinated.

It appears that in November 1944,Bindhani sent another letter to the French ChiefMedical Officer at Chandernagore enclosing a listof medicines which he wanted to be supplied.

Perhaps the French Chief Medical Officer wasfed up with these repeated demands of medicinesfrom Balasore and therefore, while supplyingTeinture d Iode 16 he advised Bindhani17 to send

in future the patients to the nearest dispensary fortreatment which again shows the dependence onthe British institutions.

The French finally handed over the FrenchBalasore to the Indian government on 1st

September, 1947. While handing over theyformally pleaded for continuance of this schooland the teacher. Mr. Bazin, the FrenchAdministrator at Chandernagore, wrote a letterto the District Magistrate, Balasore18 stating,There exists in this Loge a school aided by French

Government. This aid will not be given from 1st.Sept., I recommend to your kind attention theteacher who is in charge of this school and whohas always given entire satisfaction. I think it willbe possible for you to maintain this school andensure the education of the children of thatlocality.

It would be interesting to find out whataction was taken by the Indian authorities on thisparting request of the French authorities. It wouldbe equally fascinating to know the subjects thatwere being taught in this school and weatherFrench language was one of those subjects.

To sum up, we notice from thiscorrespondence that the French school atBalasore was being regularly and systematicallyfunded by the French Government and yearlyacademic calendar was being prepared by theFrench authorities and that there was dependenceof the French on the British India. It also throwslight on the efficiency of the communication systemin the areas of French India. We also get theinformation that a black out at night, due to theSecond World War was being enforced in theFrench Balasore also. And lastly it shows that the


46


French had consideration for, and sensitivity to,the local religious and social sentiments. Whilehanding over they hoped that Indian governmentwould maintain this school and ensure theeducation of the children of that locality and alsoformally recommended the retention of theteacher.

References :(1) Orissa District Gazzettes, Baleswar, Govt. of

Orissa,1992, page 588.(2) Order No. 226 dated 23rd February, 1943 of the

Governor of the French Settlements in IndiaMr. Louis Bonvin sanctioning a grant ofRs.200/- for the year 1943 for the French Schoolin Balasore Loge.

(3) Order (in French) dated 27th January, 1945from Governor of Colonies Louis Bonvinsanctioning grant to the French School,Balasore. Translated by us from the originalletter in French.

(4) Letter No. 975 dated 4th October, 1940 fromLieutenant J.M. Massoutier, Administrator ofChandernagore to Mr. Padamlochan Bindhani,Teacher of French School, French Balasore.

(5) Letter No. 32 dated 15th January 1941 fromLieutenant J.M.Massoutier, Administrator ofChandernagor, addressed to Mr. PadmaLochan Bindhani, Teacher of the French School,Balasore

(6) Letter No. 591 dated Chandernagore 17 May,1941 from Lieutenant J. M. Massoutier,Administrator of Chandernagore addressed toMr. Padma Lochan Bindhani, Teacher of FrenchSchool, Balasore

(7) Letter No. 807 dated 12th July, 1941 fromLieutenant J. M. Massoutier, Administrator ofChandernagor addressed to Mr. Padma LochanBindhani,

(8) Letter No. 190 dated the 20th March, 1942 fromLieutenant J.M.Massoutier, Administrator ofChandernagor, addressed to M/s MohanaBindhani and Group

(9) Letter No.386 dated 16 th June 1942 fromLieutenant J.M.Massoutier, Administrator ofChandernagor to M/s Mohone Bindhani andGroup.

(10) Raja Sankranti or the Swing festival orMithuna Sankranti is a three-day festivalstarting on the first day of the month of Asara(June-July) from which the season of rainsstarts. It heralds the beginning of theagricultural year in Orissa.

(11) Letter No. 305, dated 9th May, 1942, fromLieutenant J.M.Massoutier, AdministratorChandernagor addressed to Mr. Padma LochanBindhani, Teacher of French School, Balasore.

(12) Letter No. 444, dated 29th June, 1942 (inFrench) from the Chief Medical Officer,Chandernagor, addressed to Mr. PadmaLochan Bindhani, forwarding medicines.Translated by us from the original letter inFrench.

(13) Something like Pudinhara in contemporaryIndia.

(14) Letter dated 10th October, 1942 from the Chiefof Medical Services of Chandernagoreaddressed to Padma Lochan Bindhani Teacherin the Balasore school sending him quinine.

(15) Letter No. 877, dated the 9th December, 1942from the Chief Medical Officer, Chandernagoreto Mr. Padma Lochan Bindhani, teacher in theFrench school at Balasore sending medicines.

(16) Tincture Iodine, consisting of a solution ofiodine in ethyl alcohol; applied locally to minorcuts and bruises as an antiseptic.

(17) Letter No. 797, dated the 23rd November, 1944(in French) from the Chief Medical Officer,Chandernagore to Mr. Padma LochanBindhani, teacher in the French school atBalasore sending Teinture d Iode . Translatedby us from the original letter in French.

(18) Letter No. 1386 dated the 27th August, 1947from Mr. M. Bazin, Administrator ofChandernagore to the District Magistrate,Balasore (Translation). Source : Orissa StateArchives, Bhubaneswar.

K.J.S. Chatrath lives at D-513, Shikhar Apartments,Sector-5, Mansa Devi Complex, Panchkula-134109,Haryana.



47

Earth atmosphere contains certain gases calledgreen house gases (mostly carbon dioxide), whichkeeps the atmosphere warmer. Global warmingis a slow, and gradual warming of lower layer ofthe atmosphere due to increase in concentrationof manmade green house gases primarily bycarbon dioxide and lesser extent by methane,nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbon etc. Thesegases trap infrared radiation, which is the heatradiation that cools the earth, which ultimatelyraises the temperature of the lower layer of theearth atmosphere. The atmospheric concentrationof carbon dioxide and methane has increased31% and 149% since beginning of the industrialrevolution in mid 1700s. Fossil fuel burning hasproduced 3/4th of the carbon dioxide from humanactivity over past 20 years. Most of the rest isdue to land use change particularly deforestation.Global surface temperature has increased

00.74 0.18 c± during last 100 years ending in2005. Inter Governmental panel on climate changesummarized a further increase in temperature 1.1to 6.40c during 21st century.

Consequences of Global Warming

Due to rise in temperature of the earththe food production will decrease at a rate of 10%with increase in temperature of 10c leading tohunger and starvation. Other phenomenon as like

Reverse Actions Against Global Warming

Dr. M. Mishra

heat waves and unusual warm weather, (2) oceanwarming, sea level rise and coastal flooding(3) glacier melting (4) plant and animal race shiftand loss of lives (5) unusual downpours, heavysnowfall, flooding, drought and fire (6) prevalenceof diseases are likely to increase due to globalwarming. World is experiencing shortage of foodnow a days. Out of 600 crores of people 300crores of people are under-nourished, Heatwaves has killed 1600 people in India, 35000people in Europe in 2003. Ice and snow coverhas shrunk 30% in Himalayas over 30 years.

Global warming has created a lot ofconcern to scientists for survival of the populationon the earth in 21st century. Government ChiefScientific Advisor, UK has advised to take floodprotection of agriculture and coastal erosion.European union is committed to limit emission ofgreen house gases so that, temperature will notrise more than 20c. David king, Chief ScientificAdvisor to British Government told that, globalwarming is most severe problem and even moresevere than terrorism.

Reverse Actions Against Global Warming

Earth has experienced warming andcooling many times in the past with drastic changesin the live forms. Let us not invite such changes toour present earth and let the earth be sustainable


48


to all its living beings through application ofscientific process. All matters in the earth areconstant. The total carbon content of the earthwhether it is present in the soil, in plant or inatmosphere is also constant. But due to humanintervention, the carbon concentration in the formof carbon dioxide, methane etc., has beenincreased in atmosphere in comparison to itspresence in soil and plant which causes globalwarming. Our activities may be directed to reversethe process so that, the carbon dioxide present inthe atmosphere will be buried in the soil and plantto maintain its optimum level in atmosphere, sothat the temperature of the earth atmosphere willnot increase. This may be called as ReverseAction .

The following steps may be taken toreduce the carbon dioxide concentration in theearth atmosphere and thereby reducing globalwarming.

STEPS TO REDUCE GLOBAL WARMING

Reduction of Carbon Dioxide Emission FromFossil Fuel Burning

The fuel efficiency of the systems need tobe increased, high fuel efficiency engine need tobe developed and subsidized by interference ofthe Govt., use of non conventional energy sourceslike solar, water and wind need to be popularizedand subsidized for large scale adoption.

Reduction Of Carbon Dioxide EmissionFrom Industrial Sources

The industrial carbon dioxide emissionshave to be trapped in form of minerals throughsuitable processes to form calcite or dolomite orother such minerals and organic acids andchelates. Industrial wastes need to be recycledthrough appropriate processes and incentivesshould be given for use of such process byinterference of the Government.

Reduction of FiringForest fire or Firing of crop wastes need

to be banned as the organic materials are burntto produce carbon dioxide. Awareness has to becreated for preparation of compost if such wastematerials are needed to be removed from field.Composting helps in delaying the process ofrelease of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere andhelps in maintaining fertility status of the soil.Incentives have to be given for composting ofresidues of field crops or forest residues forenhancing environmental protection.

Carbon MiningCarbon helps in restoring the fertility of

the soil. The crop residues can be incorporatedinto the soil after harvest of the economic yield.Continuous such process will enable in cultivationof crop in zero tillage and minimum tillage. Theincorporation of organic residues increases theheat capacity of the soil, thereby reduces theinfrared radiation from earth.Afforestation

Plants convert carbon dioxide present inthe atmosphere into carbohydrates through theprocess of photosynthesis. Rapid afforestation ofwastelands will not only reduce the carbon dioxideconcentration in the atmosphere but also willintercept the light falling directly on the earthsurface which reduces heating of the loweratmosphere.

Hence, the afforestation has to be carriedin all waste lands, Panchayat lands, village landsand waste lands etc. so that sunshine will not falldirectly on the earth surface.

Agro forestry Systems :- Due to increase inglobal temperature, the yield rate of the crop hadshowed decline trend and incidence of pest anddiseases has been increased. In order to reducethe atmospheric temperature in crop field, Agro



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forestry systems should be practiced in all theagricultural lands through planting of straightgrowing forest species on the boundary or atdistance of 8-10 m apart, thereby creating amicroclimate suitable for the agricultural cropcultivated in the interspace.

Creating Water Bodies: - Water has high heatcapacity which absorbs heat thereby reduces theatmospheric temperature. Large scale waterbodies should be created to conserve run offwater in the land surface. Soil and waterconservation measures need to be followed in alllands to reduce soil and water erosion and toincrease heat capacity of soil.

Efficient use of Water:- Due to growing ofpopulation, the per capita water availability hasbeen reduced from 2209 cum. in 1991 to 1703cum in 2005. The projected water availability willbe 1340 cum in 2025. For production of onetonne of food grain 1000 ton of water will berequired. In order to sustain the increasingpopulation, there is greater need for efficient useof water through use of sprinklers and dripirrigation systems.

Aerobic Rice Cultivation: - Rice is the staplecrop grown in wetland or water logged land whichemits methane which also contributes to the globalwarming. Growing of rice in System of RiceIntensification (SRI) technique and aerobic ricecultivation, there will be efficient use of water aswell as reduction of emission of methane.

Recycling of Waste Material: - Waste materialproduced from industries and agriculture need tobe reused to produce other useful materials. Thiswill help in preservation of environment andprevent pollution of environment. Sewage waterand waste water coming from the industries needto be cleaned and reused in agricultural activity.

Organic Farming :- Organic farming emphasizeson cultivation of crops with the inputs availablein nature through use of green manuring, greenleaf manuring, Biofertilizer, BGA and Arolla etc.The organic farming practices help in building soilfertility through fixing atmospheric Carbon dioxideand Nitrogen in to the soil. This helps in reductionof carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

Checking Radiation from Building: -Urbanization has increased construction ofbuildings which emits radiation that also increasesthe temperature of the atmosphere. Hence, theroof of all buildings should be covered withPotcultured plants or covered with mulchingmaterial for preventing radiation. The side wallsof the building also should be covered by shadeof plants.

Research Support: In view of global warmingscenario, there is need for massive research forreduction of carbon dioxide emission, carbondioxide fixation, recycling of waste material,efficient use of fossil fuel and enhancement of yieldof crops under temperature stress etc.

Enactment of Laws: There is need to enact lawsto suit to ecofriendly practices, creation ofawareness on environment protection andpopularization of technology for reduction ofcarbon dioxide emission. The present atmosphericconcentration of carbon dioxide 385 parts permillion by volume which is highest in 800000 yearswhich will increase to 541 to 970 ppm by 2100due to fossil fuel burning as per IPCC special reporton emission scenario. Hence all our actions needto be projected to reverse the carbon dioxideemission and global warming to save the earthfrom disaster.

Dr. M. Mishra is a Programme Co-ordinator, KrishiVigyan Kendra, Boudh.


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India has 18% of the world s population and15% of the total livestock. Of the country s totalgeographical area of 329 million hectares, 174million hectare is degraded. But, India isbestowed with extremely diverse agro-ecological conditions that provide mostconducive environment for growth of diverseflora and fauna. Approximately 12% of world sflora and 7% of world s fauna is found in Indiafor which the country is recognized as one ofthe mega centres of bio-diversity. It is estimatedthat global population by 2050 will be around11 billion and India will emerge as mostpopulous country with 1.5 billion people. Withthe increase in indust ry, roads forcommunication, housing and urbanization, theper capita availability of land is decreasing dayby day. To feed the burgeoning humanpopulation, obviously the demand for food willescalate. In this context we will need to searchfor newer plants and look for newer genes inorder to ensure food and nutritional securityand increase the farm productivity. In additionto that most of the agro products are found tocontain pesticide residues which harm humanhealth and make us incompetent in the globalmarket. Thus, emphasis should be given notonly to increasing productivity of crops but alsoproducing quality food.

Food and Nutritional Security inPresent Day Agriculture

Dr. H.P. Misra

Crop diversification :-

Rice is cultivated in 113 countries of theworld and plays a variety of roles that are relatedto important aspects of food security as well asto rural and economic development. It is theprincipal crop of Asia and rice based productionsystem and their associated post-harvestoperations employ nearly 1 billion people in ruralareas of developing countries. When thedeveloping countries are considered together, riceprovides 27% of dietary energy supply and 20%dietary protein intake. In Asia alone, over 2 billionpeople obtain 60-70% of their energy intake fromrice and rice products. Over 90% of the world srice is produced and consumed in Asia. It also isa staple food of India and Orissa occupying highestarea under any crops. In the last three decades,632 varieties of rice were developed and releasedfor commercial cultivation in India. In Orissa riceworkers in the Orissa University of Agricultureand Technology (OUAT) and Central RiceResearch Institute (CRRI) contribute a lot indeveloping high yielding, insect pest and diseaseresistant varieties of rice suiting to various agro-ecological situations. That resulted in hugeproduction of rice leading to disastrous sale. Onthe other hand due to less cultivation andproduction of pulses and oilseeds their per capitaavailability is decreasing day by day and price is



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increasing. Thus, there is an urgent need for cropdiversification. Therefore, now emphasis is ondiversifying to fibre crops (cotton), oilseeds(groundnut, sunflower, mustard, sesamum etc.),pulses (rajmash, arhar, mung, bean, urd bean etc.),fruits and vegetable crops, floriculture andmedicinal and aromatic plants.

The importance of fruit crops in humannutrition is well known. As per the Indian Councilof Medical Research (ICMR) the per capitaconsumption of fruits should be 120g / person /day to ensure the nutritional security of projected120 crore population in 2010. India needs toproduce 74.56 million tones of fruits by 2011 12. Threfore, Government of India is implementinga scheme for integrated development of fruitsunder macro management scheme and on anaverage 25% of the funds are allocated under thescheme during the Tenth Plan period for thedevelopment of horticulture sector in the country.

Golden Rice:-

To meet the demands of increasingpopulation and maintain self sufficiency, the presentrice production level of around 89 million tonesneed to be increased up to 120 million tones bythe year 2020. This is a herculean task. However,with the discovery of Dee Geo Woo Gen genein rice crop improvement and increasing yield waspossible in the Green Revolution Era. That wasfollowed by hybrid rice technology which furtherincreased yield. Recent advances in cellular andmolecular biology have equipped the scientistswith two innovative tools for crop qualityimprovement, viz., recombinant DNA technologyand DNA marker technology. Metabolicengineering for nutritional improvement in rice isanother area which is receiving much focus now-a-days. Efforts are on towards bio-fortificationof rice through conventional breeding andbiotechnology to improve the lysine content of

rice, reduce the prolamin proteins to enhance ironbio-availability and improvement of nutritionalquality of super hybrid rice thus giving rise to anti-anaemia rice. From a study it was observed thaton an average 30% of the world s population;mostly from underdeveloped countries suffer fromiron deficiency. In India its prevalence is 40-50%in urban areas and 50-70% in rural areas. Thevictims are mostly children, women and pregnantwomen. Thus, development of this iron richferritin rice can alleviate anaemia problem

through dietary intake.

In 2000, golden rice - a geneticallymodified rice crop was released which wasclaimed to boost yields of rice by 35% over thehigh yielding rice varieties of 20th century. Thegolden rice was rich in beta-carotene which thebody converts to vitamin A. But, in the year 2005British scientists developed a new strain of goldenrice-2 that contains more than 20 times the amountof beta carotene than its predecessor, or enoughto provide 100 per cent of dietary allowance ofvitamin A from just 70g of rice, according todevelopers. The World Health Organization(WHO) estimated that vitamin A deficiency causes5 lakh cases of child blindness a year and killssome 6000 people across South East Asia. Thisdevelopment will combat vitamin A deficiency inSE Asia.

Combined with this, marker assistedselection has been successfully deployed in ricefor blast and BLB (bacterial leaf blight) diseaseresistance genes that will reduce huge loss in yielddue to diseases. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)incorporated transgenic rice development in Chinahas added insect resistance in rice varieties,besides traditional cross-breeding programmes bywhich number of insect and disease resistant ricehave been developed in the past. Qualityimprovement in rice is not only confined to genetic


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engineering but also through conventional breedingprogramme. Greatest achievement isimprovement of Basmati rice. For this reason,since last five years India is exporting 0.5 / 0.7million tones of high quality Basmati rice annuallyvalued around Rs. 20,000 million.

Wheat:-

Wheat crop improvement started with theidentification of Norin 10 gene. In the last fourdecades plant breeders have developed numberof high-yielding varieties with appreciable diseaseand insect-pests resistance. For that reason, Indiais presently one of the largest producers of wheatin the world with about 25 million hectare undercultivation and 60 million tones production. Ofthe total wheat 90% area is shown as breadwheat. But, now emphasis is on to increase areaunder durum wheat or macaroni wheat whichpresently accounts for about 8% of the area.Durum wheat has excellent resistance than breadwheat against karnal bunt a serious disease ofwheat limiting production in northern and north-west India. Its hard lustrous bold grains with goodbeta carotene content and resistance againstbrown rust will attract buyers in the domestic andforeign market.

Super Sweet Onion:-

Another breakthrough in qualityimprovement is the development of Super SweetOnion developed in U.K. by Tisco fresh producecompany. While cutting onion normally irritationof the eye occurs due to presence of pyruvic acidin it which mixes with the air and irritate the eye.As a result tears come out. But, the super sweetonion developed by the company bio-technicallycontain nearly half less pyruvic acid than normaland is grown in less sulphur containing soil. Whilecutting this onion no tear comes of the eye.

Golden Egg:-

During the year 1999 another stride hasbeen taken in the field of animal science in creatinga new type of transgenic egg with medicinal values.Ordinarily, eggs are viewed as detrimental tohealthy hearts, because they are rich in cholesterol,which unduly damage their reputation as the mostnutritive food ever created by nature. A raw eggcontains about 500 milligrams of cholesterol in100gram of its edible part, mostly the yolk, whilea yolk in raw and dried form contains 1500mgand 3000mg per 100g of it, respectively.Therefore, consumption of egg raises its level inblood, thereby increasing the probability ofcoronary heart ailments. But, a team of scientistsin Australia have developed Golden Eggsthrough genetic manipulation of hens which areheart friendly. In an experiment with a group ofvolunteers which were given one such egg perday were observed to have lower cholesterol levelin their blood with no other side effects with thisgenetically modified egg.

Vegetables:-

Apart from fruits, vegetables play animportant role in the balanced diet of human beingby providing not only energy rich food but alsopremise supply of vital protective nutrients likevitamins and minerals. Micronutrient deficiencieshave detrimental effects on human health. Nearly2 billion people worldwide are iron deficientresulting in anaemia in 1.2 billion and more than600 million people have iodine deficiencydisorders. It is estimated that the requirement ofvegetables per capita is 240g / day but, theavailability is only 140g / day. Therefore, we shallhave to produce more to meet the requirement.The improvements made over four decades ofgreen revolution era in agriculture are selection ofthe indigenous varieties for higher yield anddisease, insect pest resistance. Then came high



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yielding cultivars and during last decade hybridvegetables have dominated the market with muchhigher yield potential. Earlier, focus was on findingtoxic properties of some chemicals present invegetables towards human health, while recentresearch efforts are directed towards healthpromoting and chronic disease preventingproperties. Frequent consumption of vegetablesespecially green and yellow vegetables isassociated with decreased susceptibility to someforms of cancer. A diet rich in cruciferousvegetables (cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli,Brussels sprout, Chinese cabbage etc.) has beenassociated with inhibition of chemically inducedcarcinogenesis. About 100 different forms ofglucosinolates have been identified in cruciferous

vegetables which break down to isothiocyanatesthat act as anticarcinogens in human body.

If we take an optimistic view on overalldevelopments made in the field of agricultureregarding food and nutritional security to everyindividual on this earth there is nothing to panicapprehending shortage of food in quantity andquality for the upsurging human population on theearth.

Dr. H.P. Misra is the Associate Professor, Departmentof Entomology, College of Agriculture, O.U.A.T.,Bhubaneswar -751 003.


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Agriculture is the most primitive occupation of thetribal people. Though the people had changedtheir cultivation pattern from traveller s cultivationto settled cultivation, but some of the practiceshave remained unchanged among many group offarmers. The unchanged practices may be due tofact that they find the practices more sustainable.It is painful when somebody says the tribals arebackward or primitive. It not only affects thesentiments of the clientele group but also equallyaffect the organizations working in those areasfor their development. Hence, the technologyshould be transferred to them without affectingtheir sentiment. A number of appropriatetechnologies are generated by them and havebecome sustainable under their farming system.

The paper focuses attention to thepractices of the resource poor tribal farmers thatmakes use of low cost renewable inputs, familyand community labour for solving the food crisesthrough their traditional wisdom which needdocumentation to make the future agriculture asustainable one. Besides, effort has been madeto gather necessary explanation on some of thepractices followed by them. A few regularresearches have been done to see whether theirpractices are based on any scientific basis; muchother research work is yet to be started.

Traditional Agricultural Wisdom for Sustainabilityin Tribal Areas

Dr. Pranab Kumar Ghosh Chittaranjan SahooDr. Sabyasachi Rath

The study on the farmer s traditionalwisdom on agriculture was initiated through non-random selection of respondents from eightdifferent tribals of eleven Blocks of the undividedKoraput district , (For administ rativeconvenience, Koraput has been divided into fourdistricts i.e. Koraput, Malkangiri, Nawarangapurand Rayagada). Erstwhile undivided Koraputcovers an area of 27,369.40 sq. kilometers whichis richly inhabited by tribal community.

The respondents were selected fromamong different age groups, different workingclass group (basically they are farmers).Mukhias, Disharies, Beju etc. They have givennecessary explanations on the continuity of theirtraditional practices. About 70% of the people of30-50 age groups were flexible and theydisapproved many of the traditional practices andwanted to discontinue those practices based onblind belief.

A typical tribal village is situated a littleaway from the main road and mostly inside theforest. Generally, the houses are constructed onthe both side of a wide village road. The cowshedsare constructed on the middle of the road earlier.Now, they are having a cowshed in their house infront side or in the end of house row. This systemhas changed due to reduced number of wildanimals and effective forest.



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Most of the houses have some backyardand they raise a kitchen garden. Gradually, thiskitchen garden extends to the field which againmerges with the forest. The village has been setup where there was plain land and a stream. Thisselection of their dwelling place shows theirintelligence and foresight.

Agriculture and the Religious Functions :

The tribals are very much religious. Theyoffer rituals for Goddess Dharani (Earth) toprovide them the best crop. They also prayIndra the god of rain to shower timely rain for

the crop. They worship Dharanimata beforesowing the seeds in the field during Baisakh.Similarly, after a month of transplanting of paddy,they have Puja for filling up the grain by the graceof God. After the harvest of paddy, they have aritual when they pray Mata Laxmi to be kind tothem and bless them with a good crop. Evenbefore going to clear the forest for jhoomcultivation (Slash and Burn Method), they usuallypray God Mountain to sustain them.

Traditional Wisdom :

The tribals are intelligent and have madeagriculture sustainable through their agriculturalpractices. Knowingly or unknowingly, they havecreated a balance between the environment andrequirement. They hardly over-harvest anythingfrom the nature or forest. Eventhough theysometimes starve, they never over-utilize theforest resources which is abundant; because theythink for the future.

Mixed Farming :

Each and every tribal household keeps afew animals according to their size of the family.To make mixed farming sustainable, they harvestmain crops. After harvest, they allow the cattle to

graze in the field. In return, the animals leave theexcreta which serves as the manure. They seldommilk the cow and they believe that milk is for thecalf.

They keep the birds (Fowls) because theyneed 7 to 10 of those in a year for the differentrituals to offer in sacrifices. The functions areobserved in the winter to onset of monsoon.During the rainy season, they do not observe manyfunctions. It is interesting to refer that the birdsmay damage the kitchen garden crops beforethese crops stand. Therefore, it is seen that, allbirds are killed and devoured by the familymembers, leaving only one or two. Moreover, thebirds would be eaten away by the wild dogs, foxesas the kitchen garden would be full of crops duringthe early part of the rainy season. But in the earlywinter, the new batch of chicks is seen in thevillages. Usually, the people take them to the fieldso that the birds would devour the insects harmfulto the crops. This cycle is not seen in the coastalareas of Orissa.

Jhoom Cultivation :

Now-a-days, the tribals are pushed upand up the hills. All the good fertile land ownedby them in the valleys is near the streams nowbelonging to the non-tribal due to urbanization.The towns are coming up and industries areconstructed resulting in the migration of the peaceloving tribals farmers to interior parts of the forest.Ultimately, they have to depend on the uplandsof the hill slope which can hardly give them acropping during the rainy season. The land andproduce both are not sufficient for them. Hence,they search for an alternate source for theirsustenance. They grow upland paddy and othergrain crops such as cereals and millets in theupland areas and grow pulses in the bagada (landcleared by them in the forest). They are conscious


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that if the land will be left as such there might besoil erosion. They do not cultivate or plough theland, but dibble the seed with the help of a Gadior of special hoe having one point, made up ofwood. This minimizes soil erosion. Moreover,these crops cover the denuded forest area. It iscustomary with them to grow one or two cropsin the hilly slopes in every 3-4 years. During thisinterval, the natural vegetation also covered theground and the nutrient lost during the last crop isalso regained by the deposition of silt.

It is seen that in late summer, just afterone shower of rain, the tribal farmers usually goto the forest in search of the tuber crops; theyharvest it by digging. But they refill the pit withthe twig or piece of it which provide them thetubers in the next year. This is seen with arrowroot,yam, bhata kanda, masiha kanda,amorphophallus etc. Through these practices, thetuber crops continues to grow for years togetherin the same areas.

It can not be told that the tribals aredestroying the forest. The felling of a fruit tree isan offence to the tribal communities. They treatthe mango, mahua, jackfruit, salap and other fruitbearing trees as one of their own family members.But jhoom cultivation is a way of life. They cannotleave it unless they are engaged in other incomegenerating works during the spring and thesummer seasons.

Selection of Crop and Cropping pattern :

They practice crop rotation from timeimmemorial. Turmeric (Curcuma longa) is a cashcrop mostly grown as annual crop, but sometimesit is also grown as a biennial crop, but after aturmeric crop they either leave that land fallow orgrow a legume crop such as bold arhar (Cajanuscajan), blackgram (Phaseolus mungo) and after

2 to 3 years, they again grow turmeric in the samefield.

They are very specific in the selection ofcrops. In the up-land, they grow Kuiri (Panicummilliare), a minor millet that gives only one quintal/ acre. This yield is stable in any hazardous climaticcondition and not affected by diseases and pestsbut the crop is ready within 60 days and it providesthem food when they do not have anything duringOctober-November. They say that Kuiri is liketheir eldest son who takes care of the old parents.Soon after Kuiri, they take another oilseed cropniger (Guizotia abyssinica) with the availablemoisture.

They can predict whether the paddy cropwill give them better yield. If there will be rain atnight and bright sunshine in the day, the crop willbe wonderful; but if the opposite condition prevailthe crop will fail. By seeing the intensity of thefruiting of mango, they can predict whether thepaddy crop will be good. If there will be goodmango crop next year, there will be good paddycrops too.

Besides paddy, they grow a number ofbeans which solves their protein requirement.They get paddy from the field and cowpea (Vignasinensis), blackgram (Phaseolus mungo),Kandula (Cajanus cajan) from the bagada(forest areas).

Mixed Cropping :

It is a common feature in the tribal paddyfield that one can find other crops like maize,blackgram, sorghum, ragi, kandula etc. in certainproportions. Due to erratic rainfed, most of thetime the paddy crop fails. Therefore, one cropserves as the insurance for the other and they aresure to get a crop. In this mixed cropping, theyinclude a legume which adds nitrogen to the soil



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and provide the farmers with pulses. On the bundsof the land, they plant pulses such as arhar,blackgram, greengram etc.

Crop Production Practices :

a. Seed treatment

The tribal farmers are very careful aboutthe seeds. They store the seeds with care andbefore sowing, they sometimes treat them withlocally available materials. They dip the vegetableseeds in a aqueous solution of asafetida or hingufor about half an hour. They dry it in shade beforesowing. They believe that this keeps the plantshealthy.

b. Sowing of seeds

Broadcasting method is the commonpractice in the upland situation for paddy. Theyexplain that this practice restricts the growth ofweeds. They generally take a higher seed rateand follow one to two weeding. But, they saythat in line sowing, the weeding is easier but needmore than two weedings.

c. Use of manures

Farmers usually mixDhanicha seeds withpaddy and sow at a time together. At the time ofbeusaning, they incorporate this green manurein the soil. Use of cowdung and compost is thegeneral practices. They also put wood ash in thesoil for raising vegetables and fruit trees.

d. Weeding

They use a special type of implement,Gadi for weeding. Hand weeding is the generalpractice. They sometimes grow black colouredpaddy to rouge out the volunteered seedlings ofthe last years variety grown in the same plot.

e. Mulching

Generally mulch is used by them in uplandcondition. They say that it helps in bettergermination of the seed material and restrict soilerosion and it provides certain amount of nutrients.They use sal mulch for raising turmeric. They saythat no other species can compete with sal. Thesal can withstand browsing to a great extent. Insummer, when other trees shed their leaves, thesal put forths new big leaves. It is easy to carrysal stumps without any problem. If sal mulch isnot available, they may reduce the land underturmeric. They say that in turmeric growing, salmulch is given because it lasts longer.

f. Irrigation

They level the land properly so that watercan flow without any hindrance from one plot tothe other. Water is not allowed to spill over theplots. The main water channel is checked atdifferent intervals. They divert the flow of watertowards the field and from one field to other. Theyuse earthen pipes or bamboo poles so that watercan flow to the neighbouring fields without makingany breach in the ridges. They may place a flatwooden plank or a flat stone piece on the groundwhere the water will drop with a speed. It helpsin conserving the soil as it will flow only after facinga direct impact with the stone piece or woodenplank. This practice is followed where there is aperennial stream in the sloppy areas.

g. Crop Protection

When they plant fruit trees, they generallyspray the whole plant with cowdung so that cattlewill not eat the plant. They also spray the dilutesolution of cowdung to the roadside plants so thatfrom that side cattle will not enter the field. Thetribals uses the dry fruits of Lagenaria spp. forstorage of seeds. They dry the leaves of Begonia


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(Vitex negundo), Neem (Azadiracta indica)leaves and mix it with pulses and keep the seedsin gunny bags or bags made out of the straw. Thispractice to some extent, saves the grains fromattack of pulse beetles. It is recorded that thispractice saves 45 - 85% of grains from the beetles.The turmeric and bael leaves are also used forthis purpose.

They put a little amount of opium in theinternode of cucurbits like pumpkin, ash gourd,bottle gourd. The number of fruit increases perplant (as Morphin increases fruiting). In papaya,if it does not bear fruiting, the farmers used to puta peg horizontally on the stem and the plant startsbearing fruits (It may due to change in C/N ratiothat would initiate flowering). They have noanswer to the practice which seem to have goodeffect. This certainly shows their wisdom andintelligence to develop practices those are suitableto their situation.

Post-harvest Technology :

They dry the tendu fruits, mango, jackfruitand consume it during the rainy season withoutaddition of preservatives. They can keep thesefruits and pulps for a long period. They consumethe powdered mango kennel after removing thebitter principle by washing it with running water.They use many seeds for getting starch or protein.There are many examples a few of which aregiven here.

Community Resources Management :

The farmers in tribal areas mostly dependon the forest all the year round; but they believethat the forest belongs to all. Before using thecommunity resources such as forest, water,pasture; they always discuss among themselves.Before going for jhoom cultivation, the villagers(Elder persons) sit and plan out of the future

programme. They go together to the forest, cutdown the trees or small shrubs from the earmarkedareas only.

The tribal farmers generally keep aparticular area for getting the mulch for growingturmeric, as mulching for turmeric is a must.Everybody has equal right on this input. They donot indiscriminately cut the forest. They keep thearea under the turmeric almost fixed. Theyunnecessarily disturb the eco-system. Even, theydo not decide who would grow turmeric whichyear. There may be some exceptions, but theyfollow a certain rule in maintaining the eco-system.

They use their excellence in developingthe terraces or developing plots in the uplandsfor growing paddy. In many areas, where thefarmers have the cross bund by themselves andrun the channel up to 2.5 km with such a precisionthat the flow is never interrupted. They do it verynicely using the bamboo poles as a levellinginstruments.

In the streams, they dig shallow wellswhich retain the flow water for the summerseason. They use this water for irrigating the fieldin the bank of the streams. In some areas, it isseen that a tank stream during the rainy season.On the bank of the water harvesting structures,they fix the families who would use the water inthe first year and who would use in the next year.

These practices that exist today, arecertainly developed by the intelligent minds tomake themselves self sufficient. Necessity hasmade them to think how best they can harvestthe nature. Only the traditional wisdom of thefarmers has to be given due importance whiledeveloping technology for them. Then theappropriate technology for them are to be foundout through the research and to be tried in their



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setting for its efficacy. Through the testing, if itproves better and the farmers accepted it, thenautomatically that become sustainable. On theother hand, as they do not want to part with theirenvironment and they take agriculture as theiroccupation, they will make agriculture asustainable one through their traditional wisdomwith the blend of modernization.

References :

1. AIHBPO (2008) Thiruvananthapuram Declarationon Traditional knowledge. National ConferenceDhishana 2008 May 23 25,

Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala.

2. ANGEEKAAR (2002) Souvenir. InternationalSeminar on Traditional Knowledge, Health &Environment, February 23, O.U.A.T,Bhubaneswar, Orissa.

3. Gairola, Y. (2008) Can we need to revise ourTraditional Knowledge system. Science India.Vol II (12): 4 6.

4. NISTHAA (1993) Participating Rapid AppraisalTribal Community s perceptions, priorities andneeds of health services. A study conducted in

undivided Koraput with the assistance providedby Overseas Development Administration, U. K.

5. SAMBADH (2008) Traditional Knowledge inAgriculture. The Tradition, E Journal Vol. No. 9(24/6/2008).

6. Rath, S. Das, S. N. and Pattnaik, A. K. (1988) Roleof women in tribal community for economicdevelopment in a forest based mixed farmingsystem. Paper presented at the InternationalSymposium on Farming Systems Research, Oct.10 12, 1988, University of Arkansas, U. S. A.

7. Rath, S. Pattnaik, A. K. and Das, B. N. (1988) Forestand Tribal Culture. The Phulbani Experience.Paper presented at the International Symposiumon Tribal Culture in the Changing World. Dec. 10 12, Institute of Orissan Studies, Cuttack, Orissa.

Dr Pranab Kumar Ghosh is working at CAPART,Regional Centre, Indira Nivas, Bharati Nagar,Dasankoppa Circle, Dharwad 580 001 (Karnataka).

Chittaranjan Sahoo and Prof. (Dr.) Sabyasachi Rath areassociated in Deptt. of Plant Physiology and Deptt. ofHorticulture respectively, College of Agriculture,O. U. A. T., Bhubaneswar 751 003.


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Mining occupies a paramount place in theadvancement of a nation. Precisely speaking,mining constitutes the basic feedstock for industrialgrowth in a mineral rich nation like India. Themining industry in the country ranks among fivemajor industries in terms of manpowerdeployment and capital investment. Orissa,blessed with abundant natural resources, occupiesfirst position in chromites and manganese oreproduction with the share of 87.93 and 36.39%respectively and ranks fourth in terms of Iron oreproduction in the country. No other part of Indiais so much enriched with minerals as the region ofKeonjhar and Mayurbhanj district of Orissa.According to a recent data, the total number ofmines in the state stands at 647 in 2009.

The Mines Act 1952 defines a mine asany excavation where any operation for thepurpose of searching or obtaining minerals hasbeen or being carried on. Excavation may be opencast or underground including all process. Further,it defines an owner meaning any person who isthe immediate proprietor or occupier of mine orany part thereof. Here comes the role andrecognition of labour as a human factor inexploration and exploitation of mineral resources.

Profile of Mine Workers in Orissa

Umesh Chandra Devata

Objective of the Study :The present study perceiving rapid change

in the employment pattern of miners in Orissaattempts to portray the existing socio-economiccondition and status of the miners. It aims at makingan in-depth enquiry in to reality of the problemsfaced by the miners and presenting their truepicture in the contest of the changingdevelopmental scenario of the State. Particularlyit would study the structure of labor market,method of recruitment and degree of exploitationof miners under the contract system. It wouldalso investigate into the adequacy of the measuresfor occupational safety and protective socialsecurity legislation.Nature of workers and their wages :

Mining workers render greater service tothe material benefit of the country and its people.The activities of mining and quarrying cover underground and surface mines quarries and wells.These include extraction of minerals and all thosesupplemental activities such as dressing andbeneficiation of ores, crossing, screening, washing,cleaning, grading, milling, floatation, melting,palletizing, topping and other preparation carriedby the workers at the mine site which are neededto render the material marketable.



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TABLE - 1 (working mines and workersemployed.) 2003-2009Year No. of Area No. of

Working Covered workersMines employed

2003-04 365 71898 45549

2004-05 390 76359.82 50756

2005-06 415 141758 50156

2006-07 373 73079.24 47436

2007-08 469 102932.83 49196

2008-09 415 100644.25 44134

Sources Directorate of Economics andStatistics Orissa. Indepth analysis of Table 1 reveals thatinspite of increase in the number of working minesover the years the number of workers employedhas been decreasing continuously every year. Thedistrict of Keonjhar accounts for highest numberof miners followed by Angul and Sundargarh. TheKeonjhar district is abundantly endowed withmineral resources with greater predominance oftribal workers. These working mines do notinclude the stone quarrying units which number isaround 200. The workers working in these unitsare not considered as mine workers thereforethough there are 3 lakh mine workers in Orissa.Govt. of Orissa record shows that there is only44134 mine workers. This is the main reason forwhich statistics given in table 1 shows a decline inthe number of mines workers. The mines in Orissa have two types ofworkers i.e. departmental workers and contractlabourers. In public sector mines departmentalworkers are majority whereas in private sectormines the percentage of contract labourers ishigher. Recruitment of semi-skilled and unskilledworkers is done largely through informal socialchannel. Different mines have different agenciesof recruitments. The Companies and mine-owners

obtain their supply of labour through labourSirdars or labour contractor. The Companies havetheir own salaried Sirdars and the cost of bringinglabourers to the mines is borne by the companywhich is also the pay masters of thelabourers. Thelabour-contractors recruit sub-contractors for thesupply of labourers and is responsible formanagement of labourers. The Companies recruittheirlabourers locally. If the companies are in needof labourers they ask their mates to informworkers and the news is spread in surroundingvillages that work is available. Employers prefermale worker on grounds of supposed higherefficiency, economy of cost and othersupplementary benefits. The percentage of womenworkers in mines under TISCO and SAIL lieswithin 20% only due to the mechanized nature ofwork. Contract system of recruitment of labourersis highly exploitative in nature. Since the powerof appointment and dismissal lies with thecontractors they exploit the workers in variousways as payment of low wages, non-maintenanceof proper work roll register, manipulation ofrecords, non-application of leave rules, insuranceand compensation, longer hours of work beyond8 hours without any extra payment. Thecontractors recruit a high proportion of unskilledworkers from the rural and tribal areas. Since thecontract labourers do not get the opportunity toorganize under any union they are forced to workunder unfavourable conditions. Due to their acutepoverty; the contractors get an upper hand inbidding and adopt all sorts of illegal practicesbeing indifferent to the labour-legislations such asMines Act, Mine Wages Act, WorkmenCompensation Act and various protective legalmeasures relating to Insurance and social security.It may be mentioned here that the unskilled, semiskilled, skilled and high skilled workers aresupposed to be paid Rs. 120/-, Rs. 150/-, Rs.180/- and Rs. 210/- respectively under Law.


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In contrast to this, personal interactionwith the mine workers in some of the mines revealsthat their monthly income is between Rs. 2200/-to Rs. 2500/-, on computation, the daily wagescomes to Rs.75 to 85. In an eagerness to makemore money contractors prefer frequent dismissaland new recruitment which not only creates anunstable labour force but also insecurity of jobsfor the workers.

The income of the working class hingesmainly on wages. Wage is associated with therelative status of the workers, his commitment toindustry, his attitude towards management, hismoral motivation and standard of living. Way backin 1949 the Committee on fair wages haddeveloped concepts such as living wage, fairwage and minimum wage. Living wage enables aworker to provide for himself and his family notmerely the bare essential of food, clothing andshelter but a measure of frugal comfort includingeducation for the children, protection against illhealth, requirements of essential social needs anda measure of insurance against the more importantmisfortunes including old age.

On the other hand, minimum wages mustprovide not merely the bare sustenance of life butalso for the preservation of efficiency of theworkers. It needs to be sufficient to maintainhimself, his wife and children in normal health. Itis otherwise called as subsistence wage . Ininternational parlance the living wage is oftenequated with subsistence wage . A fair wage isone which is above the minimum wage but belowthe living wage .

Methods of Wage Payment :

Payment of wages to mine workersassume two well known forms-time-wage systemand piece-rate system. Under the former theworker is paid according to the time for which heworks usually 8 hours per day as per the labour

laws. The wage rates are fixed for specific unit oftime irrespective of the amount of work done bythe employee for a particular task. On the otherhand, under the piece-rate system the worker ispaid in proportion to the output or performance.Both the methods of wage payments are prevalentin the mines of Orissa. In fact, the piece ratesystem is the predominant form of payment inthe mines taking into account the nature of work.For example, payment according to weight thatis tones of ores raised or wage-box system withboxes of specific square feet as the popular andwisely used method of payment of wages in mines.However fixation of piece-rate wage has beensubject to the Minimum Wages Act 1948.

Different research works have revealedthat wage structure for the miners is characterizedby pathetically low level, wide sectoral andregional variation and imperfections in the labourmarket. Till 1967, there was no statutory minimumwages in iron ore mines. The casual workersotherwise known as daily rated or hazir workersare also there who got their wage monthly by themines authority and their status is better than thelabours work under contractors. In addition tomining work the casual labourers are also engagedin forest clearance, loading and unloading trucks,construction and maintenance of roads andsupply of water etc. Workers working inunderground mines get relatively higher wagesthan those working on surface.

Women are paid lower wages than menwith regard to time-wage system in large numberof private sector mines. However, there is hardlyany discrimination between men and women withregard to piece-rate for the same kind of work.In case of unskilled workers equality is oftenignored by restricting the female labourers to aparticular type of unskilled work. Factors whichhave accounted for low wages of women workersare lower physical strength, low productivity, high



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rate of absenteeism and labour turn over, greaterimmovability and weaker organizing and bargingpower. However it is worth mentioning that theproductivity of women worker with largerproportion of them belonging to the tribalcommunities is no less than the male miners. Theyare as hard working as male workers workingtogether in earth cutting, digging and raisingoperations.

The mine workers in India get bonus asgift over and above what is nominally due asremuneration to the employees. The labourlegislations state that bonus is a matter of rightunder Payment of Bonus Act 1965 rather thangrace for the workers. Workers are entitled toget minimum 8.33% to maximum 20% of profitas bonus in a year. However, bonus payment isnot being made by different mine owners on thebasis of productivity gains.

Social Security Measures

Social security is a comprehensive anddynamic concept. Social security is an attack onfive giants i.e. want, disease, ignorance, squalorand idleness. Social security is an end by itselfand there are two main currents of thought in themovement to achieve this end. (i) social insurance(ii) social assistance. It is a method to pool theinsecurity of all members insured under it. Socialinsurance is one of the two approaches to socialsecurity, the other being social assistance. Socialassistance is the oldest form of social security.The Government of India has framed many actsfor the social security of the mine workers. Thefirst legislative measure of social security in Indiawas the Workmen Compensation Act, 1923amended in 1926. The social security legislationsat present in force in India comprise the followingenactments.

1. The Workmen s Compensation Act,1923

2. The Maternity Benefit Act, (1961)

3. The Employees Provident Fund Act,1952.

4. The Coal Mines Provident Fund andBonus Scheme Act, 1948.

5. The Industrial Disputes (Amendment)Act, 1947.

6. The Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972.

As per different labour legislations of theState, a mine worker s name and address shouldbe registered in B register with his photographand he should get a job card. As per servicecondition and rules, a worker should get 18 dayssick leave, 10 days casual leave, 7 days festivalleave, 5 days government leave, one day earnedleave in every 20 days which comes to 56 daysof leave with payment. On the other hand, thewomen worker should avail maternity leave withpayment together with 56 days of usual leave.Besides this, there is legal provision for providingadditional D.A. in every 6 months. They shouldenjoy proper quarter, hospital facilities, medicine,crèche, canteen, safe drinking water,entertainment centre, library, playground,schooling and supply of necessary goods inreasonable price. Further, the labourers if workfor one year they should avail wages for 15 daysat the time of their retrenchment and if they workfor more than 5 years they should get gratuity for15 days in every year. There is also provision that10% of their wage should be deposited in EPFand the owner is liable to deposit 10% for him.There is also provision for compensation for theworking labourers. No labourer should get belowamount than the minimum wage fixed by theGovernment of India. The provision for providingtwo pairs of shoes, a cap and goggles to eachlabourer is there. Besides these, there is alsoprovision available by the Orissa Mining


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Corporation for the operation of employeesgrievance cells.

Occupational Health :

Workers in mines continue to work in astate of various occupational diseases and healthhazards. Workers in manganese mines havebecome the worst sufferer of these. Workers inManganese and Ferromanganese plants areaffected by inhalation and absorption ofmanganese dust and fumes that results ininflammation of lungs. After working a period of10 years they are likely to suffer fromTuberculosis. The metallic poison of themanganese ores have made the patient physicallyhandicapped and the limbs inoperative. Reportson monthly statistics of patients from the CESSHospital of Joda reveals that out of 105 malepatients 14 and out of 72 female patients 13 havesuffered from the respiratory diseases such aspneumonia and pnemonitis in 1989. More than500 manganese mine workers suffer fromTuberculosis per year. Most of them are tribalworkers. The smoke coming out of theferromanganese plant are creating environmentalpollution because of the non-use of dust-catcherand the bag-filter. Workers in iron ore minesfrequently suffer from dysentery, intestinal tremors,malaria and muscular fatigueness. A great majorityof workers are affected by skin diseases both dueto non-availability of safe drinking and bathingwater and lack of nutritious food. Though impactof manganese poisoning has been recognized asan industrial disease in European countries, it isnot yet recognized as an occupational disease inour country. Consequently, workers affected bythis chronic disease are deprived of getting thebenefit under the Workmen s Compensation Act.1923. Though the Government of Orissa hasraised the minimum amount of compensation toRs.7,000 and maximum up to Rs.40,000 as per

workmen s compensation act 1923, nomanganese miner has been able to get it.

Except the mines under TISCO in theprivate sector and SAIL in the Public sectorworkers in other mines rarely use protective safetyappliances like helmets, masks, boots, gloves,goggles and safety clothes. Only 30 to 40 percent of the total mine workers in the district ofKeonjhar use safety appliances. Thoughprovision has been made in the Safety Act for theuse of dust- protecting masks, it is not practicallydone in any of the mines.

Workmen s Compensation:

Among different problems of largerindustrialization, industrial accidents draweverybody s attention. Industrial accidents presentessentially the same problem as occupationaldiseases resulting in loss of life or non-fatal minoror severe injuries to the body or mind. Problemof safety is becoming more complex as mining isextending to greater depth and more and moremachines are used.

As between the factories and mines, thepercentage of accident is the highest in mines. Thecauses of accidents are unsafe designing,inadequate tools and machines, hazardousoverload, unsafe illumination in undergroundmines, dampness, unsafe and narrow place ofwork, unhygienic environment, fault of materials,absence of defensive or protective clothing,danger of infection, lack of proper and effectivesupervision and above all faulty implementationof safety acts and rules. The human element inaccidents is of greater importance in mines thanin any other industries because of adversephysical conditions of works. Unsafe use ofdumpers is the major factor accounting for aboutthree fourth of the accidents in the undergroundmines.



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A survey report of the Ministry of Labourand Employment of the Government of Indiashows that of the mines giving employment tomore than 7 lakhs in the country and in 95 percentof the mines the safety provisions and protectivemeasures are far from satisfactory and theworkers are working with a high degree of riskand uncertainty of life.

The rate and mode of compensationpayable under the Act depend upon the natureof the injury and the average monthly wages ofthe workmen. Paradoxically enough, it was foundthat some of the mines with higher wages werepaying lower amount of compensation. Thecompensation Act is not strictly followed inpractice. If accidents are due to the fault of thevictims they will not be compensated this clauseof the Workmen s Compensation Act is certainlybeing used to deprive many workers of theirrightful compensation. It is found from researchthat only a few big mine owners such as TISCO,SAIL, FACOR and some mines under OMCLtd. are providing compensation benefits. Theaccidents are not always reported and

compensation is paid often at a lower rate thanprescribed.

Conclusion:

The above expositions are pointers to ourunderstanding of miserable work-environment ofthe mine workers. If proper care is not taken tounearth the exploitation, the workers will continueto suffer in the hands of profit- seeking contractorsand capitalists. The demands of Human Rightsare giving us warning that needful must be ensuredas quick as possible.

References:Govt. of Orissa, The Economic Survey, 2008-09.

Mayadhar Nayak, Manishar Mahakabya, KrustiPublication, Orissa, 2008.

Swarnamayee Tripathy, Political Participation ofWomen workers in India, Vikas Publication, New Delhi,2000.

Umesh Chandra Devata presently working as SeniorLecturer in Political Science in Jhadeswar College,Tolkani, Jajpur.


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In 1866 Orissa was visited by a most devastatingfamine in her colonial history. It was so terriblethat one third of its population were perished .Itis called Na Anka famine in Orissa because itcame in the 9th Regnal year of king Divya SinghaDeva, the Gajapati king of Orissa. The Secretaryof State for India ordered for an inquiry into theappalling catastrophe and a Commission wasappointed in Dec1866 by the Govt. of India underthe chairmanship of George Campbell. TheCommission submitted its report on 6th April1867.

The Famine Commission of 1866directed the attention to the state ofcommunication of Orissa and measures weretaken thereafter to prevent the recurrence ofsimilar disaster by improving the communication.The Commission recommendations constitutedimportant milestone in the economic history ofOrissa. It realized how greater part of Orissa, asit were , out of world, how inaccessible it was tothe ordinary trade, and with this fearful results thatinaccessibility was attended during the famine.With these facts in view, the commission suggestedfor speedy execution of Trunk Road from Cuttackto Calcutta. Further the Commissionrecommended for making the irrigation canalsnavigable. So, several canals were developed inOrissa for communication purposes.

The works for the Orissa Coast Canalstarted in the year 1880-81. The amount oforiginal estimate of the Orissa Coast Canal wasRs.36,02,297 inclusive of indirect charges

The Coast Canal in Orissa During theColonial Era

Dr. Ganeswar Nayak

sanctioned in India Govt. No. 155 dated 20thAug. 1879. The estimate was revised in 1888chiefly on account of excess in navigation worksdue to bad foundation and cost of extra land. Therevised estimate was Rs.44,74,941.

The main causes, which attributed for theconstruction of the coast canal was that theprovince of Orissa was only in Bengal, which wascompletely isolated and cut off from allcommunications with Calcutta by rail or river. Sotrade was compelled to take the sea route. Butthe ports were so inferior that transport waseffectuated with many difficulties and consequentexpenses. The False Point harbour was rapidlydeteriorating and steamers of British IndiaCompany were forced to lie outside while the onlyother port Dhamra was blocked by a bar, onwhich the depth at low water was only nine feet.The construction of costly bridges due to thepresence of several rivers did not encourage theBritish Government to extent the railwayconstruction to Orissa. Famine, poverty and highmortality in Orissa did not receive theconsideration of the Government for extension ofrailway to Orissa.

Since the famine of 1865-66 in Orissa,actually nothing had been done to improve themeans of communication with Orissa. But if thecoast canal would be constructed and if anotherfamine visited Orissa a vast number of boats fromthe rivers of lower Bengal would be concentratedfor the carriage of grain without any additionalexpenses to the Government.



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Further Orissa Coast Canal wasconstructed not as a productive public work butas a famine protective work. It was designed notto yield profit but to affordprotection to Orissa fromfamine.

The Lt. Governor ofBengal was of the opinionthat the High-level canalshould eventually beconnected with the coastcanal by a link from the Mataito Bhadrak, and that thelocks on this link should beof the full size. (150 feet by20 feet) Direct thoroughcommunication with Cuttackwould then be established fora class of boats, which couldtraverse the branch canal tothe coast, viz., the Taldanda,the Kedrapara, the Gobri; thelocks on which was only 100 feet by 17 feet.

Its construction was undertaken becauseit was considered that it could be valuable as aprotection against famine and remunerative as atrade route. It was anticipated that all the importand export trades of Orissa would pass throughit and that it could yield revenue of over Rs.2½lakhs.

The Coast Canal connected the riverHoogly at Geonkhali; 45 miles from Calcutta withriver Matai at Charbatia near Bhadrak. It ran alongthe sea face at a distance varying between 2 to10 miles. By this it was planned to open thenavigation via Gobri Canal to Cuttack and by tidalcreek to False Point Port. It was also furtherplanned to connect Chilika Lake and Ganjam intodirect communication with Calcutta and thusconnect large towns and marts. (Calcutta,Balighai Hidgelee, Balasore, Chandbali, Cuttack,Puri and Ganjam). Its length in Orissa was 92miles and was divided into four ranges. The canal

was fed by tidal water so it was not useful forirrigation. The four ranges of coast canal were asfollows.

Range-III1. It connected the Badgariver, a branch of RasulpurRiver in Hidgelle withSubarnarekha River, inBalasore District thirty oneand quarter miles in length.Range- IVA2. It connectedSubarnarekha River withPanchapara Riverseventeen miles in length.Range-IVB3. It connectedPanchapara River withBurabalanga River sevenmiles in length.

Range-V4. It connected Burabalanga River withMatai River in Balasore District, thirty eight milesin length.

Each of these ranges was an open cutwith level bed, provided with a lock at each end.During the dry season the canal was filled by tidesand during the rains by surface drainage from theadjoining country. The canal was generally laidout parallel to the great line of sand-hills extendinguninterruptedly along the whole coast from Contaiin Hidgelee to Dhamra. Thus the canal was to agreat extent protected the country from cyclone.

The northern terminus of the range III wasplaced on the south or right bank of the BadgaRiver. It was located opposite to the village Surpaiwhere a tidal creek connected Badga River withContai, the headquarter of Hidgelee sub divisionof the Midnapur District. The southern terminusof Range III was on the left bank of Subarnarekha


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River. But due to excessive flood of theSubarnarekha River, and the incapacity of itschannel to carry off its maximum discharge, thesouthern terminus of the range III was placedGoocheeda River about one mile from its junctionof the Subarnarekha River near Kalaburea.

The terminus of ranges No IVA and IVBand V were placed as to interfere as far as possiblewith flood sections of the rivers connected bythem, viz. the Burabalanga and the PanchaparaRiver. There was inconvenience to the boatnavigation owing to the termini not being exactlyopposite to each other. The Southern terminus ofRange No V was placed on the left bank of theMatai River, a little below Charbatia village. TheMatai River was one of the finest natural tidalcanals in Orissa. The average width of the riverat surface of low water was over 130 feet and itsdepth was 12 to 15 feet.

The bed level of the canal was determinedwith reference to the average spring tide of thecold season, when the rise of the tide was theleast .The minimum depth of water in the canalwas 7 feet. But it was to be remembered that thisminimum depth was only for about 8 or 10 daysat the outside in the 12 months i.e., during thespring tides of December, January, and February.The interval between two successive spring tideswas taken to be the period between the days thatthe tide raised to the maximum height to the periodto the days that its rise was the least. Or from thefirst or 14th day of the moon to the 10th or 24thday, according as spring tides due to new moonor full moon.

The bed level of the different ranges ofthe canals was fixed in accordance with thecalculations given below.Range III - 101.50IVA - 99.00 Plus datumIVB - 98.00 V - 101.00

The datum line used in all the levelsconnected with these coast canals was the meansea level at Karachi, as used almost all overBengal and upper India. The mean tidal level onthe coast here, whereas it was actually three tofour feet below it.

The canal originally had a minimumbottom width of 40 feet. But to raise the sidebanks in several places above the flood level andalso increase the width near the terminal locks,the mean bottom width of the several ranges wasconsiderable more. The following table indicatesthe bottom width of different Ranges of the coastcanal.

Table-1

Different Ranges of Coast Canal.

Name of the Range Bottom width

Minimum Meanwidth width

Range No. III 40 50.00

Range No. - IVA 46 56.08

Range No. IVB 36 40.00

Range No. V 40 43.00

The average depth during the cold seasonis eight feet and during remainder of the year tenfeet. The minimum depth in No III and V wasexperienced once or twice during 12 month andit was continuing a day or two in the tide. Theaverage minimum mean width of the canal at thewater surface at the cold season was 64 and 74feet. The average minimum mean width duringrest of the year 70 or 80 feet, according as thebase of the canal was fixed at 40 to 50 feet. Inthe Statement marked were shown the depth ofwater in different ranges during the cold season.



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Table -2

Depth of water in different ranges during the cold season

Name of Base 40 feet Base 50 feet

Range Spring Average Spring Lowest Spring Average Spring Lowest Tide Tide Tide Tide

Max. Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean Min Max Mean MinRange-III 8.5 7.725 6.95 7.50 6.95 6.43 8.30 7.78 7.06 7.50 7.00 6.50

Range-IVA 10.00 9.015 8.03 9.00 8.33 7.70 10.00 9.015 8.43 9.00 8.55 7.75

Range-IVB 11.00 9.50 8.00 10.00 9.00 8.00 11.00 9.30 8.10 10.00 9.00 8.00

Range-V 8.00 7.43 6.86 7.00 6.035 6.27 8.00 7.49 6.98 7.00 6.67 6.54

Range III in prolongation of Range-I and II ofthe Hijli canal was opened in July 1885 and thefirst return from the revenue shown in 1885-86.Ranges IVA and V were temporarily opened fortraffic from 15th July to 31st December 1886.The entire length of 92 miles was opened in 1stSept 1887.

But with the opening of railway in 1896the canal became a dead loss to the Government.It failed to fulfill the expectations. The canal wasbeing fed by tidal water, so it was not useful forirrigation. So it did not benefit the agriculture. Itwas a common complaint of landlord and Raiyat,that its effects had been deleterious. It was difficultfor one who was not a Civil Engineer to arrive atany conclusion upon this point. One of the popularview was that the embankment of the coast canalprevented free egress of the Subarnarekha floodand thus raised its depth on the western side fromPragana Kamardachour as far south as Sarthaand also similar effects produced in PraganaAnkur. On the other hand, it was supposed thatcanal bank would afford protection againstcyclonic irruptions of the sea. But on the otherhand, the water passed over the embankment andapproached to within two miles of Balasore town.

So the coast canal did undeniable damageto the people. In Orissa, where the capacity ofthe river is often fraction of total volume of water

to be disposed off, the excess water mustnecessarily pass to the sea over the surface of theland. In that circumstances, it was unwise todeliberately interpose a barrier of 60 miles long(between the water and the sea). The result wasthat the formation of a reservoir of hugedimensions. So the proposal for numerous andlarge cross drainage planned but abandoned dueto heavy expenditure. So the flood advisorycommittee of 1928 recommended theabandonment of canal. So the ranges of IVA, IVBof the canal were abandoned.

References :1. G. Nayak, Development of Transport and

Communication in colonial Orissa, Delhi, 2001.

2. G. Nayak, Development of Water transport incolonial Orissa, Post Doctoral Thesis submittedto Utkal University, Bhubaneswar, Orissa 2007.

3. C E Buckland, Bengal under Lt Governer, vol 11.

4. Bengal Orissa Famine Commission Report,1866.

5. Report of the Orissa Flood Committee, Patna,1928.

6. A Statistical account of Bengal, London, 1872.

7. NAI,P.W.D, Irrigation Reports(1885-1890)(Relevant documents).

Dr. Ganeswar Nayak, Deptt. of History, SKCG College,Parlakhemundi, Dist Gajapati-761200


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The Bhoodan Movement, initiated by AcharyaVinoba Bhave, a trusted follower of MahatmaGandhi, was lunched in the country in the earlyfifties of the last century. The movement was anattempt at land reform and it intended to solvethe land problem in the country in a novel way bymaking land available to the most sub-merged anddisadvantaged class of Indian society, the landlessand the land poor and the equitable distributionof land by voluntary donations. The movementderiving its inspiration from Gandhian philosophyand techniques, created a sensation in Indiansociety for a few years by making mass appealand giving rise to the hope of solving the age oldland problem by producing miraculous results inthe initial years of its launch. It was an intellectualmovement based on the theory of trusteeship andit emphasized on the need of class co-operationin agrarian society.

The movement owed its origin duringVinoba s tour of the strife-torn region of Telenganain Hyderabad in April, 1951. He undertook thetour to spread the message of peace in the regionas it witnessed violent clashes between theCommunists and the landlords in the wake of anagrarian movement. On 18 April, 1951, a smallbut extraordinary incident occurred in his campat Pochampalli village. On that day, Vinoba wasoffered 100 acres of land by Ram Chandra

Twenty-Five Years of Bhoodan Movement inOrissa (1951-76) - A Review

Sarat Parida

Reddy after he appealed to the assembled villagersin his prayer meeting to do something for theharijans of the village. This incident came as arevelation to Vinoba and he became convincedthat if one man on listening to his appeal couldoffer gifts of land, surely others could be inducedin the same way. But it was only after receivingthe second gift on 19 April, 1952 in the villageTanglapalli from Vyankat Reddy, he described theprevious day s gift as bhoodan and realized thatbhoodan could provide a solution to the

problem of extreme inequality in the country. Thus,Vinoba and his followers undertook pad-yatrafrom village to village and persuaded thelandowners to donate at least one-sixth of theirland as bhoodan for distribution among thelandless and the land poor. The encouragingresponse to Vinoba s land-gift mission inTelengana, in which he secured 12,000 acres landin bhoodan in 51 days emboldened Vinoba tocontinue the mission and finally prompted him toresolve on Gandhi s birthday in 1951 to collectfifty million acres of land for the landless from thewhole country by 1957. This induced theSarvodaya workers in various states to devotetheir energy on acquiring the target. Thus, anindividual effort assumed the character of amovement and the bhoodan work, which wasinitially viewed by some as a mere charity work,



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took the shape of a national reconstructionmovement.

Bhoodan programme was started inOrissa on 7 January, 1952. On that day,Gopabandhu Choudhury and his wife Rama Devialong with several others started their historic pad-yatra from Bari-Ramachandrapur for collectingland for the landless. The pad-yatra thoughinitially not intended for the purpose of bhoodan ,in the course of its progress collected land gifts.In the first meeting held at Bari-Ramachandrapurthe first land-gift was made by Harapriya Devi ofthe village. The pad-yatra continued for 4 monthsand 22 days and it passed through 8 districts ofOrissa covering a distance of 1100 miles, yieldeda collection of 1626 acres of land from 233donors. The second round of pad-yatra led byGopabandhu Choudhury and Rama Devicommenced on the Gandhi Jayanti day in 1952and it ended on 10 December, 1952. This pad-yatra, which covered only a distance of 427 milesyielded a collection of 463 acres of land, sevenpair of bullocks and agricultural implements worthrupees 816. Though the movement started as aprivate movement, it received the support of theState Government. To facilitate the donation ofland to the movement and to provide for thedistribution of such lands, the Orissa LegislativeAssembly passed the Orissa Bhoodan Yagna Bill,1953 on 9 April, 1953. It received the assent ofthe President of India on 26 July, 1953 andbecame Orissa Act XVI of 1953. The Actprovided for the establishment of a BhoodanYagna Samiti in the State of Orissa. The Samitiwas authorized by the Act to receive donationsor grants of land and to distribute the lands vestedin it to landless persons.

To give a fillip to the movement inOrissa, Vinoba campaigned in the State. ActuallyVinoba s bhoodan campaign was started in

Orissa on 26 January, 1955, when he set foot atDeola, a frontier village in Balasore district. Inthe first meeting held at Lakshmananath inBalasore district, Vinoba was apprised of theprogress of the movement in Orissa. It wasreported in that meeting that the total bhoodancollections in Orissa was one lakh and twenty-two thousand acres. But that was much less thanthe targeted 5 lakh acres of land set for bhoodancollections in Orissa by Vinoba by the end of1957. However, by the time he started his pad-yatra in Orissa a definite shift was perceived inthe movement as it took a new form that ofGramdan or donation of village, which soonovershadowed the bhoodan programme.Though the programme of land gift was still there,it became almost a neglected activity in thesubsequent years and little land was received asdonations.

Gramdan an offshoot of Bhoodanprograme was actually started in the year1952,when on 24 May, 1952 the entire population ofthe village Mangroth in Uttar Pradesh donatedtheir land in bhoodan. But it was only during andafter Vinoba s foot-march through Orissa that themovement assumed mass proportion and becamea forceful campaign. Though the first Gramdanin Orissa was obtained in Manpur in Cuttackdistrict on 30 January, 1953, in the district ofKoraput the movement received great stimulus.By the time Vinoba left Orissa on 1 October, 1955Koraput contributed 606 Gramdan villages aloneout of the total 812 made in the entire province.The movement got impetus in 1956, whenNabakrushna Choudhury resigning from ChiefMinistership joined the movement. As a result,by the end of 1960, 1946 villages were gifted inGramdan in the State out of the total 4500Gramdans made in the entire country. Themovement received a fresh lease of life duringVinoba s second pad-yatra in the state, which


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started on 13 August, 1963 and continued till 12December, 1963. This pad-yatra which passedthrough 8 districts of western Orissa gavepopularity to the movement in the region, wherethe movement yielded no spectacular results tillthat time. Even in the years following Vinoba ssecond visit to the State the movement madeconsiderable progress in Orissa. This is evidentfrom the fact that out of the total 11, 065Gramdans made in the entire country byNovember,1965, Orissa made a handsomecontribution of 2807 Gramdans and thusoccupied the second place in the country in thatrespect. To facilitate donations of land to theBhoodan and Gramdan Movement in the Stateand to provide for the distribution of such lands,the Government of Orissa passed the OrissaBhoodan and Gramdan Act in 1970. But despitelegislative measures the movement lost itsmomentum after the Fourth Five Year Plan (1969-74) period when the ceiling surplus provisionscame in to force. On 18 April, 1976 the BhoodanMovement completed 25 years of its launch inthe country and though by March 1976, the SilverJubilee Year of the movement, 10,611 villageswere gifted in Gramdan in Orissa, yet themovement had failed to actualize the dream ofVinoba, who hoped to see the whole of Indiareconstituted in to Gramdan villages by the birthcentenary of Mahatma Gandhi.

Thus, the Bhoodan-GramdanMovement as a whole had failed to garner enoughland for the landless in the State by the SilverJubilee Year of the movement. All it could obtainin Orissa by the end of December 1975, was atotal of 12, 75,428 acres out of which only 6, 79,565 acres of land was distributed among 74, 687families in the State. Nevertheless, Orissaoccupied the fourth place in the country so far asthe progress of the Bhoodan-Gramdan

Movement in individual state was concerned bythe Silver Jubilee Year of the movement. Ironicallymost of the villages gifted in the movement werelocated in the so-called tribal areas of the State,the areas which were in least need of land reforms.Also, a substantial part of the land donated in themovement was found either unsuitable forcultivation or under disputed possession.However, the movement should not be judged interms of its material achievement but from the factthat it represented one of the major attempts afterindependence to provide a peaceful solution ofthe basic problem of Indian Society, the landproblem, through voluntary action involving themasses.

References :

1. Bipan Chandra et al, India After Independence1947-2000, New Delhi, 2000.

2. S. Tilak, The Myth of Sarvodaya, NewDelhi,1984.

3. Gopinath Mohanty, Dhulimatir Santha,Cuttack, 1985.

4. Bhoodan Yagna Samiti, Bhoodan and Gramdanin Orissa, Bhubaneswar, 1965.

5. Manmohan Choudhuri, The GramdanMovement ; A.R. Desai (ed.), RuralSociology in India, Bombay, 1995.

6. The Samaja, Cuttack, 30 November & 18December, 1965.

7. Ibid., 17 April & 18 April, 1976.

8. Gunnar Myrdal, Asian Drama, An Inquiry in tothe Poverty of Nations, Vol. II, New Delhi, 1982.

Sarat Parida is a Lecturer in the Department of History,J.K.B.K. Govt. College, Cuttack..



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Ever since the introduction of first transgenictomato for commercial cultivation in USA in theYear 1995, the area under GM crops has goneup 74-fold in the world. In 1996 the global areaunder transgenic was only 1.7 million hectareswhile in 2008 the global area is 125 millionhectares. It took about 10 years for the area tocross the first billion mark while to cross thesecond billion acre mark it took only 3 yearssignifying the rapid expansion of the GM cropsthrough out the world.

In 1996, the cultivation of biotech cropwas confined to USA but now 25 countries haveadapted its cultivation. In addition, 30 countrieshave granted regulatory approval for import ofGM product and their release in openenvironment. Of the countries where GM cropsare cultivated at present, 15 are from developingcountries and remaining 10 are from developedcountries. The number of biotech farmersincreased significantly during these 13 years andat present it stands at 13.3 million. Notably 90 %(12.3 million ) of them are resource poor farmersfrom developing countries.

Starting with one crop species in 1995,now the numbers of species in which transgenichave been developed has gone up to 24. Out of66 principal crops cultivated through out theworld, scientists are actively engaged in transgenic

Genetically Modified (GM) Crops andControversies

Dr. Baburam Singh

development in 57 crop species. It is exceptedthat by 2020-25 world will have transgenic inmost important crop species.

The above development indicates the rateat which the technology is spreading and perhapsit may be the fastest spreading technology in theagriculture sector.

The leading countries where transgeniccrops are extensively grown include USA with62.5 million hectare, followed by Argentina (21.0million hectares), Brazil (15.8 million hectares).India (7.6 million hectares), Canada (6.7 millionhectares), China (3.8 million hectares, Paraguay(2.7 million hectares), South Africa (1.8 millionhectares), Uruguay (0.7 million hectares), Bolivia(0.6 million hectares), Philippines (0.4 millionhectares), Australia (0.2 million hectares), Mexicoand other 12 countries with less than 0.1 millionhectares. India finds a place in the top 5 mega-biotech countries of the world.Scenario of GM crops in India :

In India the first transgenic ( Bt Cotton)was cleared for cultivation in the year 2002. Withina span of seven years the area under Bt cottonhas gone beyond 7.6 million hectares and itconstitutes approximately 82% of the total cottonarea of the country. Important States where Btcotton is grown extensively include Maharastra(3.13 million hectares- representing almost half


74


of 42% of Bt cotton area in India) followed byGujarat (1.36 million hectares), Andhra Pradesh(1.32 million hectares), Madhya Pradesh(620.000 ha). It is claimed that with theintroduction of Bt cotton in India and with rapidexpansion of its area, India got transformed froma net importer to a net exporter of cotton. Exportof cotton registered a sharp increase from ameagre 0.05 million bales in 2001-02 to 8.5 millionbales in 2006-08.

Field trial on 10 crops ( brinjal, cabbage,castor, cauliflower, corn, ground-nut, okra,potato, rice and tomato) is going on at present inIndia. After Supreme Court lifted its restrictionon experimental field trial of GM crops in 2008,the Apex Regulatory Body - Genetic EngineeringApproval Committee (GEAC) has recommendedfor the field trial of Bt brinjal in the country. If it isallowed by government for its commercialcultivation it will be the first GM food crop to becultivated in open environment in India. Severalother GM food crops (cabbage, cauliflower, corn,ground-nut, okra, potato, rice and tomato) are inthe pipe line to follow.The GM Debate:

Lot of debates are going on relating tothe prospect and risks associated with the GMcrops.

The argument which are adduced infavour of GM technology are (i) higher yield(ii) better quality (iii) high degree of uniformity(iv) eco-friendly (vii) cost-effective and(viii) affordable price.

The arguments which are adduced againstthis technology are (i) cost-intensive (ii) hazardousto environment and health and (iii) detrimental toour livelihood security and sovereign rights of ourfarmers.

Contradicting claims and counter claimsabout the technology has kept all including farmersin a state of utter confusion.

Impact on Agriculture:

Promoters of GM technology claim thatspread of GM crops will boost our agriculturalproduction significantly through their high yieldingability and resistance against biotic and abioticstresses. It will also ensure our food and nutritionalsecurity through development of nutritionally richfood grains like beta-carotene rich golden rice. Itwill reduce pressure on land and other naturalresources due to high productivity of crops andthus can play a significant role in checkingdeforestation for agricultural purpose.

Where as the opponents of thetechnology claim that there is no significant gainin the productivity of the GM crops in comparisonto some of the best high yielding varieties/ hybridsavailable in the country. They argue that cultivationof few GM varieties with narrow genetic base inlarge scale will make crops more vulnerable todiseases and pests due to genetic uniformity. Largescale cultivation of transgenic will also bringreduction in biodiversity though squeeze in varietaland crop diversity. There is risk of transfer ofintroduced foreign gene into other varieties andnon-target species and it may lead to genepollution and contamination of our geneticresources. Cultivation of transgenic willencourage more application of fertilizers andchemicals and cultivation of herbicide tolerant GMvarieties will boost herbicide application in thefield. Increase in application of theseagrochemicals will ultimately lead to environmentalpollution. Apprehensions are also made thatcultivation of disease and pest resistant transgenicwill lead to development of resistance in the pestsand may hasten their co-evolution. Similarlytransfer of herbicide tolerant/ resistant gene fromtransgenic to associate weed species may lead todevelopment of super-weeds causing seriousproblem in future for their control.



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Impact on Biodiversity:

The promoters of GM technology arguethat introduction of GM crops will help inconservation of biodiversity through reduction inapplication of pesticides. They are also of opinionthat extensive cultivation of GM crops will reducepressure on the land and other natural resourcesand it will reduce deforestation activity foragriculture purpose. Whereas the opponents areof the view that introduction of transgenicparticularly herbicide tolerant ones will encourageincreased application of herbicides in theagricultural field. This will have adverse effect onthe environment as well as biodiversity. In additionsqueeze in varietal diversity and gene pollutionwill also adversely affect our rich biodiversity.Since biodiversity is the key to our food securityany reduction in it will adversely affect our foodsecurity.

Impact on Health:

The promoters of GM technology arguethat introduction of GM varieties capable ofproducing more nutrients and vitamins like goldenrice will help to mitigate malnutrition problem inthe under nourished people. Technologies are nowalso available to produce GM varieties that canproduce therapeutical proteins and drugs in theplant systems and it may help in solving our healthrelated problem. Whereas the opponents are ofthe view that the introduction of foreign gene inthe food crop system will lead to production of aforeign protein that may cause Allergy, Cancer,Stomach ailment and various other ailments. Theyalso cite some case studies in their support.

Impact on Economics:

Promoters of GM technology claimhigher return due to reduction in the cost ofproduction which can make food grains affordableto poor people. Because of its high degree of

uniformity it can facilitate mechanization inagriculture and better market.

The counter claims are that it will be costintensive and our resource poor farmer can notafford it. Besides the market access of GM foodsit will have less appreciation in the market. Seedsof GM crops / technology have been patentedand so it will be monopoly of multinationals whowill indirectly control the price of seed and theiravailability and so it will affect sovereign rights ofour farmers.

State approach to the problem:

Orissa is considered as the secondarycentre of origin of rice due to occurrence of widenatural variability (genetic diversity). SimilarlyOrissa is considered as the gene center for severalother crops like brinjal, gourds, cucumber, minormillet etc. The State should take a cautiousapproach as regards to GM crops are concernedto avoid any potential risk gene contamination andreduction in its rich biodiversity.

Through studies need to be made onaspects to aspects to assess its long term impacton environment, health and biodiversity prior totaking a policy decision on introduction of relevantGM crops.

References:1. International Service for the acquisition of agri-

biotech application report 2009

2. Genetic Roulette-Jeffrey M. Smith (2008). A SouthAgainst genetic Engineering and DeccanDevelopment Society publication.

Dr. Baburam Singh is a Professor, Plant Breeding &Genetics, Orissa University of Agr iculture &Technology, Bhubaneswar


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Kalahandi, the picturesque landmark of Orissabecame a district after merger of princely states.It lies between 19°.3 N and 21°.5'N latitude and82°.20 E and 83°.47'E longitude. It is boundedby Kandhamal and Rayagada district on the Eastand Nawarangpur districts of Orissa andChhatisgarh province on the west. On the northof this district situated Nuapada and Balangirdistricts and on the south bounded byNawarangpur district. The geographical area ofthe district is 8197 square kilometer with apopulation of 13,35,494 as per 2001 census.

Kalahandi district is predominated bytribals. Tribals like Banjara, Bhatra, Bhunjia,Binjhal, Dal, Gond, Kandha, Mirdha, Munda,Paraja, Saora and Savar etc. are inhabited in thedistrict. According to population Gonds is in thefirst place and Kandhas come to the next in thedistrict. Kandha population in Kalahandi is1,46,225 as per 1991 census.

The main sub-tribes Kutia Kandha,Dongaria Kandha and Desia Kandhas areinhabiting in Kalahandi district. Mainly Kandhasare concentrated in Bhawanipatna, Junagarh,Koksara, Kalampur, Jayapatna, Thuamul-Rampur, Lanjigarh and Madanpur-RampurBlocks. Kandhas claim as the first settlers in thedistrict. They were the owners of all the lands of

the district in the past. So the land was named asKandhan or Kandhan Des.

Among the Kandhas of Kalahandi manysub-groups are found. According to Dr. KrishanSharma Dangaria, Kuvi, Kuttia, Languli, Pengaand Jharania sub-groups of Kandha are found inthe district (Sharma : 1979:17). Other scholarsopined regarding their division as per following -

1. Desia or Kachharia Kandha, Kutia /Kotia Kandha / Dangria Kandha.

2. Dongaria, Kuvi, Kutia, Languli, Pengaand Jharania.

3. Dangria, Jangalia, Nanglya, Pataria, DesKandha, Jharia and Maria.

4. Kutia, Dangaria, Jharania, Desia, DesaKandha, Dal Kandha and Maral.

x x x x

Dal Kandha, Kandha Paraja, Maral, SuliaKandha etc. sub-groups of Kandhas are alsofound in this area (Mishra: 1992:71).

Anthropologists placed Kandhas inproto-astroloid race. But Dr. Krishna Sharma asper his research in Kalahandi district opined thatthe Konds tie into the proto-Astroloid racial type

Kandha Culture of Kalahandi in Orissa

Raghunath Rath



77

of Guha with considerable Mongoloid admixture(Sharma 1979:103).

Kandhas are divided into numerous clans.Mainly seven divisions (Barga) are found amongthem. They are Tupa, Luha, Budka, Gaanka,Sika, Badbudka and Uchharia. More than hundreddivisions are curved from above seven divisions(Mishra 1992:73). According to Dr. Dol GovindaBisi, a noted scholar, Kandhas are divided into

Charmilikya, Kudurkya, Balaringya, Turkya,Baramilkya, Kurmilkya, Sika, Beska, Dehelia,Chimabiria, Mutkya, Satmilikya, Sarmunya,Kurkya, Dal, Kamangya, Bachha, Uchrya,Ghusurya, Desghriya, Chimkya, Tupa, Bubrya,Dhumnia, Sangu, Lua, Kungibadka, Kanbiria etc(Bisi 1990:65)

Territories are marked and named aftermain Bargas known as Chaks, such as Kandhas of Kesinga and Saintala are known asSika Barg or Sika Chaka, Thuamula Rampur areais known as Tuduka and Sermelka Chaka andJayapatna is marked as Miliki Chaka and Bijulkachaka and so on (Mishra 1992:72).

Kui is the mother tongue of Kandhas.This language comes under central Dravidianlanguage group. Still this language is used in oralform. As much as four scripts are now inventedby Sri Dayanidhi Mallik, Sri Dinabandhu Kanharand Biswanath Pradhan of Kandhamal district andlate Dasuram Maleka of R.Udayagiri area ofGajapati district. But non of those scripts areapplied in Kandha society for the purpose ofwriting of the oral language. Missionaries in thepast created some primers and religious literaturesin Kui using Roman and Oriya script. In thepresent day also some Kui literature in Oriyascript has been published by missionaries,Academy of Tribal Language and Culture,Bhubaneswar and some Kandha writers. Most

of the Kandhas are bilinguals. They are wellversed in Kui and Odia language. In some areaKandhas have forgotton their Kui language andare talking in Odia. The language spoken inKalahandi district has resemblance with thelanguage spoken by Doms.

Kandhas generally live in nucleus families.After marriage the son has to build a new houseand separates himself from his parents. Only theyoungest son has the right to live in the parentalhouse. This tradition is prevalent in Kandhasociety even today. Old parents are respected inKandha society. Kandha families are patriarcha.Father holds the higher rank in the family and thencomes the place of the mother.

All the works are executed by both maleand female. According to division of labour maleis to do cultivation, clearing of forest and preparelands, ploughing the field, building or repairing andthatching of house, keeping of monetary accounts,see the well being of the family etc. and femalesare responsible for all indoor household workslike cooking, fetching of water, firewood, servingof food in the family, cleaning of utensils, cloths,cleaning of courtyard and cow shed, plasteringof houses, mud plastering on the walls of newhouses, planting of seedling in the field, harvestingof ripened crops etc. Females also take care ofthe children and old parents. Hence when at thetime of choosing a bride for a Kandha groomparents choose a beautiful and hard workingbride.

There were Dhangara Basa (youthdormitory) and Dhangiri Basa (Girls dormitory)in each Kandha village. Unmarried youths sleepin Dhangara Basa and unmarried girls sleep inDhangiri Basa. Youths from other villages visitDhangiri Basa at night and present small gifts tothe girls and girls also entertain the youths with


78


country cigar, food and drinks. Then the girlsdance with the youths singing songs and the youthsalso sing songs accompanying with musicalinstruments. Girls never dance with the youths ofher own village, as they are brothers or uncles inrelation. Now-a-days this tradition has beenstopped except in some remote area due toinfluence of modern civilization.

Kandh youth select bride for him fromthis Dhangiri dance and the parents of the boyknow the fact through the friends. After informed,the father of the boy send the Disari. In someplaces, Doms are also sent to negotiate with thefather of the proposed bride. If the bride's fatheragrees with the proposal, the father of the groomproceeds to the bride's house with some relativesafter some days and put forth the marriageproposal of his son before the parents of the bride.

Before proceeding to bride s house to putforth marriage proposal a test is to be conductedin the house of the groom in order to ascertainwhether the bride will be auspicious orinauspicious to their home. For the test a handfulof rice is to be cooked in a new earthen potkeeping on a burning hearth. If cooked rice willbe overflowed and fall on the ground, the bride isfelt an inauspicious and the proposal is stopped.(Nepak : 1977 : 223 and Dash : 1983:13)

Reaching the house of bride, the fatherof the groom put forths the marriage proposalbefore bride s father. If he agrees to it, then boththe parties discuss about bride price. Generallybride price is paid in shape of money, ornamentsand buffaloes. Generally cash of Rs.100 toRs.1000 and buffaloes from one pair to ten pairsare given as bride price. The person who isunable to pay it is asked to work under his father-in-law's house until the required quantity isrealized. After this marriage date is fixed (Senapati: 1980 : 97)

Kandhas believe the months of Margasir, Pausa,Magha and Baisakh are the auspicious monthsfor marriage. Hence after payment of bride pricea day is fixed from the auspicious months tosolemnize marriage.

On the appointed day the groom and hisparty proceed to the bride s house beating musicalinstruments to bring the bride to his home, asmarriage is solemnized at the house of the groom.The father of the bride treats the party with feastand liquor. Then they return to their village withthe bride. Friends of the bride and relatives withvillagers also follow them. On the way a mockfight is held between both the parties as the bridesparty pretends to take back the bride. But on thefight bride party fail to oppose groom's party andthen both the parties proceed to groom's villagewith joy beating musical instruments.

At the time of departure the bride goesto her father, mother and all near and dear relativesand all houses of the village and weeps holdingthem. At this time the father binds some flowers,fruits or corns at one end of the Saree worn bythe bride as a tradition of his sept. This is knownas Kani china . If this process is not done thefather of the bride is penalized by his society (Bisi: 1990:76)

Marriage is solemnized by the Priest (Jani)at groom s house. The father of the bridegroomtreats the bride s party with feast and liquor. Thenbride s party returns to their village. But two orthree close friends of the bride remain in the houseof the groom for two or three days until the brideis settled.

Besides negotiated marriage, marriage bydragging by force, father-in- laws successor bride,elopement, entry into the house of lover by forceand widow marriage are also prevalent in Kandhatribals.



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When a Kandha lady conceives, she isbound to obey some taboos like she will notcross channel of flowing water, she should not goanywhere in dark night, she should not go toworship place of the village etc. There is also somerestrictions in taking of foods. She has to do allthe household works till the time of delivery.

When the lady feels labour pain she hasto go to a room of backside of the house anddelivery takes place there. An experienced femaleof the village is to help during delivery, who iscalled sutaren . The naval cord is being cut byan arrow, pottery shred or knife (knandri) (Mishra: 1992:77). An aged male member of the familybeats the front roof of the house by an axe (tangi)or a yoke in case of male child and where femalechild is born he beats by hand pounding rod. Thevillagers come to know the gender of the newborn by this symbol of beating.

The father or the offspring mother is tobury the naval cord and placenta on the back sideof the house just beneath the roof. Another holeis also dug near the buried place, where the newborn will bathe for next twenty one days. Afterdelivery some restrictions in food also imposedupon the offspring mother.

The family of the new born remainssecluded from others of the village for five or sevendays. On the appointed day an aged member ofthe family or the father of the new born worshipsthe house deity by sacrificing a fowl and libationof liquor for ancestors and gods. Then themembers of that family become purified and canmix with others of the village.

The offspring mother is to remain secludedin the labour room for one month. Nobody touchher during this period. The offspring mother doall her daily works through the backside of the

house. She is not permitted to go to the frontstreet. In case she goes to the front road of thehouse by mistake Dharanimata, the earth goddesswill be angry and cause different kind of dangeroussituation to the village. Hence a heavy expensiveritual is held to appease the earth goddess.

Name giving ceremony is solemnized afterone month. On that day hairs from the head ofthe new born child is clean shaved and bathedafter smearing of oil and turmeric paste. Then anelder person of the family holding the child with anew towel brings the child to outside the housefor the first time. The priest (Jani) gives the nameof the child on this day. The priest adopt sometraditional methods to ascertain the name of thechild. Generally the baby is named after anyancestor. The head of the family treats the relativesand all the villagers with a feast of goat meat curry,rice and liquor.

When death occurs Kandhas take thecorpse to the burial ground and burn it. They don tburn the corpse of child, pregnant women andsmall pox patients. This type of dead bodies areburied by Kandhas. After disposal of dead bodiesall the followers of the corpse go to the nearbyriver or flowing stream. The Jani mixes the bloodof a chick with some oil and dip a feather of thechick in that oil and smear it on both the palms ofevery body after bath. Then all of them return tothe village.

There is no cooking in the house of thedead for next three days and food is supplied byneighbours. All works for three days aresuspended and all men and women of the villagedo not do any work outside the village.

On the third day females of the house ofthe dead plaster all the rooms with cow dung,cleans all the clothes and bath after cleaning the


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heads with earth. Males also bath after cleaninghead with earth. After bath all wear clean clothes.All old earthen pots are removed and thrown andnew pots are used for cooking. Water mixed withmango bark juice is sprinkled in all rooms andover all members. The household deity isworshipped with scarifying a cock.

A ritual known Dosa is solemnized afterone month or one year after death. All relativeswith near and dear are being invited for theoccasion. The head of the family arrange a grandfeast consisting of meat and liquor.

In Kandha religious faith Dharani (earthgoddess) is the chief and revered goddess.Besides Dharani Kandhas also worship GramDevata (village deity), Ista devata (householddeity), Bhima Devata (Rain god) etc. It is alsoknown that deities like- Khandual, Sat Bhaen,Kandul boja, Jina and Duma also worshipped byKandhas of Kalahandi (Panda 1989:50). Dumais the sprit of ancestors and they believe that afterdeath the spirit of the dead lives with them in thefamily. They also worship all the elements of thenature, such as hill, forest, water etc.

Kandhas of Kalahandi observesPusparab, Chaita Parab, Nua Khai, Dasahara,Mandia Rani Parab etc. Besides this they alsoobserve Balijatra, Bhimabhia and Taki Parab.Taki or Toki Parab is not observed annually. Inthe past in this festival living human were sacrificedand now a sheep is sacrificed instead of humanbeing. In Asadha Kandhas observe Laxmi or TakuParab, Nangal Dhua Parab also onserved on thefull moon day of Sraban, Naguni Parab or BhadoParab in Bhadrab, Chait Parab and Toki Parabalso observed by Kandhas ( Mishra 1998:45).

Toki Parab is observed for seven days.It starts five days before full moon day of Pausaand ends after two days of full moon day. Each

day of the rituals named separately, they are asfollows:-

1st day- Aka Tola (Plucking of leaf)

2nd day-Upasi (Fasting)

3rd day-Darunda (Gathering)

4th day-Taki (Sacrificing the sheep)

5th day-Karakunda (Sacrifice of buffalo or goat)

6th day- Brlupata (day of merry making)

(Panda : 1993:72)

The sixth day is known as Dhangiri Dolaand seventh day is called as Gurupuja in someareas. Activities of each day are discussed below.

On the first day the women folk go intothe forest and bring Siali leaf. They make platesfrom these leafs for ritual use. All the outdoorworks are stopped from this day. This day isknown as Aka Tola or plucking of leaf. Thesecond day is called Upasi as all the villagersobserve fasting till the completion of the festival.Everyone drinks and dances on this day. Thesacrificing Tangi or sacred axe and knife broughtto the Gudighar being worshipped in the house ofthe Jani. The third day is Darunda means gathering.Villagers of the Desa or Chak come with theirsacred axe to celebrate Taki Parab in the villagewhere the ritual is performed. On this day thevillage deity is worshipped and four peacock toysmade of iron are buried near Dharani pole nearthe Gudi Ghar and Dharani Pada. Other villagerscome with drums to the village for performing TakiParab and join others. They are all drunker anddance throughout the night.

On the fourth day, the Jani and Disari afterworshipping different gods and goddesses through



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elaborate rituals proceeds to jenakhal or DebiGudi with the villagers in procession beatingdrums and Mahuri. They also take the sheep, theTaki with them to Jena Khal. There the Taki isplaced on a huge wooden pounding place andpounded by a huge wooden pounding pole. Thenthe entrails and liver are brought out and keptseparately. The liver is kept in a small earthen potwhich is known as Mutpen. Some rice, husks andwater are also poured into the mutpen pot. Onthe same day at night a piglet is sacrificed at SadarGudi and the Mutpen pot is brought to Sadar Gudiand kept there.

The next day is the full moon day of Pausa.This day is the important day of Toki festival. Inthis day, an unmarried girl carrying the mutpenpot on her head proceeds to Jenakhal inprocession with all the Des and Chaka memberspresent beating drums and Mahuri. The Janibrings out a piece of iron called ling, which is asymbol of Dharani or Earth goddess and worshipit. Then the Mutpen pot is buried there afteroffering to the Goddess.

The sixth day is called as Dhangiridola.Merry-making is the main object of this day.Dhangaras and Dhangiris sing and dance Dhapdance beating the musical instrument dhap.Dhangara by force takes his beloved Dhangiri bydragging with the help of his friends and hisvillagers. People of other villages return to theirown village.

Seventh day is known as Gurupuja. Onthis day worship is being done at nearby hillockknown as Nachani Dangar. The Jani goes to thenearby stream and fetches water. Then he goesto the village, sprinkles water by a branch of treein each house of the village. Then the sacred Tangiand knife are returned to the goddess and kept inthe house of the Jani for next festive occasion.This is known as Tandi Ulen.

This festival is observed in this way inevery village of a Chaka or Des, where a particularsept of Kandhas reside. There is also royalpatronage in this festival. Concerned Raja orZamindar supplies a sheep for Toki festival everyyear to a village where the festival is to becelebrated.

Bhima biha or marriage of Bhima festivalis celebrated in every twelve year. The festival isobserved for a year long period among theKandhas of Kalahandi. But Bali jatra is celebratedevery year in honour of Bhima God. Besides theyobserve Kendu Nua and Dumer Nuna festivalalso.

The main folk dance of Kalahandi orKandhan Des is Dhap dance. This dance namedafter the musical instrument Dhap which is usedin this dance. Kandha youths of both the sex takepart in this dance. Dhangaras dance with singingsong and playing Dhap and Dhangiris dancearound the boys forming circle or semicircles tothe rhythm of the musical instrument. Dhangirishold each other's waist with their left hand andholding the shoulder of the next girl in right handand dance. Girls reply to the song of boys whenthey stop dancing. Girls never sing while theydance. Mainly love songs are sung in this dance.

Dhap dance is performed in differentrituals to appease deities and at the marriageceremonies. This dance shows the aesthetic andartistic views of Kandhas. Every Kandha youthsof both the sexes are extempore poets. Theycould compose songs immediately as situationwarrants. This dance helps to participants tochoose a life partner also.

It is known from observation that theculture of Kanhdas of Kalahandi has somesimilarity and dissimilarity from their counterparts


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in Kandhamal and Koraput. But the motif in allthe cultures is unaltered.

A good amount have been spent sinceindependent for development of tribals. But notangible improvement is noticed in their livelihoodpattern. Rather they are displaced from theirbeloved native land on the plea of development.Forest is the backbone of tribal economy. Butthey are barred from their forest rights by someforest laws, which had emotional attachment oftribals with forest. Globalisation in the presentdays is a great threat to tribal culture. Kandhaculture of Kalahandi is also not free from it. Sotribals come forward to resist the developmentalactivities in the fear that their environment willchange. They can not accommodate to thechanged environment and it may deculturise them.Hence it makes them revolutionary.

If we actually want to develop tribals, wemust first understand their mental state and thenwithout cultural attack we can impose industrialand developmental activities keeping in mind thatit will not a burden for them and they could cometo the mainstream. If the valuable tribal culturewill be detribalized they will loose their tribalidentity. Now it is right time for intellectuals tofind a right path for development of tribals.

Bibliography :

1. Bis, Dola Govind 1990 Kandha Jatira BibahPratha (Odia) Saintala, Balangir.

2. Dash, Rabi Narayan 1983 Orissara AdibasiBibah (Odia) Cuttack.

3. Nepak, Bhagirathi 1977 Orissara AdibasiSanskruti (Odia) Bhubaneswar.

4. Mishra, Mahendra Kumar 1992 PaschimOrissar Adibasi Lok Sahitya (Odia) Academy ofAdivasi Language and Culture, Bhubaneswar.

5. Mahavir Sanskrutik Anusthan (Ed) Bhawanipatna -

1993- Kalahandira Adibasi Sanskruti

1998- Kalahandira Loka Anusthana

2001 Kalahandira Loka Nrutya (Prathama Bhaga)

1989- Girijhara (Kalahandira Kala O SanskrutiBisesanka).

6. Mishra, Mahendra Kumar 2007 Orial Epicsof Kalahandi Chenai.

7. Sharma, Krishna 1979 The Konds of Orissa New Delhi.

8. Senapati, N 1980 Gazeteers of Kalahandi Govt. of Orissa, Cuttack.

Raghunath Rath lives at Panaspadi, Balliguda,Kandhamal - 762103.



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Global WarmingThe intergovernmental panel on climate

change (IPCC) concluded that increasing greenhouse gases resulting from human activity such asfossil fuel burning and deformation, caused mostof the observed temperature increase since themiddle of the 20th century. The IPCC alsoconcluded that natural phenomena such as solarradiation and volcanoes produced most of thewarming from pre-industrial time to 1950.Climate model summarized in the latest IPCCreport, global surface temperature will probablyrise 1.1 to 6.4oC (2.0 to 11.5º F) during 21st

century. Global warming is expected to continuebeyond 2100 even its emission stop because oflatent heat capacity of the oceans and the longlasting of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Anincrease in global temperature will cause sea levelsto rise and will change the amount and pattern ofprecipitation probably causing expansion ofsubtropical deserts. The continuing retreat ofglaciers and sea ice is expected with warmingbeing strongest in the arctic. Other effects includeincrease in the intensity of extreme weather, evenspecies extinction and change in agriculture yields.Climate Change and its Impact onAgriculture

Agriculture is considered to be one ofthe most vulnerable sectors to climate change. The

Adoptability and Adoption of Tropical TuberCrops to Climate Change

S.K. Jata,M. Nedunchezhiyan

P.S. Sivakumar

Average temperature in Indian subcontinent hasrisen by 0.57ºC during the last 100 years andprojected likely to rise in future to the maximumof 2.5ºC by 2050 and 5.8ºC by 2100. Besidehigh temperature, elevated CO2, uneven rainfallpatterns, more floods cyclones, cold waves, heatwaves and frost are other effects likely to bewitnessed as a result of global warming. Theirrigation requirement of arid and semiarid regioncrops is estimated to increase by 10% for every1oC rise in temperature. These factors are likelyto cause serious negative impact on crop growthand yield and impose severe pressure on land andwater resources.

Worldwide, extensive research is beingcarried out on crop and livestock systems to copewith climate change through development of heatand drought tolerant varieties, shifting of cropcalendars, resources management practices, suchas zero tillage, improved methods of waterharvesting, enhancing irrigation efficiencies etc.

Hunger and malnutrition are the futurethreat for the world, view against the rapidpopulation growth. Food security exists when allthe people at all times have physically, sociallyand economically access to sufficient and safenutritious food which meets there dietary needand performance for an active and healthy lifewhich emphasizes food security and nutritional


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security the two inter mingled terms as like bothside of a coin. It is in this new paradigm ofpopulation growth vs. food supply vs. climatechange. The root and tuber crops becomeincreased significant as energy, nutritionalstorehouse versus adaptability to changingclimate.

Climate for Tuber Crops

Cassava (Manihot esculenta): It is a tropicaltuber crop which grows well in warm and humidclimate. It thrives well between 25 and 35°C.Crop did not grow below 15°C. Once cropestablished it will not die. Crop is able to withstanddry spell of 2-3 months. It is a potential crop in aclimate change.

Yam (Dioscorea alata): Popularly known asgreater yam. It is tropical tuber crop hencerequired warm sunny weather. It is widely reportedthat the optimal temperature is 25-35°C underhigh humid conditions. However, below 20oC thecrop is affected. Adequate moisture is requiredfor the crop for good growth, development andyield of yams, which often fully met by the well-distributed rains. Stagnant water likely to damagethe tubers and severely reduced the yield.

Amorphophallus (Amorphophalluspaeoniifolius): Popularly known as elephant footyam. It is a tropical tuber crop and grown underwarm humid climatic conditions with a mean annultemperature of 30-40oC and well distributionrainfall of 1000-1200 mm. It can also grow atadverse temperature under well irrigatedconditions. But soil moisture and temperature arethe main factors which affects the tuber bulking.

Taro (Colocasia esculenta): It is grown warmerpart of tropical and subtropical region in uplandand lowland ecosystem. It grows well in 25-32oC.It requires evenly distributed rainfall of 100 mm.

Cassava Crop

Amorphophallus Crop

Amorphophallus Tubers



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Tannia (Xanthosoma sagittifolium): Tanniais found in warm humid climate prevalent tropicalregions of the world. For well sustained growthand production, it requires an evenly distributedrainfall of about 1500 mm.

Arrowroot (Maranda arundinacea): It isknown as Palua in Orissa. Arrowroot grows underwarm and humid conditions. A temperature of 25-30°C is required with average rainfall of 1000-1200 mm with one or two dry spell months togrow rhizome.

Coleus (Solenostemon rodundifolius): It ispopularly called Chinese potato. It can well growin moderate drought conditions. It is a tropicaltuber crop grown under warm humid climatic

conditions with a mean annual temperature of 25-30oC and well distributed rainfall of 1000-1200mm. But it can also grow well at adversetemperature under well irrigated conditions.

Conclusion

Tuber crops are capable of tolerant tomid season drought and high temperature. Beinglong duration crop, its spread is limited by lengthof rainy season under rainfed conditions. Increaseof temperature due to global warming may shortenthe duration of tuber crops. Hence it may begrown in short rainy season areas also. Furtherbeing tropical crop, increase of temperature andCO2 will enhance its productivity when water isnot limited.

S.K. Jata, Senior Research Fellow, Regional Centre ofCTCRI, Bhubaneswar.

Dr. M. Nedunchezhiyan, Senior Scientist, RegionalCentre of CTCRI, Bhubaneswar.

Dr. P.S. Sivakumar, Scientist, Regional Centre of CTCRI,Bhubaneswar.Greater Yam Tuber


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1. Name of the Enterprise/Practice/Technology: Oyster Mushroom Cultivation

2. Name and address of the farmer:Maa Majhigouri SHGVillage - GadiakhallaGP - GadiakhallaBlock - GunupurDist Rayagada

3. Initial Status:

Mushroom cultivation in Rayagada districtis negligible during last few years although thereis a rising trend in its demand. In comparison toother districts of Orissa, mushroom production isquite low and is mostly procured by the methodof collection from nearby forest areas which islimited to specific period of a year. The climate ofRayagada district is very much congenial forcultivation of various types of mushroom more orless throughout the year. Almost 70% people ofRayagada district belongs to the category of smalland marginal farmers and landless labourers. Theirincome level is quite low for a sustained livelihood.In order to raise their family income mushroomcultivation was considered to be an alternativesource of income generating actively through SHGmembers.

Gadiakhalla, a village in Gunupur blockof Rayagada district is situated at a distance of

Oyster Mushroom Cultivation : A ProfitableEnterprise - A Case Study

Nirakar RanasinghSusmita Mohanty

Subrat Behera

6kms from the KVK, Rayagada. The villagecomprises 231 households amounting topopulation of about 1156 number. Among them30% are SC, 20% ST and remaining are of OBCand General Castes. About 82% of the womenpopulation are landless agricultural labourers.Usually the month of Oct-Feb are lean periodsfor rainfed agriculture and hence the farm womenwere encouraged to grow Oyster mushroomthrough SHG during this period to supplementtheir family income.

4. KVK intervention : Mushroom is grownout of agriculture waste. Use of such waste formushroom production is a better and profitableecofriendly way of waste disposal. The technologyinvolved in mushroom cultivation is very simpleand can be acquired by any person after a short



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training. Mushroom growing as a cottage industryis quite valid for the SHG women due to its lowcapital investment and high yields obtained evenunder controlled rural condition. The awarenessfor mushroom has been created among the generalconsuming public. Mushroom are goodsupplement for protein lacking diet and can beeasily cultivated indoors and marketed profitably.Keeping in view the above fact, FLD on oystermushroom cultivation was organized in the villageGadiakhalla.

5. Innovative extension approach:KVK, Rayagada introduced the FLD on oystermushroom cultivation in the village Gadiakhalla,GP-Gadiakhalla of Gunupur block. Similarlytraining programme on oyster mushroomcultivation was organized for SHG members.Necessary technical literature was provided tothe farmers, field day was arranged to createawareness and interest among the farmers formushroom cultivation. KVK is instrumental isimparting training to the farmers and farm women.

6. Details of the technology:

Raw material requirement:

(i) Paddy straw

(ii) Polythene bags

(iii) Spawn

Soaking:

Cutting of straw into 2 to 2.5 size

Soaking in clean cold water for 12-16 hrs

Draining excess water

Pasteurization of the straw pieces in boiledwater at temp. 70-800 C for 45 minutes to 1hr.

Draining of excess water & dry in shade to get65% moisture.

Laying of bed & spawning:

Filling in the polythene bag (65cm X 35cm)with sterilized straw bits (6" ht)

Sprinkling of ¼ part of spawn over it at theperiphery only.

Again covering with sterilized straw pieces toanother 6 ht.

Repeat spreading of straw pieces and spawnfor 4th time.

Covering the top layer with thin layer of straw& tie the polythene bag at the top & making 20to 25 holes for exchange of gas & keeping it in

dark room.

Spawn running :

Removing the polythene cover after 16th day.Arranging the beds on the sika, leaving a space

of 6 between the bed.

Sprinkling of water twice a day as per theweather to keep the bed moist.


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Harvesting :

Harvesting fresh mushrooms after 7 days bytwisting carefully when the edges starts upward

curling.

1st flush 1 kg

7 days after 2nd flush 250 gm.

7 days after 3rd flush 250 gm

Marketing of fresh mushroom.

7. Adoption of the technology and benefit tothe farmer:

Inspired by the easy method of cultivation,good yield and economy of production and beingexposed to extension interventions made byKVK, Maa Majhi Gouri SHG s member havestarted practicing oyster mushroom. Cultivationin small scale under the guidance of scientists ofKVK. As a result the beneficiaries of SHG groupcould harvest 120 kg mushroom from 100 bedsand generate profit of about Rs.4000/- within amonth by selling mushroom in the nearby marketat the rate of Rs.50/- per kg. The success ofmushroom production not only encourages other

three SHGs of the adopted village but also womenof neighbouring villages to grow mushroomsuccessfully and profitably.

9. Farmers reaction and feedback :

The farm women of the villageGadiakhalla were surprised with the success ofmushroom cultivation. They could not just believesuch a good amount of net profit in less than amonth period. Now they are interested to takeup mushroom cultivation as a major incomegenerating activity throughout the year due to itsheavy demand in Gunupur area.

10. Extent of diffusion effect of the newlyadopted technology:

The net profit in mushroom cultivation hasattracted the other three SHG (Maa Mangala,Maa Radharani, Maa Bhairabi) for practicing themushroom cultivation in small scale. People ofneighbouring villages are now enthusiastic inproducing mushroom in large scale. DifferentNGO s in Rayagada district decided to replicatethis successful programme in different blocks ofthe district. KVK is instrumental in impartingtechnical support in this regard.

11. Follow-up action:

KVK, Rayagada has documented thesuccess and has developed plan to promote thistechnology. KVK has planned for furtherexpansion of technology in Rayagada. Apart fromthis KVK printed literature TV coverage of thetechnology has been organized for widerdissemination of the technology.

Nirakar Ranasingh, Assistant Pathologist, JuteResearch Station, Jajanga, Kapaleswar, Kendrapara.Susmita Mohanty, SMS (Home Science), Krishi VigyanKendra, Rayagada, Gunupur.Subrat Behera, SMS (Agriculture Engineering), KrishiVigyan Kendra, Rayagada,Gunupur.



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Introduction

Etymologically, the word Temple is derived fromthe Latin word Templum , which means an openor consecrated space or a building inauguratedby an augur. It isgenerally conceived asa building used for theworship of Hindu godsand goddesses. In itsprimitive sense, thisword corresponds to aplace marked assacred to a God, inwhich the house of Godmay be erected. In itsusage, it is ratheremployed in a restrictedsense to denote variousreligious affiliationsexcept Christianity andIslam1. The Twin templeof Gandharadi issituated close to the right bank of Mahanadi at adistance of 13 Kms from Boudh towards Sonepurand can be reached from the State Highway by aroad of about 3 Kms. In the Bhanja copper platecharters of 9th- 10th centuries, Gandharadi hasbeen mentioned as Gandhata, Gandhatapati andGandharadi. It flourished as a Centre of Religion

Twin Temple of GandharadiRamesh Meher

and culture under the rule of the Bhanjas of KhinjaliMandala. The twin identical temples dedicatedto Siddhesvara (Siva) and Nilamadhava (Vishnu)erected on one stone platform of low height bearwitness to the contribution of the Bhanjas to the

temple architecture of Orissa2. They fluctuate fromeach other in their respective ayudhas, as one isdedicated to Vishnu and other to Siva. T. E.Donaldson has examined that the temples weresurrounded at the four corners of the platform bysmall shrines so that as a unit the temples formedthe Central shrine of a panchayatan plan3. R.D.


90


Banerjee also declares that there were foundationsof smaller temples upon the platform4. Butunfortunately these are no longer in evidence norare there any symbol of the collection of the looseand broken images of Durga, Vamana, Matsya,Kurma and Varaha that he mentions. The onlyimage intact are two large standing images ofVishnu, carved of fine grained chlorite and placedinside the Nilamadhav temple one within the shrineand the other in a corner of the mukhasala. ASiva Linga is worshipped as PaschimaSomanath, few yards away from the temples.Whatever now remarkable is that two identicalbeautiful temples are standing on a common raisedpedestal on the vast plain area of the villageGandharadi.

Every test imonial of the templearchitectures in Orissa and central Indiacorresponds to a regional manifestation of thenagara temple style and has certain commonfeatures, being derived from the same arch type.The entire body of those temples acquirecurvilinear spires and square plans with projectedangles of sikhara type or Rekha order and itultimately became the dominant form of templearchitecture in Orissa. The earliest temples nowextent represents the natural products of thatcategory. But the Orissan temple architecture byreason of its own distinct individualities and longhistory of evolution soon came to acquire for itselfa distinct nomenclature i.e. the Kalinga style. Prof.R.D. Banerjee has drawn our concentration toan inscription of the pre-Muslim period in thetemple of Amriteswara at Holal in the Ballarydistrict, in which mention has been made of fourclasses of temple Nagara, Kalinga, Dravidaand Vesara.5 Prof. Banerjee observation hasfurther been supported by another scholar, Mr.D.P.Ghosh who has shown that certain well-marked peculiarities distinguish the Orissan groupof temples from the sikhara temples of North

India, Central provinces, Rajputana, and Gujarat.The temple of Gandharadi, about which we havediscussed their architectural features anddecorative motifs as well as the iconography ofthe images available there certainly played animportant role in the evolution ofKalinga temples.Each of these temples possess the commonfeatures of indigenous sub-styles of templearchitecture of Central India and Orissa and pavethe technique for full-fledged Kalinga style whichis marked entirely in the Lingaraj temple ofBhubaneswar6.

The ideal specimens can be exploited asa source of historical knowledge, unless they areplaced in their proper sequential positions. Onthe other hand there is no epigraphic sourceavailable for the determination of the dates of thesetemples Gandharadi. However these temples canbe co-related on the basis of their architecturalfeatures, decorative motifs, sculptures andiconography of the images to one or other of themonuments of which the chronology is known asanalytical study of the dated and datable templesand cumulative consequences. When applied tostudy these undated temples to bring out thiscorrelation in an emphatic manner, it is possibleto divide again the undated temples as cognatesof one or other of the dated and datable temples.We may not be able to find out the exact date oftheir construction but we can place them toparticular times as cognates of the particulartemple of which the date is known. Such achronology, though approximate is borne out bythe logic of the evolutionary process experiencedby the architectural movement, through differentepochs of Orissan history.

Orissa appears to have pursued theconstruction of stone temples on a large scale,starting approximately 600 A.D. till the end ofthe Hindu supremacy. The number and design of



91

the mouldings in the pabhaga change during thelong evolution of the Orissan temple. On theearliest surviving temple pabhaga consists of threemouldings, which partakes of the bada division.In addition to this on those early temples, thenumber of pabhaga moldings used to differ onJagamohana from that of the shrine. Among thetemples of Bhubaneswar, which are dated byK.C.Panigrahi in his work ArchaeologicalRemains at Bhubaneswar" are Markandesvara(Early 8th A.D.) Vaital (775A.D.) and Sisiresvara(800A.D.) 7, which are built under Bhaumakararules have the latest surviving examples of this typeof base mouldings. As a contrast to this basemoulding of shrine and Jagamohana are four atthe twin temple of Gandharadi. In this respect wehardly agree with K.C.Panigrahi that Gandharadiwas a contemporary of Sisiresvara, Rather wemay safely assume that these twin temple musthave been built in a later date to the above templesof 8th Century A.D. Mukteswar (950 A.D.) andGouri, dated to 10th century A.D. are the earliestexamples of having five mouldings on pabhagaat Bhubaneswar.

By the side of Gandharadi, a kumbha isvirtually found in between first two moulding i.e.khura and patta. T.E. Donaldson marked thatkumbha as an ornamental detail of the templeare not a part of the standard repertory of theOrissan Silpin, it is apparently that this design isthe outgrowth of outside influence8. The mostobvious source is Chhattisgarh temples, wherefree standing kumbha- stambhas form part ofthis architectural idiom. In the Lakshmana templeof Sirpur, we can mark the kumbha, as a part ofthe pabhaga moulding. The champaka leaf ofthe pabhaga already appears on the Lakshmanatemple of Sirpur datable to the late 7th Centuryand most likely filters into Orissa from Chattisgarhtowards the end of the 9th century along withSomavamsi. Kesharis9. Champaka leaf is used

as one of the decorative motifs of pabhagamoulding at Gandharadi. According to the aboveobservation of Donaldson these twin templesshould be dated to the end of the 9th Century.Tirthesvara temple of Bhubaneswar, acquires thesame base moulding as at Gandharadi andChurasi. Vidya Dehejia indicates that these threetemples should be place in an equal cognate oftransitional phase10, and constructed just earlierthan Muktesvara of 10th century A.D.

Pista

The high pista of Gandharadi contributesanother peculiar feature for the determination ofits age. Pista on the earliest Orissan temples isgenerally small and devoid of decoration. On theSisiresvara and Vaital Deula, it is seen only 8-9inches above the ground, but follows the basicplan of the deula. On the other hand it is observedthat the architectural tradition in Chattisgarhencouraged the highpista as on the brick Indralathtemple and Sirpur though devoid of decoration.Gandharadi infatuated a decorated high pistacombining the Orissan pattern with Chattisgarh.It offered the most basic example where the pistais high enough to duplicate the programme of theshrine but devoid of figure motifs. The pista ofBoudh is higher then Gandharadi, with a plentyof figure motifs, for which Boudh temple isconsidered to be built later than Gandharadi. Asimilar type of pista is repeated at Ganeswarpurin Eastern Orissa with the sides being decoratedwith Krishnalila themes and erotic images. VidyaDehejia places Ganeswarpur and Boudh alongwith Muktesvara as the products of the culminatingphase11 in the development of Orissan templesBada

The bada of the most primitive survivingOrissan temple is tri-ratha in plan as a contrastto the Pancharatha plan of the gandi. Thesetemples were built mostly in Bhaumakara period


92


and in ancient Kalinga region. Most significantamong them are Satrughnesvar, (575AD),Parasuramesvar(650AD) group of temples andMukhalingam. It is in those temples, only therahapaga continues vertically from pabhaga tothe bisama of the gandi, but the other pagas ofthe bada ends beneath the baranda giving wayto the independent Pancharatha design to thegandi above it. Consequently there was nodecorative relation existing between the badaandgandi. For which, they are regarded by Dehejiaas the temples of formative phase in the longevolution of Orissan temples12. In such templesthe side pagas on the bada are not well projectedand appear more like a window due to there smallsize in length and width. It is for the first time onthe long west side of the bada of the Vaital deul(775A.D.) that pagas alignments became different.Five independent vertical segments projectedfrom the wall each with a niche which begins abovethe pabhaga mouldings. They are all of the similarsize, however, are conceived as engaged pilasterrather than true pagas, filled in with stone work.In the next phase, this arrangement is furtherdeveloped in Sisiresvara(800A.D) where fivepilasters but less projected appear on each sideof the bada. This indigenous style of Bhaumaperiod mingled with pillared mandapa as appearsat Rajim in South Kosal, gave rise to the wellprojected five Pagas on the bada. This processappears to be first experimented at Gandharadi.There are five well-projected pagas on each sideof the bada co-relating the pancharatha plan ofthe gandi. The kanikas on the bada is completelyintegrated to that of the gandi. In this respect it isassumed to be built later than Sisiresvara. Thereare also good deal of dissimilarities appearingbetween Gandharadi and Sisiresvara as far as theimages of the paga niches are concerned. Anoteworthy feature of the images enshrined inniches on the bada of the Sisiresvara is that they

have all been made of two or three blocks of stonecontained in two or three courses of the walls.Consequently, they have been made part of thewalls with the result that more of the side deitiesare missing from the Sisiresvara and its cognatemembers. This design is not followed atGandharadi as an effect of which the niches areseen without deities. In this respect it will bedifficult to assume Gandharadi to be included asthe cognate member of Sisiresvara Group.

The use of Vajramundis and Khakharamundis is considered as carry over from earliertemples. Among the temples of eastern Orissa,so for dated, it is on Suklesvar and at Bankada,where the pagas are designed first asVajramundis rather than as flattened kumbhastambha as at the Sisiresvar and Vaital Deul. Inthe process of development and gradualtransformation the previous Vajramundi took anew shape of elongated Khakhara mundi.Simhanatha temple situated near Gopinathapur ofCuttack district, datable to late 8th century A.D.was the earliest, which possess the elongatedKhakhara mundis. In the twin temples ofGandharadi embracing the influence from SouthKosala kanika are shaped as pilasters withminiature vajramundis at this base. While theanuratha is fashioned as an elongated khakharamundi containing from the alignment of thepabhaga, which has a talagarbhika, insertedbeneath the niche, crowned by a smallvajramundi below baranda. The raha is alsodesigned as a wide vajramundi with flankingoffset rather than a truncated rekha as on earlytemples. The khakhara mundis of Gandharadibeing crowned by vajramastaka is toodeveloped to have its own tri-ratha plan. It isexperimental that in Eastern Orissa, the use ofvajramastaka became familiar in the temples oflate 9th Century A.D. At Gandharadi, there areno stambhas inserted in the recess separating



93

each paga as a contrast to the Panduvamsi(Chhattisgarh) tradition where the raha is usedto be flanked on each side by an engaged nagastambha. The jangha is single story as contrastto the two-story jangha in the temples of 11th

century in Orissa.Till the period of 8th century, the tala

garvika moulding were not well developed in theraha and subsidry niches. In the temples ofMarkandesvar and Sisiresvar the talagarvika islike a baranda moulding of two fold division. Theindentation beneath theraha is gradually filled witha series of moulding which develop into a miniatureshrine or mundi as at Badagaon, Paikpada,Simhanatha, but without any figure motifs. It is atGandharadi where a talagarbhika of elongatedkhakaramundi with figure motifs housed in aniche at the base of the raha and is insertedbeneath the niche of the anuratha. At the sametime a small Urdhva garbhika is added abovethe niche. But we know that with the developmentof the two storeys Jangha in the 11th century, theurdvha garbhika is eliminated from the top ofthe niches.

On the earliest temples of Orissa, thebaranda consist of two projecting mouldingsseparated by a recess. The projecting mouldingsare shaped like a khura and duplicate thedecorative programme of the first of the pabhagamoulding. The muhanti relieved with a crowd ofscroll work, the sloping upper surface is decoratedwith spaced Chaitya design alternating with figuremotifs where as the lower moulding caps theJangha the upper moulding serves as the bottomfor the first bhumi division of the gandi.Universally the baranda division on early templesevidently articulated though in 8th century atBhubaneswar, due to innovative experiments withpaga designs, its demarcating functions is partlyobfuscated while towards the end of the 9th

century, the upper moulding no longer serves as

the bottom of the first bhumi in gandi. Similar tothis with the development of a pancharatha planfor the bada, the baranda moulding atGandharadi is a plan horizontal recess carved inregion at top and devoid of decorations. In somany places these temples have Nayika figurescontemporary to the females of Bhubaneswar,which were already dated to be constructed inthe last part of the 9th century A.D.

The Jangha is crowned by a broadmoulding serving as a baranda. The interior wallsat Gandharadi enclose four pilasters on each side,which help to create a modified cruciform plansimilar to that of the Vaital deula, though it hasbeen suggested that originally there may have beenfour pillars arranged in a square at the centre asin pillared mandapas. Above all, the exteriordecoration at Gandharadi is quit equal withtemples at Ganesvarpur and Chaurasi of easternOrissa. But these two temples represent the endof an evolving tradition of the rectangular plan ofthe Jagamohana. The square ground plan ofJagamohana becomes familiar in later temples.Muktesvara, which is dated to late 10th centuryA.D. has a semi square ground plan with the longsides only three feet wider than the width so thatit appear almost equal. Besides figure motifs areengraved on the lateral sides of Jagamohana,which is not present at Gandharadi.Gandi

The Gandi of these twin temples ispancha ratha in design continuing the five-foldarrangement of the bada, so that the pagasextendup the height of the deula. The kanika pagasare divided into seven bhumis byamlas with eachbhumi again subdivided into four-bhumibarandika. Raha paga is decorated with five-spaced chaitya motifs rather than three as on earlyOrissan temples. Anuraha is left plain. In thedecoration of the gandi, it exactly equals withthe Kapileswar temple at Charda.


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Mastaka

The mastaka of Nilamadhava temple iscrowned by an akasa chakra as is gradually usedelse where. But the akasa Lingam crowingSiddhesvara is quite unusual. Parasuramesvaratemple of Bhubaneswar exactly crowned by anakasa Lingam as on Siddhesvara at Gandharadi.According to Donaldson Lingam appears as thecrowning members on some early as well as onlater temples, most likely representing 5th head ofSiva which points sky ward13 .It is difficult toconsider the age of the temples on the basis ofthe ayudhas. Jagamohana, the earliest survivingimpages. Jagamohana is similar to that of theParasuramesvar temple which is rectangular inplan. With terraced roof that slopes in two stages,Gandharadi is a near duplicate of Jagamohanaof the Sisiresvar. On the Sisiresvara, thejagamohana is rectangular in shape with similarterraced roof. Having its own back wall and theinterior walls are lined with spaced pilasterseliminating the pillars as noticed atParasuramesvar. Each side of the bada is dividedinto three angas like Uttareswar and Mohinitemples. The center anga is designed as a largeniche which cut through the pabhaga moulding.The side angas are shaped as Vajramundis. Themundis are crowned by vajramastaka, whichcontain two superimposed chaitya medallions.The gavaksha projection of the centre of thebada of jagamohana was not well projecteduntil 9th century for which there is no gavakshaprojection at Sisiresvara.

Among the temples of Bhubaneswar, it ison the Simhanath temple where Gavaksha as acentral Anga appeared for the first time thoughprojected slightly. The terraced roof slopes inthree stages, rather than two as on early temples.Gavaksha mandana is absent in Simhanathtemple. But at Gandharadi the beautification is a

step forward to Simhanath. The Jagamohana isrectangular in shape and has a roof slopped intwo stages but with additional covering slab. Thethree stepped recess at Simhanath. The bada istrianga in plan with the well-projected Gavaksaand entrance portal being flanked on either sideby naga / nagi stambhas. The gavaksa isdecorated with framed window filled withbankajali on the lower half while the upper halfhas an alignment of three elongated Vajramundisseparated from one another by a thin stambha.The pagas flanking the gavaksa are decoratedwith three elongated mundis separated fromanother by a thin stambha. This alignment ofpilaster alternating with elongated mundis alsoappear on the deula, so that for the first time thedecorative motifs of the Jagamohana duplicatethose on the deula to crowns the niche of the eachmundi with an abbreviated urdhvagarbhika atthe top. Above psychoanalysis shows thatGandharadi should be dated later to Sisiresvaraand Simhanatha.

Conclusion

From the above discussion, it is clear thata comparative study of these twin temples alsoagrees to the above fact that, they were built inthe 9th century A.D. It is the earliest temple ofOrissa to assimilate the Central Indian traditionof the temple architecture with the indigenousOrissan style, with the innovations thus filteringfrom Central India brought a change in the overalldesign prevailing in the temples of Orissa. It ledthe Orissan temples to march towards perfectionin height, components and decorations. Theprocess culminated in the evolution of Kalingatemples under the patronage of the Somavamsisparticularly at Bhubaneswar from the 10th centuryonwards. Thus the twin temples at Gandharadiplay a valuable role in the evolution of KalingaStyle temples of Orissa by assimilating two original



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and indigenous styles. Gandharadi bears alltransitional characters of temple architectures. Itpossesses no similarity with earlier Orissantemples but creates a class of its own. The twintemples of Gandharadi definitely succeedMarkandesvara, Vaital, Sisiresvara, Simhanathand preceeds temples of Boudh, Ganesvarpur andMuktesvar.

References1. T.V. Sairam, Indian Temple : Forms and

Foundation, New Delhi, 1982, pp 18-19.

2. P.K. Mishra, Comprehensive History and Cultureof Orissa, Vol- 1, New Delhi, P-658.

3. T.E. Donaldson, Hindu Temple Art of Orissa, Vol-1, Laiden, 1985, P-219.

4. J.B.O.R.S, Vol- XV 1929, pp-64-84, FF (R.D. Banerjee,Antiquities of Boudh State ).

5. R.D. Banerjee, History of Orissa Vol-II, Calcutta,1931, P-335.

6. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture: Buddhist andHindhu, Bombay, 1949, p-122.

7. K.C. Panigrahi, Archaeological Remains atBhubaneswar; Calcutta, 1961, PP-25-41.

8. T.E. Donaldson, Hindu Temple Art of Orissa, vol-II Laiden, 1985, p-798.

9. Ibid, p-799.

10. Vidya Dehejia, Early Stone Temples of Orissa,Delhi, 1979, pp-124-131

11. Vidya Dehejia, op-cit., pp-139-149.

12. Ibid, pp-76-123.

13. T.E. Donaldson, op-cit, p-750.

Ramesh Meher is the Mender, abindra Bhawan, ViswaBharati, Shanti Niketan, Dist. Birbhum, West Bengal.


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In the eyes of Ayurveda Health is the supremefoundation of virtue, wealth, enjoyment andsalvation. Diseases are the destroyers of health,of the good life and even of life itself. Thus, hasarisen the great impediment to the progress ofhumanity.

Ayurveda is a life science - the science oflife wherein are laid down the good and the badlife, the happy and unhappy life, and what iswholesome and what is unwholesome in relationto life, as also the measure of life. The sciencerelating to life is regarded by the philosophers asthe most meritorious of all the science because itteaches mankind what constitutes their good inboth the words.

Life is spoken of as the union of the body,senses, mind and spirit. The body, mind and spirittogether are, as it were the tripod. The body andthe mind are both considered to be the abodes ofdisease, likewise, of well-being. The cause ofwellbeing is their harmonious and concordantinteraction. The cause of disease, psychic orsomatic, is either erroneous, absent or excessiveinteraction.

The objective of the science of life isestablishing equilibrium of the body elements.Finally, the Ayurveda reveals that the morbidityof the body is remedied by medication; themorbidity of the mind by spiritual knowledge,philosophy, fortitude of the mind by spiritualknowledge, philosophy, fortitude, remembranceand concentration.

The Nature of Happy life : Life of such a manis called happy as is not afflicted with either bodilyor mental ailments, as is endowed with youth,strength, virility, reputation, enterprise andboldness befitting his abilities, is actuated by hisdeeds, the combined urge of knowledge, science,the senses and the sense objects, is possessed ofmultifarious and delightful amenities occurringfrom great wealth, whose efforts are prosperousand who can plan his likes. A life to the contraryis deemed unhappy.The Nature of Good Life : The life of that manis said to be good who is a well-wisher of allcreatures, who does not covet other people sgoods, who is a teller of truth, who is peace loving,who acts with deliberation, is not negligent, isdevoted to the three ends of life viz., virtue, wealthand enjoyment, without letting anyone to comeinto conflict with the other two, who is reverentialto those who are worthy of reverence, who is ofa scholarly, scientific and restring disposition,partial to the company of elders, envy, pride andconceit, who is constantly given to charitable acts,and contemplative of the good in this world andthe next and endowed with memory andunderstanding.

Life of the opposite nature is said to benot good .

Code of Conduct For Healthy Living : Thewise man who seeks happiness both here andhereafter, should exercise the highest care in

Ayurvedic Approach to Good Healthand Happy Life

Dr. Dinabandhu Moharana



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selecting what is wholesome in the matter of food,conduct and behaviour.

The length of life is matter of care andhusbandry. The opposite condition leads to death.He who rightly observes the rules of health aslaid down here will not be deprived of the fullmeasure of hundred years of disease less life.Virtues of Clean Habits : Virtues of cleaningthe teeth, scrapping the tongue and cleansing themouth, message and bathing, wearing of cleanapparel, trimming of hair, beard and nails, frequentablution of the feet and the excretory orifices, haveall been emphasized. Like the lord of a city in theaffairs this city, a charioteer in the managementof his chariot, so should a wise man be evervigilant in the care of his own body.

By degrees, the wise man should freehimself from unwholesome habits; also bydegrees he should develop wholesome habits. Bygradual withdrawal, addictions do not revert andwholesome, gradually acquired, become firmlyimplanted.Virtues of Measured Diet : Food is theprincipal factor which materially contributes to thestrength, complexion, vitality of animated being.That should be known as the proper measure offood which when taken, is digested in due timewithout impairing one s health.

An excess of surfeit of food is markedlyharmful unless the gastric fire is increased by hardexercise.Importance of Exercise: That activity of thebody, which is meant to increase its strength andfirmness is regarded as physical exercise. It shouldbe précised regularly in the right measure.Lightness, capacity of work, firmness, toleranceto hardship, subsidence of humeral discordanceand stimulation of gastric fire accrue from exercise.

Fatigue, exhaustion, wasting, thirst,asthma, cough, fever and vomiting result from overexercise.

Ethical Conduct : Mind control consists ofrestraining the mind from the desire forunwholesome objects.

A wise man should not suppress thenatural urges of urine, faeces, semen, sneezing,yawing, hunger, thirst, sleep, tears, and deepbreathing after exertion.

On the other hand, those desirous of theirwelfare both in this and the next world, shouldsuppress the rash and evil impulses of the mind,speech and body. The wise man should controlthe impulse of speech that is harsh, extravagant,insinuating, untrue and untimely. One shouldcontrol the impulse for all such activities as areinjurious to others such as adultery, theft andviolence.

Once should have recourse to such meansof livelihood as are not contrary to the dictates ofreligion. One should be devoted to peace andscholarship. Living thus, one attains happiness.

Do not give way to anger and joy, do notnurse your sorrows, be not be arrogant in successand dejected in defeat, remind yourself constantlyof the vanity of things, be decided as to causesand their effects and consequently devote tobenevolent enterprises; do not grow complacentwith your achievements; and who is generous, just,truthful and forgiving and who gets along well withhis relatives.Meaning of Medicine and Aim of Therapy:Medicine is that, which being well administered,becomes an equalizer of increased and diminishedelements at the same time. It brings down theexcessive element and arguments the deficientone.

Indeed this alone is the end to be soughtin the employment of medicine, as also in theobservance of wholesome habits, that equilibriumof the elements may be achieved or maintainedas the case may be. For it is only with a view tohelp maintain the balance of elements that the


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intelligent will make use of a balanced diet. Bythe uses of like and unlike food and exertion, theincrease and diminution of body elements andbrought about opportunity to restore equilibrium.

There is in the world no substance thatmay not be used as medicine, in this or that manner,for this or that purpose.

Medicine is of two kinds - one kind isprimitive of vigour in the healthy. The other isdestructive of disease in the ailing. The oppositeor medicine is also of two kinds - the one causingimmediate disorders and the other causing remoteill-effects.

That which of contrary character tomedicine is to be known as contra-medicine . Itis unfit for use. We shall confine in describing thatwhich alone is fit for use.The Four Pillars of Treatment : The physician,the drugs, the attendant and the patient constitutethe four basic factors of treatment. Of these four,the physician occupies the chief place, being atonce the knower of disease and drugs, theinstructor of the attendant and patient, and theprescribe of medicine and regimen.Qualification of Physician, Nurse andPatient : Clear grapes of theoretical knowledge,wide practical experience, and skills, purity ofbody and mind, these are the tetrad of desideratain a physician. The qualifications in a Nurseaccording to the Ayurvedic approach-knowledgeof nursing are skill, affection for the patient andcleanliness. These are the tetrad of desiderata inthe attendant. Recollection, obedience toinstruction, courage and ability to describe hisailment are the tetrad of desiderata in a patient.Drugs, their Potency and Sources :

Substances are classified into threegroups :(1) Some rectify the discordance of body

elements.

(2) Some vitiate the body elements.(3) Some are conducive to maintenance of

good health.Again, Substances can be classified

differently in three groups as animal, vegetableand mineral. He is the best physician who knowsthe science of administration of drugs with duereference to clime and who applies it only afterexamination each and every patient individually.

A drug that is not understood perfectly iscomparable to poison, weapons, fire and thethunder bolt, while the perfectly understood drugis comparable to ambrosia. The drug whosename, form, and properties are known, or thedrug which though known is not properlyadministered, will cause disaster. Even acutepoison is converted into an excellent medicine bythe right method of preparation. While, even agood medicine may act as acute poison ifimproperly administered.

Therefore, the intelligent man who desireshealth and long life should not take any medicineprescribed by a physician who is a stinger to theart of application. One may survive the fall of athunderbolt on one s head, but one can t expectto escape the fatal effects of medicine prescribedby an ignorant physician.

That is the right medicine which makesfor health and he is the best physician who relievespeople of disease.Aims of Therapy : The physician will try to curethe diseases which are curable adopt palliativemeasures in cases where palliation is the onlyremedy that can be offered; and give up a casewhich is beyond all medical treatment.

Dr. Dinabandhu Moharana is the President of OdishaAyurveda Seva Sanstha, 111, Municipal Market,O.M.P. Square, Cuttack 753003,



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Introduction

The people in Odisha were moretraditional in nature believing the faith and practicesof the local communities. They happened tomanage their livelihood through agriculture andmaintained an indigenous life with their ownknowledge system. They used to maintain thelong-standing traditions from their ancestors andspread the knowledge in different spheres oflivelihood. Such socially generated knowledge ispopularly called as local knowledge. The on-goingpractice of using such knowledge for indigenouscommunities established the belief that suchknowledge used in traditional manner was fruitfulfor the people. In course of time such personalizedknowledge took the shape of IndigenousKnowledge (IK) which was confined to aparticular community and locality and specificknowledge seekers find the effective use of suchtraditional knowledge for indigenous people andare interested to preserve the knowledge for thecommunities. It is an established fact that Indiahas long and strong racial, cultural and ethnicgroups that generate a traditional knowledgesystem for its people. The ethnic minorities, ruraland tribal populations, women and otherdisadvantaged communities in India who aredeprived of economic, political and social benefitsare more dependable upon such knowledge

Documenting Indigenous TraditionalKnowledge in Odisha

Priya Ranjan MahalikDr. Rabindra K. Mahapatra

system for their livelihood. With the modernizationof the present society, the needs of thosedisadvantaged populations were brought to thelimelight and their knowledge system was giventhe importance. Similar phenomenon is gainingground in other countries in the world where thelocal knowledge of the communities are treatedas the real knowledge for survival. The conceptof indigenous knowledge gained its world widerecognition through the United NationsConference on Environment and Educationin1992, World Conservation Strategy ofInternational Union and Conservations of NaturalResources in 1980, Brundtland Commission, andWorld Commission on Environment andDevelopment, 1987. These events recognized theexistence of indigenous knowledge in everycountry, society, culture. Since India has a longhistory and much enriched culture there isabundant reservoir of indigenous knowledge inevery part of the country. Similarly Odisha is ahistorical land having enriched cultural heritagewhich has varied communities and immenseresources. Its flora and fauna are vast and variedin nature. The State has a large number of tribalcommunities who appear to live on their ownknowledge system. The paper is intended tounfurl the essence of indigenous knowledge inOdisha and discuss the need for documentationof indigenous knowledge system for the State.


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Concept and Definitions of IndigenousKnowledge

The term indigenous knowledge hasdifferent connotations such as, traditionalknowledge, local knowledge, communityknowledge, rural peoples knowledge, farmersknowledge. Although the concept has differentforms the meaning appears to be synonymous.Acccording to Grenier (1998) indigenousknowledge is the traditional knowledge of the localcommunity existing within and developed aroundthe specific conditions of women and menindigenous to a particular geographical area. Basu(2009) do not find the restrictions of the conceptand expanded its scope in that the term indigenousknowledge is not confined to tribal groups or theoriginal inhabitants of an area. It is not confinedto the rural people rather any communitypossessing indigenous knowledge- rural or urban,settled or nomadic, original inhabitants andmigrants. Indigenous knowledge is referred to notonly to the knowledge of indigenous people butalso the intellectual property of other communities.There are many facets involved in the indigenousknowledge such as, information of thecommunities, beliefs on religious faiths, tools ofusing in agriculture, materials in houseconstruction work, experimentation in farmingand healthcare, natural resources in flora andfauna, human resources and expertise in skilledartisans, education and learning andcommunication of information. Indigenousknowledge is found in peoples memories andactivities and is expressed in the form of stories,songs, folklores, proverbs, dance myths, culturalvalues, beliefs, rituals, community laws, locallanguage and taxonomy, agricultural practices,equipments, materials, plant species, and animalbreeds ( Basu, 2009).

Significance of Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is primarilyinherited from the ancestors through generationsof the community. Such knowledge stands as themain source of utilization and management ofresources. It is not only a self centered knowledgebut a collecting knowledge, the collection ofphenomena and experiences which the olderpeople also. Such knowledge is confined to fewpeople who shared influenced others in a restrictedmanner. In a particular tribal society Jani is themaster of all religious ideas and practices. Otherpeople are imparted to know the religious ideasand practices by Jani which is ultimately used forindividual welfare of the common people. Theknowledge with personal perseverance of Jani isself centred. On the other hand that commonknowledge is about the general livelihood patternof that community which is more or less to all inthe society. Those are very practical knowledgewhich is primarily earned his livelihood. Themaking of household artifacts, knowledge aboutcultivation, health care etc. are major arena ofthe indigenous knowledge development.

Indigenous Knowledge is primarilyreferred to the long standing traditions, belief andpractices of certain regional, local and indigenouscommunities. The people in older times were morespiritual, religious, God- fearing and believing invirtuous livelihood. They believed that their livingwill be happy and prosperous if they work in asystematic manner with certain beliefs andpractices. Such beliefs of a locality bear fruits fortheir existence. Indigenous Traditional Knowledgeis developed and adopted continuously to achanging environment and passed on fromgeneration to generation. The livelihood of ruralpopulation mainly depends on certain experience-based knowledge which is essential for theirsurvival. Such knowledge system has embraced



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many areas of the people s activities such ashealth, education, agriculture, animal husbandry,handicrafts, religion, culture and tradition of a localcommunity.

The people in those days used to practicesuch knowledge for sustainable development. Theknowledge is basically used to cure diseases ofhuman as well as animal and to develop nutrition,to bring out better agricultural systems in farming,to improve the arts and craft, and to maintain thereligious practices and astrological beliefs.Indigenous knowledge is embedded in communitypractices, institutions, relationships and rituals. Itprovides the basis for problem solving strategiesfor the communities.

Sources of Indigenous TraditionalKnowledge

The sources of the traditional knowledgemainly derived from the human experiences,beliefs and practices which are collected fromseveral sources. There are also semi-recordedinformation such as manuscripts, photographs,and folk literature and grey literature. Ancientpeople had developed the Vedas, Puranas,religious books, grey literature, ethno-botanicaltexts and archaeological deposits which were thesources of knowledge for those people. Thosesources give detail account of the life of theancient people and the method of living in aprosperous way. Again those sources also giveinformation about biotechniques, medicinalknowledge, breeding techniques, agriculturalfarming systems, healthcare techniques, religiousand astrological guidelines and cultural artifacts.Some of the indigenous traditional knowledge areavailable in written form in primary, secondaryand tertiary sources of information. But most ofthe indigenous traditional knowledge are un-documented and are available orally or in memoryof the group of the community of a region or area.

Indigenous Traditional Knowledge in Odisha iswidely scatted and fragile and there is a need tointegrate those distributed sources of informationin concrete form. Although religious books whichgive a lot of information about indigenoustraditional knowledge are least used in presenttime. There is greater need to accumulate andacquire to collect information and makedocumentation of such knowledge. While tribalcommunities frequently use such knowledgewhich is essential to trace the sources ofinformation of indigenous traditional knowledgeamong tribal communities.

Documenting the Indigenous Knowledge

The origin of indigenous knowledge canbe traced back to the ancient period. People usedsuch knowledge from generation to generation fortheir livelihood in an unaccounted manner. Thereare no such written documents for recording anddissemination of such knowledge. Brokensha(1990) found that such knowledge system isessential for development. It must be gatheredand documented for a particular community.

Warren et al (1993) commented that thecollection and storage of indigenous knowledgeshould be supplemented with adequatedissemination and exchange among interestedparties using newsletter, journals and other media.In order to develop an indigenous traditionalknowledge system in Odisha, it is essential toprepare a documentation and archival repository.A division under the state archive may be openedwhich primary role is to trace the documentsavailable and collect those sources of information.Although collection of indigenous traditionalknowledge is difficult, adequate attention isnecessary to convince the indigenous traditionalknowledge owners to share their knowledge byprotecting their intellectual property. Aftercollecting those knowledge it is essential to record


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the list of such indigenous traditional knowledgefacets available to different parts of the state. Themost important responsibilities is to developdocumentation of indigenous traditionalknowledge in particular library and informationcentre. The next step is to develop a database orrepository of indigenous traditional knowledgein Odisha. It is required for making a selectionand scrutinization of data to be stored in adatabase. The storage and retrieval of indigenoustraditional knowledge is a difficult process whichrequires classification, indexing and assigningmetadata for making the database accessible tothe users. While considering the storage, stepsmay take to consider classification of textual data,graphical, pictorial, audio-visual picture ofindigenous traditional knowledge in database. Bydeveloping the database is not the end of theprocess, the library has to prepare the strategy ofinformation services to disseminate information.It is essential to propagate the use of indigenoustraditional knowledge for human causes throughcertain activities such as seminars, workshops,debates, lectures, and exhibitions in which suchstories of indigenous traditional knowledge useneed to be reflected. Adequate publicity majorsneed to be taken-up so that people are awareabout the use of indigenous traditional knowledgein their daily livelihood.

Indigenous Traditional Knowledge andDigital Library

Library plays a very significant role inacquisition, organization and dissemination ofknowledge in any subject. Libraries available inrural areas are the sources of such indigenoustraditional knowledge and can act as a key agencyin local community for collection, organization andpreservation of local culture. It is essential toidentify such rural libraries existing in the state andthe sources of information available in those

libraries. After identifying and collecting suchinformation, the appropriate technology can beused for capturing that knowledge in variety ofmedia such as, audio, video, digitized, electronicdatabase. All such knowledge available in librariesmay be digitized in systematic classification,cataloguing and indexing so that effective retrievalcan be made. Whenever required retro-conversion of those documents can be done fordeveloping the digitized format. The traditionalknowledge digital library developed with theobjective to protect the ancient and traditionalknowledge of the country form exploitation suchas bio-piracy and un-ethical patents. Such systemof digital library may be indigenous traditionalknowledge system is strengthened which will beultimately used for sustainable development ofpeople.

Conclusion

Odisha is the land of enriched culturalheritage and traditions. It has a vast reservoir ofindigenous knowledge existing in rural society.Indigenous traditional knowledge is the realknowledge exists in people s mind, local society,which is more informal in nature. This sort ofknowledge represents the human mind with insighton how a large number of communities managetheir livelihoods through an informal knowledgesystem. In spite of the present modern world thepeople and knowledge seekers are searching fortraditional knowledge to unfurl the mystery of suchknowledge system and revive the indigenoustraditional knowledge scenario. It isacknowledged fact that the indigenous traditionalknowledge system is essential for developmentfor which it is required to prepare documentingsuch knowledge sources existing and useful forthe people at large and develop a documentationcentre in a State like Odisha. The responsibilityof documentation centre is to identify the



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knowledge sources, information sources andacquire the details of each knowledge entity,classify them, prepare metadata, developdatabases to preserve those information forfurther use. The preparation of electronicdatabase of indigenous traditional knowledge isthe need of the hour. The collection and storageof indigenous knowledge should be given prioritywith right dissemination among interestingorganizations and individuals. Promotionalactivities and publicity majors are required to betaken up to promote the use of libraries thatappears to be very significant in acquisition,organization, and dissemination of indigenoustraditional knowledge related information to theusers and the public.

ReferencesBrokensha, D. (1990). Indigenous knowledge systemand development. Lanham, MD: University Press ofAmerica.

Warren et al (1993). Using indigenous knowledge inagricultural development: World Bank Washington DC.World Bank.

Basu, D, Banerjee S and Goswami, Rupak (2009).Farmers knowledge and Scientists knowledge: Myth,mutualties and synergies. In Dasgupta, Debabrata,Indigenous knowledge system and common people srights, Agrobios, Jodhpur,.

Grenier, Louise (1998). Working with indigenousknowledge. International Development and ResearchCentre, Canada

Priya Ranjan Mahalik is the Librarian in the DAV Schoolof Business Management, Bhubaneswar.

Dr. R.K.Mahapatra is Chief Librarian in OUAT,Bhubaneswar.


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Orissa's Annual Plan Size Fixed at Rs.11,000 Crore Aims at Sustainable Broad Based InclusiveGrowth.

In the meeting with Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission at New Delhi held on 20th April,2010, Hon ble Chief Minister Shri Naveen Patnaik discussed proposals for Annual Plan : 2010-11 andstated that Orissa has made commendableefforts to improve fiscal health and planperformance and to create investor- friendlyenvironment for attracting privateinvestments. He informed that Orissa sdevelopment strategies aim at sustainablebroad-based inclusive growth, scaling upinvestments in agriculture and allied sectors,creating more opportunities for employmentand livelihoods for all and particularly foryouth, strengthening social security netparticularly for people Below Poverty Lineand marginalized communities, reducingregional and social disparities, andimproving productive infrastructure includingBijli, Sadak and Pani.

Hon ble Chief Minister stressed that because of consistent and focused efforts, Orissa wasable to achieve an average annual real growth rate of 9.51 per cent during the 10th Plan against thetarget of 6.20 per cent per annum and aims to maintain the tempo during the 11th Plan period. Hehighlighted several initiatives undertaken by the State Government to achieve higher broad-based inclusivegrowth, faster overall development of the people of Orissa and accelerated poverty reduction. Hestated that Orissa has taken specific steps to improve the delivery mechanism and outreach of publicservices resulting in progressively increasing Annual Plan sizes. Orissa has increased its Annual PlanOutlays by more than four times from Rs.2,500 crore in 2004-05 to Rs.11,000 crore in 2010-11.

Chief Minister's Discussion with Union Ministersand Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission

at New Delhi



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He endorsed the initiative on right to education and urged Planning Commission to convene ameeting of National Development Council (NDC) as early as possible to discuss and devise modalitiesfor substantial central funding for this rights based human development initiative.

He requested for a special dispensation of Rs.300 crore a year for Orissa portion of Ranchi-Vijayawada Highway till the completion of the project. He further stressed the following issues:

(i) Expeditious approval of an 8-Year Perspective Plan of Rs.4,550 crore for development saturationof the KBK region of Orissa, that has been prepared in consultation with Planning Commission andsubmitted to them for approval and pending approval of the Perspective Plan, immediate increase in theSpecial Central Assistance from Rs.130 crore to Rs.500 crore a year for the KBK region for the year2010-11.

(ii) Appropriate modifications in the guidelines for APDRP-II so that the States like Orissa whichhave been adversely impacted because of pioneering Power Sector Reforms should also benefit.

(iii) Inclusion of Orissa for implementation of the Central Government initiative for development ofpulses and oilseeds.

(iv) Allocation of 500 MW of power from the Central Un-allocated Share and NTPC KanihaStage II to Orissa to help address the current power deficit situation in the state.

Hon ble Deputy Chairman and other Members of the Planning Commission lauded the initiativesand efforts of Orissa Government for achieving significantly higher growth rates and cent percent utilizationof Plan funds. They held that some of the initiatives such as System of Rice Intensification (SRI) asundertaken by the State, which aims to increase productivity while lowering costs of production, deservesto be scaled up and replicated by other States. While appreciating significant achievements in almost allsectors, Hon ble Deputy Chairman / Members of the Planning Commission noted that the State has thepotential to further improve by focusing and enhancing its efforts in social sectors. Deputy Chairman,Planning Commission also advised that accomplishments of the State during last five to seven yearsneed to be disseminated to the larger public through awareness drives.

Hon ble Chief Minister thanked the Planning Commission for supporting Orissa s developmentefforts and the increased plan size.

Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa meets Hon ble Union Agriculture Minister

In the meeting with Hon ble Union Minister for Agriculture, Shri Sharad Pawar, at New Delhiheld on 21st April 2010, Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa, Shri Naveen Patnaik, discussed variousissues of concern facing the State.

Hon ble Chief Minister informed the Union Minister that the State was facing an acute storageconstraint on account of inadequate movement of surplus rice by Food Corporation of India (FCI). Inaddition, he stated that the States resource capacity to provide relief to the calamity affected population


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has been seriously constrained because of non-release of Rs.2687 crore for 2008 floods affectedpopulation and Rs.2257 crore sought for 2009 drought/flood affected population under the NationalCalamity Contingency Fund (NCCF). Hon bleChief Minister informed that even the committedamount of Rs.500 crore announced by theCentral Govt. for 2008 victims has not beenreleased and that the State has been providedwith just about Rs.99 crore.

Chief Minister requested the UnionMinister to appreciate the difficulties faced bythe State and take urgent action in respect ofthe following:

Moving out of the surplus procured riceof about 9 lakh MT to outside the Stateduring next 8 months starting from April 2010 in view of severe storage capacity in the State.

Release of balance committed amount of about Rs.401 crore under NCCF, committed for2008 flood victims.

Consider providing adequate resources under NCCF for 2008 flood affected population(Rs.2687 crore) and for 2009 drought/flood affected population (Rs.2257 crore).

Sanction additional 25000 households under Antodaya Anna Yojana (AAY) for Kandhamaldistrict.

Hon ble Union Minister appreciated the concerns of the State and assured that FCI wouldtake necessary measures to move out the surplus rice to ensure that further Rabi procurement does notget hampered in the State. He informed that the matter regarding adequate release of funds underNCCF is under active consideration of the High level Committee headed by the Union Finance Minister.On the issue of additional beneficiaries under AAY, the Union Minister assured to look into the matterfavourably.

Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa meets Hon ble Union Rural Development Minister

In the meeting with Dr. C. P. Joshi, Union Minister for Rural Development and Panchayati Rajat New Delhi held on 21st April 2010, Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa. Shri Naveen Patnaik, discussedvarious issues of concern facing the State. He informed that the State has been making concertedefforts to implement all Rural Development Programmes aimed at creating rural infrastructure, generatingemployment, alleviating poverty and providing basic minimum needs to the people including socialsecurity to the vulnerable with the objective to achieve balanced and equitable development of theState.



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Hon ble Chief Minister statedthat despite best efforts by the State,performance under some of the ruraldevelopment programmes has beenadversely affected on account of eitherdelay in the release of funds or inadequatereleases by Government of India. Hebrought to the attention of the UnionMinister that the State was facing an acuteresource crunch under many CentralGovernment programmes includingPradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana(PMGSY), National Rural EmploymentGuarantee Act (NREGA) and NationalRural Drinking Water Programme (NRDWP). He mentioned that there exists a need to review some ofthe ongoing programmes as these require scaling up or change in norms to achieve optimal results.

The Chief Minister requested the Union Minister to appreciate specific concerns of Orissa andto take urgent action in respect of the following:

Release of Rs.2,500 crore during 2010-11 under PMGSY and immediate release of Rs.500crore during April, 2010.

Revision of project costs for projects sanctioned under PMGSY to account for increase in costof material etc. over last 10 years.

Provision of Rs.1,908 crore during 2010-11 under NREGS taking into account the revisedwage rate for unskilled labour.

To double the assistance under Backward Region Grant Fund (BRGF) from existing Rs.20crore per district to Rs.40 crore.

Reduction in age limit to 60 years under Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension (IGNOAP)Scheme and to 18 years under Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension (IGNWP) Schemealong with amending definition of disabled, for wider coverage.

Sanction at least Rs.400 crore under NRDWP.

Hon ble Union Minister while appreciating the concerns raised by Hon ble Chief Ministerassured to consider the specific concerns of Orissa. He assured that the central funds will flow fimely tothe State as per the norms.


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Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa meets Hon ble Union Minister for Road Transport andHighways

In the meeting with Shri Kamal Nath, Hon ble Union Minister for Road Transport and Highwaysat New Delhi, held on 23rd April 2010, Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa, Shri Naveen Patnaik, discussedvarious issues of concern facing the State fordevelopment of Road infrastructure.

Hon ble Chief Minister informed theHon ble Union Minister that the State hastaken all possible measures to develop the roadnetwork within the State, for the balanceddevelopment of all sectors and for removingregional disparities. He added that adequatefunds are being provisioned in the State Budgeteach year to ensure uninterruptedimplementation of various on-going roadprojects in the State.

Hon ble Chief Minister stated thatdespite sincere efforts made by the State duringlast 5 to 7 years, there still exists large gaps in the road infrastructure, adversely affecting the process ofindustrialization and development in the State. He added that Left Wing Extremism in certain parts ofthe State has caused additional requirement of road network requiring substantial resources on priority.Hon ble Chief Minister accordingly requested Hon ble Union Minister to consider the following specificrequests favourably:

Sanction Four-laning of National Highway (NH-203) Bhubaneswar-Puri as a Special Projectand its completion well before Nabakalebar Utsav to be observed in 2015.

Sanction pending seven projects of 2009-10 and approve new projects for 2010-11 under theCentral Road Fund (CRF).

Sanction projects under Economic Importance Scheme for Rs.65 crore and projects underInter State Connectivity Scheme for Rs.100 crore.

Sanction Rs.425 crore for Vijaywada Ranchi Corridor in 2010-11.

Sanction 19 road projects entailing costs of Rs.762 crore to develop State Roads in Left WingExtremism (LWE) affected districts.

Construction of additional waterways of 1500 meters on NH-60 to remedy water loggingproblem.



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Hon ble Union Minister complemented the State Govt. for timely execution of works in the on-going projects and assured that the specific requests made by Hon ble Chief Minister will be consideredmost favourably. He agreed that special efforts were required to be made for strengthening Vijaywada

Ranchi Corridor and road networks in Left Wing Extremism (LWE) affected districts. Hon bleUnion Minister recognized the significance of Bhubaneswar-Puri Highway and Nabakalebar Utsav andassured that by May 2010, the process of bidding will be completed. He, however, requested that theState Govt. should hold the meeting of Committee headed by the Chief Secretary urgently to resolvesome issues relating to acquisition of land and sign the State Support Agreement early.

Hon'ble Chief Minister, Orissa meets Hon'ble Union Minister for Power

In the meeting with Shri Sushil Kumar Shindhe, Hon'ble Union Minister for Power at NewDelhi held on 22nd April 2010, Hon'ble ChiefMinister, Orissa, Shri Naveen Patnaik,discussed various issues of concern facing theState in the Power Sector.

Hon'ble Chief Minister informed theHon'ble Union Minister that Orissa was the firstState in the Country to undertake criticalreforms in the Power Sector and yet it isexperiencing severe shortages in power supplyand delays in the execution of works by theCentral Public Sector Undertakings (CPSUs).This is adversely affecting the ruralelectrification programmes and theindustrialization process in the State, he added.

Hon'ble Chief Minister stated that instead of rewarding Orissa for its signal contribution topower sector reforms, the on-going Central Programme-Restructured Accelerated Power Developmentand Reforms Programmes (RAPDRP) has, on the contrary, put Orissa into a disadvantageous position.He informed the Hon'ble Union Minister that the State has some serious concerns about abysmalperformance of CPSUs including NTPC Ltd., NHPC Ltd. and Power Grid Corporation of India Ltd.(PGCIL) in implementing Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY), considered criticalto energise and develop rural Orissa.

Hon'ble Chief Minister impressed upon the Union Minister that some concrete time boundmeasures require to be taken urgently to remedy the worsening situation. He requested that the UnionPower Ministry should undertake the following measures on priority :

Complete the works in remaining 67% villages and provide complete documentation in respectof 33% villages in Orissa, to achieve the objectives of RGGVY.

Approve the revised Cost Estimate of Ganjam district to enable coverage of all villages in thedistrict.


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Allocate at least 300 MW of power from the Central unallocated share of the Eastern Regionand restore the balance 500 MW of power surrendered by Orissa from its allocated sharefrom NTPC Kaniha Stage II for ensuring uninterrupted power supply in the State.

Review the Restructured APDRP, as decided 2 years ago, to enable private Power DistributionCompanies to avail the assistance aimed at sustained reduction of transmission and distributionlosses.

Hon'ble Union Minister complemented Orissa for its sustained efforts and assured the Hon'bleChief Minister that every effort will be made to address specific concerns of the State. He stated thatCPSUs will be directed to complete all programmed villages under RGGVY, within a defined timeframe and that efforts will be made to provide additional power supply to Orissa from unallocatedCentral share to meet the actual requirements of the State.

The Hon'ble Union Minister also informed that Restructured APDRP is scheduled to be reviewedduring July, 2010 and efforts will be made to concede to Orissa's request. He also assured that theCentral Monitoring Committee will approve the revised cost estimate of Ganjam District very shortly.He advised that the State should ask the Private Distribution Companies to complete inspection andenergisation of all completed villages, pending submission of documents by CPSUs, which he assured,will be submitted by them within next 30 days.

Concluding the discussion and assuring the Chief Minister of all possible support, the UnionMinister expressed his willingness to consider yet another Ultra Mega Thermal Power Project (UMTPP)for the coastal areas of the State.Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa meets Hon ble Union Minister for Human ResourceDevelopment.

In the meeting with Shri Kapil Sibal,Hon ble Union Minister for HumanResource Development at New Delhi, heldon 11th May 2010, Hon ble Chief Minister,Orissa, Shri Naveen Patnaik, discussedvarious issues of concern for thedevelopment of Human Resource in theState, particularly in the context of Right ofChildren to Free and Compulsory Education(RCFCE) Act 2009, Vocational Trainingand Higher Education.

Hon ble Chief Minister informed the Hon ble Union Minister that Orissa, during recent years,has made concerted efforts for improving the educational infrastructure at all levels and for enhancingthe technical skills and capabilities of its human resource, with the objective to sustain the developmentand industrialization process in the State. He appreciated the support extended by the Union Ministryand emphasized that the magnitude of the task faced by the State has suddenly increased manifold



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primarily on account of RCFCE Act and the additional requirement of trained and technically qualifiedmanpower necessitated by the on-going industrialization process. Hon ble Chief Minister impressed upon the Hon ble Union Minister that about half of theState is covered by KBK Region and Left Wing Extremism (LWE) affected areas, which have extremelyhigh concentration of the vulnerable population including SCs & STs and the problem is accentuated bythe fact that this vulnerable population is dispersed in scattered remote villages. He emphasized thatvulnerable population in these areas require some serious special efforts and there is therefore a strongand justified need to treat KBK/LWE area in the State at par with North Eastern States and other HillStates, for the purpose of all Schemes of MHRD.

Hon ble Chief Minister requested the Hon ble Union Minister to consider and approve followingspecific requests of the State, on priority:

§ Approve Central-State share in the ratio of 90:10 to implement the Right of Children to Freeand Compulsory Education (RCFCE) Act 2009 at least for two plan periods

§ Accord Special Category Status for 11 districts included in the KBK region and Left WingExtremism (LWE) affected Areas for the Schemes of MHRD

§ Sanction all school buildings and additional class rooms as per the requirement of RCFCEAct during 2010-11

§ Consider allotting 1/3rd Central share as envisaged under the Scheme for new colleges forupgradation of existing colleges in 18 low Gross Enrolment Ratio(GER) districts as part of theModel College Scheme

§ Establish a World Class University in Orissa as announced in 2008

§ Establish a Regional Centre of Indira Gandhi National Tribal University (IGNTU) at Phulbani

§ Provide assistance for upgrading Model Degree Colleges in Districts having low GrossEnrollment Ratio (GER) in higher education

§ Sanction new Vocational Junior Colleges and strengthen existing Vocational Colleges

Hon ble Union Minister appreciated the efforts being made by the State to develop its humanresource and for efficiently utilizing the central Govt. funds. He assured that all the issues as brought outby the Hon ble Chief Minister shall be considered favourably on priority. He informed that the UnionGovt. was in the process to finalize the arrangement of sharing of funds required to enforce Right ofChildren to Free and Compulsory Education (RCFCE) Act 2009 and assured that efforts will be madeto minimize the burden on the State. Hon ble Union Minister informed that the proposal to establish aWorld class University, now rephrased as Innovation University is under active consideration. He alsoshared that the proposal of the State to have a Regional Centre has been recommended to the IndiraGandhi National Tribal University. He advised that the State should take advantage of the CentralScheme for setting up new Degree Colleges in 18 Low Gross Enrolment Ratio Districts. For developing


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playgrounds, Hon ble Union Minister appreciated the suggestion of the State and assured to take upthe matter with Ministry of Rural Development to include these under Mahatma Gandhi National RuralEmployment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA).

Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa meets Hon ble Union Minister for Water Resources

In the meeting with Shri Pawan Kumar Bansal, Hon ble Union Minister for Water Resources atNew Delhi, held on 12th May 2010, Hon ble Chief Minister, Orissa, Shri Naveen Patnaik, discussedvarious proposals relating to development of water resources in the State.

Hon ble Chief Minister informedthe Hon ble Union Minister that Orissa,during recent years, has made seriousefforts for enhancing the irrigationpotential and for controlling floods. Heexpressed that recurrent floods anddrought, occurring in the State almostevery year, cause heavy losses andseriously dent the on-going developmentprocess. Hon ble Chief Ministerappreciated the support extended by the Union Ministry under various on-going Programs includingAccelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP), Flood Management Program (FMP) and MinorIrrigation Projects (MIP) and stressed that the State needs substantially higher resources for strengtheningthe irrigation network and flood control measures, to minimize the floods/drought and their impact andconsidered vital for sustaining high levels of growth.

Hon ble Chief Minister requested the Hon ble Union Minister to expedite sanction in respect of thefollowing proposals:

Sanction on-going Rengali Irrigation Project to increase its irrigation potential from existing40,000 hectare to 2.33 lakh hectare.

Sanction 65 new Minor Irrigation Projects (MIPs) under Accelerated Irrigation BenefitProgramme (AIBP) during 2010-11.

Accord Technical clearance for Lift Canal System of Upper Indravati Project and BrahmaniBirupa Kelua Doab project pending the environmental clearance by Ministry of Environmentand Forests (MOEF).

Hon ble Union Minister appreciated the progress achieved by the State under the on-goingCentrally Sponsored irrigation/flood control programs and assured that the proposals of the State shallbe considered and approved, on priority. He advised that the State should take full advantage of theFlood Management Program (FMP) by formulating large project proposals on an integrated basis andmake adequate provision in the State Budget during 2010-11, to take up new Minor Irrigation Projects.


Kalima1.tif

ORISSA REVIEW

E-mail : [email protected]@rediffmail.comVisit : http://orissagov.nic.inContact : Ph. 0674-2394839

VOL. LXVI NO. 10-11 MAY -JUNE - 2010

PRADEEP KUMAR JENA, I.A.S.Commissioner-cum-Secretary

BAISHNAB PRASAD MOHANTYDirector-cum-Joint Secretary

SASANKA SEKHAR PANDAJoint Director-cum-Deputy Secretary

Editor

Editorial AssistanceBibhu Chandra Mishra

Bikram Maharana

Production AssistanceDebasis PattnaikSadhana Mishra

Manas R. NayakCover Design & Illustration

Hemanta Kumar SahooManoj Kumar Patro

D.T.P. & Design

Raju SinghManas Ranjan Mohanty

Photo

The Orissa Review aims at disseminating knowledge and information concerning Orissa ssocio-economic development, art and culture. Views, records, statistics and information publishedin the Orissa Review are not necessarily those of the Government of Orissa.

Published by Information & Public Relations Department, Government of Orissa,Bhubaneswar - 751001 and Printed at Orissa Government Press, Cuttack - 753010.For subscription and trade inquiry, please contact : Manager, Publications, Information &Public Relations Department, Loksampark Bhawan, Bhubaneswar - 751001.

Five Rupees / Copy


Cover Design :

Images of Garuda at Madhava Temple, Kenduli; Padmavatiat Kenduli, Laxmi Narayana at Chaurasi near Madhavavillage, Madhava (Visnu) at Madhavananda Temple.Palm-leaf Folios of Gita Govinda. Poet Jayadeva in theback-ground.


CONTENTS

Visnu Worship, Jayadeva and Vaisnavism Ajit Kumar Tripathy ... 1

The Philosophy of the Gitagovinda Prafulla Chandra Tripathy ... 12

Sri Jayadev - A Rare Personality Madhumita Misra ... 17

Saint Poet Shree Jayadeva B.C. Jena ... 20

Dasavatara in Sri Jayadev's Gita Govinda Dr. Bhagyalipi Malla ... 23

Jayadev : The Progenitor of Odissi Music Kirtan Narayan Parhi ... 32

Poetic Beauty of Jayadeva's Gitagovinda Prof. Raghunath Panda ... 36

The French School in Balasore, Orissa Till September,1947 K.J.S. Chatrath ... 42

Revenge Actions Against Global Warming Dr. M. Mishra ... 47

Food and Nutritional Security in Present DayAgriculture Dr. H.P. Misra ... 50

Traditional Agricultural Wisdom for Sustainability Dr. Pranab Kumar Ghoshin Tribal Areas Chittaranjan Sahoo ... 54

Dr. Sabyasachi Rath

Profile of Mine Workers in Orissa Umesh Chandra Devata ... 60

The Coast Canal in Orissa During the Colonial Era Dr. Ganeswar Nayak ... 66

Twenty-Five Years of Bhoodan Movement in Orissa(1951-76) - A Review Sarat Parida ... 70

Genetically Modified (GM) Crops and Controversies Dr. Baburam Singh ... 73

Kandha Culture of Kalahandi in Orissa Raghunath Rath ... 76

Adoptability and Adoption of Tropical Tuber Crops to S.K. JataClimate Change M. Nedunchezhiyan ... 83

P.S. Sivakumar

Oyster Mushroom Cultivation : A Profitable Enterprise - Nirakar RanasinghA Case Study Susmita Mohanty ... 86

Subrat Behera

Twin Temple of Gandharadi Ramesh Meher ... 89

Ayurvedic Approach to Good Health and Happy Life Dr. Dinabandhu Moharana ... 96

Documenting Indigenous Traditional Knowledge in Odisha Priya Ranjan MahalikDr. Rabindra K. Mahapatra ... 99

Chief Minister's Discussion with Union Ministers andDeputy Chairman, Planning Commission at New Delhi ... 104


Documents

Orissa Review * May-June - 2010 - Odishamagazines.odisha.gov.in/Orissareview/2010/May-June/engpdf/may-june-2010.pdf · Orissa Review * May-June - 2010 1 ... Vol. XXI pp. 23-25). It