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Organizational Behavior Assignment# 1Q#1 Explain organizational behavior. How does organizational behaviorrelate to, or differ from, organizational development as well as Humanresource management?DefinitionActions and attitudes of individuals and groups toward one another and towardthe organization as a whole, and its effect on the organization's functioning andperformance.Organizational Behavior is the study of individuals and their behavior within thecontext of the organization in a workplace setting. It is an interdisciplinary field thatincludes sociology, psychology, communication and management.Academic field of study concerned with human behavior in organizations; also calledorganizational psychology. It covers topics such as motivation, group dynamics,leadership, organization structure, decision making, careers, conflict resolution, andorganizational development . When this subject is taught in busi- ness schools, itis called organizational behavior; when it is taught in psychology departments, it iscalled organizational psychology.ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENTOrganizational development (OD) is a planned, ongoing effort by organizationsto change in order to become more effective. The need for organizational changebecomes apparent when a gap exists between what an organization is tryingto do and what is actually being accomplished. OD processes include using aknowledge of behavioral science to encourage an organizational culture of continualexamination and readiness for change. In that culture, emphasis is placed oninterpersonal and group processes. The fact that OD links human processes such asleadership, decision making, and communication with organizational outcomes suchas productivity and efficiency distinguishes it from other change strategies that mayMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1
rely solely on the principles of accounting or finance.The fact that OD is planned distinguishes it from the routine changes that occurin the organization, particularly through a more effective and collaborativemanagement or organization culture with special emphasis on forming workteams. The focus on interpersonal and group processes to improve performancerecognizes that organizational change affects all members and that their cooperationis necessary to implement change.The forces compelling an organization to change can be found both inside andoutside the organization. Internal forces toward change can affect changes in jobtechnology, composition of the work force, organization structure, organizationalculture, and goals of the organization. There are a variety of external forces that mayrequire managerial action: changes in market conditions, changes in manufacturingtechnology, changes in laws governing current products or practices, and changes inresource availability.An organization can focus OD change efforts in several areas: changes to structure,technology, and people using a variety of strategies for development. Some ofthe more common techniques for changing an organization's structure includechanges in work design to permit more specialization or enrichment, clarification ofjob descriptions and job expectations, increase or decrease of the span of control,modification of policies or procedures, and changes in the power or authoritystructure. Another general approach to planned change involves modifications in thetechnology used as tools to accomplish work. The assumption behind enhancingtechnology is that improved technology or work methods will lead to more efficientoperations, increased productivity, or improved working conditions. Examples oftechnological approaches to change include changing processes for doing work,introducing or updating computers or software, and modifying production methods.
The third general approach to change focuses on the people in the organization.This approach is intended to improve employee skills, attitudes, or motivation andcan take many forms, such as introducing training programs to enhance work skills,increasing communication effectiveness, developing decision-making skills, ormodifying attitudes to increase work motivation.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1Organizational Behavior & Human Resource ManagementInteraction. Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management focuseson the “people” side of business. You’ll learn how to work with the hiring process,monitoring performance and job satisfaction and overall employee relations amongother tasks. This is a great field if you like variety!Well-Rounded. At the University of Michigan–Flint you will not only receivean excellent business education, but a strong liberal arts background as well!Employers seek out potential employees with varied experience and a broadknowledge base, especially in management.Experience. Get real world experience! The School of Management coordinates aninternship program for students looking to gain relevant work experiences and to addan important line to their resume. Internships also provide networking opportunitiesthat are extremely valuable in the job search process.Practical Application. Students in the Organizational Behavior and HumanResource Management major will complete projects in each of their higherlevel courses to build their portfolio. Not only will this provide valuable practicalexperience, but a portfolio is a valuable asset to have in the job interview process.Leadership. Get involved outside of the classroom. The University of Michigan–Flint boasts an active student life with an organization to match up with any of yourinterests. Boost your resume with the Society for Human Resource Management,while meeting new friends and making valuable networking contacts.Q. 2 (a)Discuss personality in relation to management? Explain the factorsaffecting development of personality.
Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1(b)Discuss the nature and importance of perception in relation toadministration, with example.Although you may be doing well but personality development implies continuallyimproving health state and work environment, as well as interpersonal andprofessional relationships. Personality development comprises of simultaneousefforts to improve every part of personal, business and spiritual life.'Molding inherent behavior in accordance with existing circumstances' is asimple and powerful way to let go of accumulated behavioral negativities and badhabits that are holding back and robbing of your freedom. 'Molding inherent behavioraccording to our surrounding conditions' could definitely improve every part of ourpersonal, business and spiritual life. It would also make significant improvementsin all areas of our life in a way that, what we dreamed of ideal life may cometrue. Molding inherent nature in accordance with our surrounding circumstancesbrings 'emotional equilibrium', obviously, it will swiftly and easily help us let go ofaccumulated 'negative emotions' that have been holding us back all our life.This type of 'Behavior Management' (-molding inherent nature in accordance withyour existing circumstances) implies nothing but a personality development in truesense, can be easily incorporated into your daily life with the help of our simpletechnique, especially designed for personality development. The results can helpyou to accelerate your own processes of personality development and discoveringthe power within you.Factors affecting development of personality.1. Physique and Personality:Physical differences i.e. differences in height, weight, complexion, bodily form ordefects influence personality of the individual.(a) Height: The child who is short statured may develop a feeling of inferiority ifother persons tease him.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected]
Organizational Behavior Assignment# 1(b) Weight: Similarly if the person is over weight his playmates, class fellows andfriends tease him and he will develop inferiority feelings.(c) Physical defects: Physically handicapped children have no well developedpersonalities as compared to normal children. For example, blindness or weakeyesight, deafness or dull hearing directly influences the development of personality.(d) Health and Strength: A person who has good health, strength, energy andvigour generally develops emotionally balanced attitude towards life and takes partin various types of competition. On the other hand, the person who is physicallyinferior develops an unbalanced personality and generally cannot take part invarious competitions.2. Intelligence: There is definitely some relationship between intelligence andpersonality. Intelligence is mainly hereditary. Persons who are very intelligent canmake better adjustment in home, school and society than those persons who areless intelligent.3. Sex differences: Boys are generally more assertive, tough minded andvigorous. They have better need to succeed with regard to interest and aptitudes.Boys show interest in machinery and outdoor activities. They prefer adventures.But girls are less vigorous games. They are quieter, and interested in personalappearance. They have better sense of fine art. They are more injured by personal,emotional and social problems. Thus sex differences play a vital role in thedevelopment of personality of individual.4. Nervous System: Nervous system plays a vital role in the development ofpersonality. Man’s intellectual ability, motor ability, physical strength and ability toadjust upon the structure and modification of nervous system. Any injury to nervoussystem will affect the personality of the individual. Nervous system limits one’s
learning capacity. So it is evident that the development of personality is influencedby the nature of nervous system.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 15. Chemical organization: Endocrine glands play an important role in thedevelopment of personality of individual. Their malfunctioning leads to variousphysical and mental defects.a) Adrenal glands: The malfunctioning of adrenal glands causes Addison’s Diseasewhich causes the impairing of judgment, loss of sleep, sex, interest and weakness.The over activity of this gland makes the individual energetic, persistent andvigorous. If this gland is under active the individual becomes indecisive, irritable andneurasthenicb) Thyroid glands: The over activity of thyroid glands makes the individual restless,irritable, worried and unstable. The under activity of this gland causes a diseaseknown as cretinism. It makes the individual dull, sluggish, and lethargic.c) Pituitary glands: Pituitary glands which are sometimes called master glandshave their effect on personality and intelligences. They help in the growth of thebody. Their under activity causes dwarfness and over activity causes giantness insize; physical and mental activities are impeded.d) Sex glands or gonads: They exert great influence on the sex life of theindividual. If they are over active they will make the individual over sexed. On theother hand if they are under active the sex urge becomes weak.In the words of Ogburn and Nimkoof “Biological heredity ushers infant actors onthe stage of which the physical environment, the group and culture have set. Thedramatic actor now begins and new born baby transforms into social person.” Theyfurther said, “Birth is the signal of experience to begin its work of converting thebiological individual into social person.B. Environmental Factors:I. Geographical environment and personality: Physical or geographical conditions
influence the personality of the individual. People of cold countries are industriousMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1and hard working.II. Family Environment: Family atmosphere if disruptive will produce disrupted,delinquent, backward and maladjusted personalities. The number of membersin the family, birth order of the child, emotional climate of the family, outlook ofparents, cultural and economic conditions of the family has an important bearing inpersonality formation.III. Family life pattern: Family life, aims ambitions, aspirations and attitudes ofparents; their emotional stability or instability; their overprotection or under protectionof children- all these factors are important in personality development of theindividual.IV. Early childhood experiences and personality: Childhood experiences playa very important role in the development of the individual. Tensions and emotionalupsetting of early life influence personality development. Methods of breast feedingand toilet training do play a significant role in the personality development.V. Neighbourhood: If the people in the neighbourhood are cultured and educatedthen the child may also grow into a good person.VI. Friends and companions: Psychologists like Burt and Kretschmer are of theview that friends and companions greatly affect the personality of the child. Childrenof labourers go to third rate school and play with half naked children in dirty streetsor slums. They live amidst hunger and poverty. This may lead to delinquency.Children of upper class may go to first rate school and their companions also belongto upper class. This may develop in them a superiority feeling for higher socialstatus.VII. School: School plays a vital role in the development of personality:a) Teacher’s personality, i.e. his attitudes, beliefs, ideas, habits, ambitions,
aspirations, sentiments and emotional maturity affect the personality development ofMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1the child.b) Curriculum of school i.e. richness or drabness of curriculum also affects thepersonality of an individualc) Methods of teaching and co-curricular activities also influence personalitydevelopment.d) General atmosphere in school: congenial or uncongenial atmosphere influencepersonality development.VIII. Radio, clubs, cinemas have a significant role to play in the personalitydevelopment. Children can learn a lot from these agencies of education.IX. Temples and gurudwars also influence personality developmentX. Names and personality: impressive names may give us an air of superiorityand poor or undesirable names like ‘Mota’, ‘Ganda Ram’, ‘Pokora Mal’ are sourceof resentment. These names shape our ideas of ourselves and hence influencepersonality development.XI. Clothes and personality: if we wear funny clothes people will laugh at us andas a result we may develop inferiority complex. Our clothes should resemble withgreat persons whom we admire.XII. Culture and personality: Personality is said to be the image or mirror of culture.Both material and non- material culture play important role in shaping the personalityof the individual. Material culture brings about the development of various materialneeds and goods. Non- material culture brings about the development of varioussocial traditions and culture. Studies have been conducted by Mead, Ruth Benedict,Malinowski, Baldwin, Cooley and many others. Mead found that in the “Samoa”culture, girls are free from the stress and strain of modern society because earlysexual relations are allowed. Similarly Malinowski has reported that adolescent
period among Trobrianders also does not involve stress and strain because ofthe absence of sex taboos. In ‘Mundudumor’ culture persons are violent andMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1aggressive, while in ‘Arapesh’, they are responsive and mild. In ‘Tchambuli’ womenare aggressive and sexually dominant, while men are submissive.Psychological FactorsPsychological factors play a big role in the functioning of the human behaviour anddevelopment of one’s personality.a) Motives.b) Acquired interests.c) Attitudes.d) Character.e) Intellectual Capacities.To conclude we can say that psychological factors are affected by hereditary andenvironment. Hereditary supplies the raw material, culture supplies the design, whilefamily is the craftsman because it is the parents who carry the culture of the societyto the child. Thus hereditary and environment both play very important role in thedevelopment of the personality of the individual.B) Discuss the nature and importance of perception in relation toadministration, with example.Perceptions vary from person to person. Different people perceive different thingsabout the same situation. But more than that, we assign different meanings towhat we perceive. And the meanings might change for a certain person. One mightchange one's perspective or simply make things mean something elseday I have been looking back and thinking more about something that still fillsMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1me with wonder, and a little confusion at times. It is to do with the relationshipbetween drawing, and the loose style of watercolor that I really love. Why is it thatif I do a drawing loosely with as many ‘mistakes’ as there are in my paintings it
is instantly obvious. Yet with the watercolor, if all the loose elements, tone andcolor are convincing, with watercolors own natural flow adding to the illusion;drawing ‘mistakes’ are not only ‘forgiven’ by the viewer but seem to form part ofthe charm in some way? I am finding the less I ‘worry’ about the drawing in mywatercolors the better it works. If I try to be very accurate, it seems to form a ‘barrier’preventing the movement and sweep of the painting. To coin a phrase from myAmerican friends; go figure. Look at these photographs of sections of my work andsee how bad the drawing is.Perception is the automatic integration of sensory stimulus. It is not a form ofthinking, in that one's ideas do not affect the process. Perception is automatic andindependent of volition.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1Perception is an integration of stimulus. It combines different sensory effects overtime into a single unified whole. The result is the awareness of entities. We don'tsee a mass of different colors and brightness. Instead we see a computer monitor,a book, or a cup of grape kool-aid. We see things. This is different then knowingwhat we see, though. That knowledge is not automatic. An example is a scientist'slaboratory. If you walked in, you would see objects of different sizes, shapes, colors,etc. You may have no knowledge about what they are, or what they are used for, butyou would perceive them as objects -- as integrated wholes.Perception is the base of all knowledge. We acquire raw information about the worldaround us through perception. We can then take that information and integrate andtry to understand it. All knowledge, though, is derived from this common root. Whatwe perceive. It is our link to the outside world.There is never a question that what we perceive is accurate. The only question iswhether we accurately interpret what we perceive. The way to do this is through
reason.Q. 3 In an organization, how a manager can motivate employee’sperformance through job design and goal setting, explain youranswer with examplesMotivating through Job DesignAn employer may incorrectly assume that money is the sole motivator for theiremployees. For many people, job design is as important as fair remunerationin motivating employees to be more effective. Job design has an influence onemployee motivation, job satisfaction and commitment to their organisation, all ofwhich have a significant impact on the efficiency of your business.Jobs are often designed in a way that encourages specialisation. Work is dividedinto specific tasks, with the employee assigned to each task becoming very skilled,accurate and efficient at performing it. However, an often overlooked problem withMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1specialisation is that it generally has a negative impact on employee motivation.Whilst an employee may become very efficient and skilled at completing a repetitivetask, the lack of variety in their day can lead to boredom and a feeling of detachmentfrom the overall goals and success of the business. They feel that as long as theycomplete their job satisfactorily, there is no need to be concerned with any otheraspect of the business.A possible solution to this problem involves providing employees with more varietyin their work. One technique to do this is introducing job rotation, where employeesmove between different jobs periodically. Not only will this reduce the monotony oftheir work, but it will develop a team with a wider range of skills.Another way to improve employee motivation is through job enlargement. This iswhere employees are gradually provided with more challenging work and greaterresponsibility. Whilst you may think this would have the opposite effect, many
employees enjoy learning new things and will get more fulfilment from their work ifthey are given extra responsibility. This also helps you to increase the skill level ofyour team.Job enrichment is another motivational technique that you may want to consider. Itinvolves providing employees with more control over the work they do. By providingthem with more authority and responsibility, it may encourage them to seek outbetter and more efficient ways to accomplish their task, leading to a potentialincrease in productivity. The more interesting a person's job is, the more likelythey will be motivated to apply effort and maximise their productivity. The JobCharacteristics Model helps to explain the benefits of job design.[1]Core Job Characteristics:• Skill Variety• Task Identity• Task significance• AutonomyMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1• FeedbackOutcomes:• Motivation• Performance• Satisfaction• Reduced Absenteeism• TurnoverPsychological States:• Meaningful• Responsibility• Knowledge of resultsThe core job characteristics will enhance employees' job satisfaction and motivation,potentially leading to better outcomes for your business.Well designed jobs that don't invoke boredom and which increase the jobsatisfaction of your employees may help you to improve efficiency, productivityand morale within your business. In turn, this could lead to less staff turnover,absenteeism and potentially make your business more profitable.Motivation through Goal Setting
Goal setting involves establishing specific, measurable, achievable, realistic andtime-targeted (S.M.A.R.T ) objectives. Work on the theory of goal-setting suggeststhat it's an effective tool for making progress by ensuring that participants in a groupwith a common goal are clearly aware of what is expected from them if an objectiveis to be achieved. On a personal level, setting goals is a process that allows peopleto specify then work towards their own objectives — most commonly with financialor career-based goals.Goal setting features as a major component of personalMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1development literatureThe process of setting goals allows the vision of an organisation to be translatedinto actions and results. It is able to provide people with a clear statement of theirdirection, their tasks and performance measures, and to align the objectives andactivities of a team to a common and co-ordinated path.To avoid goals being in effect little more than ideas or a wish list, and potentiallyeither not being achieved or not delivering beneficial results, the process of settinggoals should be undertaken in a planned and committed manner and in coordinationwith both higher levels of strategic planning and day to day task management.Setting of goals becomes most effective within a process of goal management thatadopts a number of basic strategies to ensure that goals are well conceived, clearlydefined, attainable and finally become achievedThe starting point for goal setting is the vision for an organisation, department orteam's future. This vision may represent what the organisation would ideally belike at some point in the future. At an organisational level, the strategic vision mayincorporate new products, business directions or growth projections and may have
a relatively long time horizon, possibly 5 years, while a department or team's visionmay be more specific in relation to their performance, capabilities or processes, andhave a shorter time horizon. It is clearly important that visions at different levels in anorganisation are aligned.Achievements that will allow the vision to be realised may be identified as the basisfor organisational goals. Prioritisation of goals is critical to allow sufficient focus andresources to be applied to the most important ones. Pareto's 80/20 principle whichproposed that 80% of all effects will result from only 20% of all causes emphasisesthe importance of selecting and prioritising the goals to be set.The participation of employees in setting goals is considered to be highly beneficial.This allows people to develop a better understanding of their team goals and whythey are important. Through early participation, their commitment and motivation toachieve goals that they have contributed to and believe in will be stronger.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1Goals should be specific and should be written down. This provides a clearstatement of what is expected for everyone. It is important that goals are not set toohigh to be achievable, nor too low to be challenging and effective. Goals must berealistic.The effective management of goals requires that they be broken down intospecific and measurable objectives, activities and steps, and that it is made clearwho is responsible for doing what. It is important that timeframes are set foreach activity, fitting into an overall timeline for the main goal. The allocation ofnecessary resources, tools and training and potential roadblock issues such as timecompetition from employees' day to day workloads should be carefully consideredand addressed.An activity considered essential to successfully achieving team goals is themonitoring of progress. A regular review process should be put in place to track
progress and assess and revise activities according to their actual status. Theprogress meeting provides an opportunity for achievements to be lauded, fordifficulties to be raised and for additional activities to be scheduled. It promotes teamcommunication and support, and may be used to maintain focus and motivation. Asthings progress, goals themselves may need to be revised to suit changing issuesand conditions.Setting and achieving goals is an important aspect of an organisation movingforward to successfully achieve its vision. A strong commitment to the process ofdeveloping and implementing goals, using established techniques, is needed toconvert goals into reality.Motivation through Goal SettingGoal setting has proved to be one of the most simple and effective motivationaldevices developed for sport within the past three decades. While the concept is notnew, today the techniques for effective goal setting have been refined and clarified.Motivation is all about having needs and striving to have those needs met. How canyou enhance an athlete's motivation?Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 11. Provide more time and attention to an athlete when he/she is having difficultylearning a skill2. Reward small gains of achievement in skill level3. Develop other measures of achievement outside of winning4. Show your athletes that they are important to you5. Show your athletes that you are proud of them and excited about what theyare doing6. Fill your athletes with self-worthGoals give direction. They tell us what needs to be accomplished. They increaseeffort, persistence and the quality of performance. Establishing goals also requiresthat the athlete and coach determine techniques for how to achieve those goals.Measurable and Specific
Effective goals are very specific and measurable. Goals stated in the form of "I wantto be the best that I can be!" or "I want to improve my performance!" are vague anddifficult to measure. It is positive sounding but difficult, if not impossible, to assesswhether they have been reached. Measurable goals must establish a baseline ofperformance recorded during the past one or two weeks for them to be realistic.Difficult, but RealisticEffective goals are perceived as challenging, not threatening. A challenging goal isone perceived as difficult but attainable within a reasonable amount of time and witha reasonable amount of effort or ability. A threatening goal is one perceived as beingbeyond one's current capacity. Realistic implies that judgment is involved. Goalsbased upon a baseline of performance recorded during the past one or two weeksare likely to be realistic.Long- versus Short-Term GoalsBoth long and short-term goals provide direction, but short-term goals appear tohave the greatest motivational effects. Short-term goals are more readily attainableand are stepping stones to more distant long-term goals. Unrealistic short-term goalsMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1are easier to recognize than unrealistic long-term goals. Unrealistic goals can thenbe modified before valuable practice time has been lost.Positive versus Negative Goal SettingPositive goals direct what to do rather than what not to do. Negative goals directour attention to the errors we wish to avoid or eliminate. Positive goals also requirecoaches and athletes to decide how they will reach those specific goals. Oncethe goal is decided, the athlete and coach must determine specific strategies andtechniques which allow that goal to be successfully attained.Set Priorities
Effective goals are limited in number and meaningful to the athlete. Setting a limitednumber of goals requires that athletes and coaches decide what is important andfundamental for continued development. Establishing a few, carefully selectedgoals also allow athletes and coaches to keep accurate records without becomingoverwhelmed with record keeping.Mutual Goal SettingGoal setting becomes an effective motivational device when athletes are committedto achieving those goals. When goals are imposed or established without significantinput from the athletes, motivation is unlikely to be enhanced.Set Specific Time LinesTarget dates provide urgency to an athlete's efforts. Specific target dates tend toeliminate wishful thinking and clarify what goals are realistic and which are not.Timelines are especially valuable in high-risk sports where fear often promotesprocrastination in learning new skills.Formal versus Informal Goal SettingSome coaches and athletes think that goals must be set in formal meetings outsideof practice and require long periods of thoughtful evaluation before they are decidedupon. Goals are literally progressions which coaches have been using for yearsbut are now expressed in measurable, performance terms rather than as vague,generalized outcomes.Team versus Individual GoalsWhile team goals appear to have great importance for team sports, the reality is thatmost team goals can be broken down into individual roles or responsibilities. EachMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1player must achieve these individual roles or responsibilities for the team to functioneffectively.Goal Setting DomainsWhen asked to set goals, athletes typically focus on the learning of new skillsor performances in competitions. A major role of the coach is to broaden the
athlete's perception of those areas, and goal setting can be an effective tool. Goalscan be set to enhance fitness, improve attendance, increase intensity, promotesportsmanship, develop team spirit, find more free time, or establish consistency.Q. 4 Discuss the following with examples:(a) Intra individual conflict and Interpersonal conflict(b) Informal groups and Formal work groupsConflict:-Conflict has been defined as "an expressed struggle between at least twointerdependent parties who perceive incompatible goals, scarce resources, andinterference from the other party in achieving their goals"21. Important conceptsin this definition include "expressed struggle," which means the two sides mustcommunicate about the problem for there to be conflict. Another important idea isthat conflict often involves perceptions. The two sides may only perceive that theirgoals, resources, and interference is incompatible with each other's.The difference is found in the prefixes of the words. Inter- means "between"or "among." The word "international" means "occurring between nations."For something to be interpersonal, it occurs between two or more people.The prefix intra-, on the other hand, refers to that which occurs within something.Intraocular (one of the few examples I could find of a word beginning with thisprefix), refers to anything located or occurring within the eye. For something to beintrapersonal, it must happen within one individual.As an example, take the Shakespeare play Hamlet. When the title character quarrelswith another character, like the maiden Ophelia, he demonstrates interpersonalMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1conflict, because the conflict occurs between Hamlet and Ophelia.When Hamlet wrestles with his own intellect, such as in the famous "to be or not tobe" soliloquy, he demonstrates intrapersonal conflict, because the conflict occurswithin the mind of Hamlet, and involves no one but himself.Intra individual conflict
Two studies are reported on an aspect of goal setting that has not been explicitlyresearched to date, namely, intra-individual goal conflict. The first study utilizedan experimental, laboratory design using student teams in which conflicting goals(quantity vs. quality) were assigned. The second study was a correlational, fieldstudy of college professors which measured conflict between teaching and research.In both studies conflict was negatively related to at least one performance outcome.This negative association was not mediated by goal commitment, goal priority, goallevel or task strategies in either study. In both cases, the main source of the conflictwas pressure.Concern here is with the prediction of the instability or apparent unpredictability ofan individual's behavior when faced with the same situation on repeated occasions.A theory is presented that depicts the variable individual in any specific set ofsituations as a comparatively conflicted one in those situations. 3 corollaries of thetheory are tested. These are: (a) that strong conflict produces greater intraindividualinstability than weak conflict, (b) that the more variable persons as contrasted tothe less variable ones in any given situation will behave as though that situationcontained greater conflict, and (c) that the intraindividually unstable person bringsinto a new situation the instability that was developed in previously experiencedsimilar situations. 4 experiments are reported which provide supportive evidence forthe foregoing propositionsInterpersonal ConflictConflict between people is a fact of life – and it’s not necessarily a bad thing. In fact,a relationship with frequent conflict may be healthier than one with no observableconflict. Conflicts occur at all levels of interaction – at work, among friends, within
families and between relationship partners. When conflict occurs, the relationshipMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1may be weakened or strengthened. Thus, conflict is a critical event in the course ofa relationship. Conflict can cause resentment, hostility and perhaps the ending ofthe relationship. If it is handled well, however, conflict can be productive – leadingto deeper understanding, mutual respect and closeness. Whether a relationshipis healthy or unhealthy depends not so much on the number of conflicts betweenparticipants, but on how the conflicts are resolved.Sometimes people shy away from conflict, and the reasons for this are numerous.They may, for example, feel that their underlying anger may go out of control ifthey open the door to conflict. Thus, they may see conflict as an all-or-nothingsituation (either they avoid it altogether or they end up in an all-out combative mode,regardless of the real severity of the conflict). Or they may find it difficult to faceconflict because they feel inadequate in general or in the particular relationship.They may have difficulty in positively asserting their views and feelings. Childrenwho grow up surrounded by destructive conflict may, as adults, determine never toparticipate in discord. In this situation, the person may never have learned that thereare effective, adaptive ways to communicate in the face of conflict.People adopt a number of different styles in facing conflict. First, it is very commonto see a person avoid or deny the existence of conflict. Unfortunately, in thiscase, the conflict often lingers in the background during interaction between theparticipants and creates the potential for further tension and even more conflict. Asecond response style is that of one person getting mad and blaming the otherperson. This occurs when a person mistakenly equates conflict with anger. This
stance does nothing to resolve the conflict and in fact only serves to increase thedegree of friction between the two participants by amplifying defensiveness. A thirdway which some people use to resolve conflict is by using power and influence towin at the other’s expense. They welcome conflict because it allows their competitiveimpulses to emerge, but they fail to understand that the conflict is not really resolvedsince the “loser” will continue to harbor resentment. Similarly, some people appearto compromise in resolving the conflict, but they subtly manipulate the other personin the process, and this, again, perpetuates the conflict between the two parties andMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1compromises the trust between them. There are better ways to handle interpersonalconflict.(b) Informal groups and Formal work groupsWhat is group? Distinguish between formal and informal group. Explain theimportance of group values and norms. What are the characteristics of an effectivegroup? As a manager – how would you attempt to develop effective grouprelationships and performance with reference to your organisation or an organisationfor are familiar with.Formal groupsFormal groups are created to achieve specific organisational objectives and areconcerned with the co-ordination of work activities.People are brought together on the basis of defined roles within the structure of theorganisation. The nature of the tasks to be undertaken is a predominant featureof the formal groups. Goals are identified by management, and certain rules,relationships and norms of behaviour established.Formal groups tend to be relatively permanent although there may be changes inactual membership. However, temporary formal groups may also be created bymanagement for example, the use of project teams in a matrix organisation.Formal work groups can be differentiated into team groups task groups andtechnological groups.
• Team groups – these are fairly autonomous groups with broad terms of referenceand limited supervisions. The team designate the positions to be filled and theallocation of members, and instigate changes as necessary.• Task groups – jobs are defined clearly and individuals assigned to specificpositions. The groups has some flexibility over methods of work and the pace ofwork, but otherwise limited discretion. Examples could include many administrativeMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1or clerical workers.Informal GroupsWithin the formal structure of the organisation there will always be an informalstructure. The formal structure of the organisation and system of role relationship,rule and procedures, will be augmented by interpretation and development atthe informal level. Informal groups are based more on personal relationships andagreement of groups members than on defined role relationships. They serve tosatisfy psychological and social needs not related necessarily to the tasks to beundertaken. Groups may devise ways of attempting to satisfy members affiliationsand other social motivations which are lacing in the work situation, especially inindustrial organizations.The membership of informal groups can cut across the formal structure. They maycomprise individuals form different parts of the organizations and/or from differentlevels of the organization both vertically and diagonally as well as same horizontallevel. An informal group could also be the same as the formal group, or it mightcomprise part only of the formal group.The member of informal group may appoint their own leader who exercises authorityby the consent of the members themselves. The informal leader may be chosen asthe person who reflects the attitudes and values of the members helps to resolve
conflict leads the groups in satisfying its goals or liaises with management or otherpeople outside the groups. The informal leader may often change according to theparticular situation facing the groups. Although not usually the case, it is possible forthe informal leader to be the same person as the formal leader appointed officially bymanagement.Groups, there fore, help shape the work pattern of organisations and the attitudesand behaviour of members of their jobs. The formation and operation of workgroups, and the behaviour of their members has an important significance for theMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1manager. Likert, for example, has developed a theory of organisation based on workgroups. In his discussion of group processes and organisational performance heconcludes that: ‘Group forces are important not only in influencing the behaviour ofindividual work groups with regard to productivity, waste, absence and the like, theyalso affect the behaviour of entire organizations.Q. 5 “An employee stress results in high absenteeism and lowproductivity.”Critically analyze the statement and also discuss thepossible strategies for managing stress in a workplace.Creating a high performance organization is a popular theme in the training anddevelopment field. To survive in these competitive times, companies can't affordanything less. Creating a high performance organization requires understandingwhat factors influence performance. One of the most significant factors is stress.Historically, stress has been viewed as an inevitable consequence of work life;or at most, a health care issue. Neither view begins to capture just how costlythis problem is to employers. Research shows that stress interferes with humanintellectual, emotional, and interpersonal functioning. In fact, nearly every popular
training and organizational development initiative is directly compromised by theintellectual, emotional, and interpersonal consequences of stress.Initiatives like The Learning Organization, Process Re-engineering, DiversityTraining, Collaborative Team Work, and The High Performance Organization are allimpacted by the way people are affected by stress. In this article, we will highlightsome of the research findings and discuss their implications for today's organization.Stress, Threat, and "Numbing Out"When animals, including human beings, are exposed to potentially life threateningMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1situations; their bodies release endorphins, which are nature's pain-killer. Thismakes sense from a survival perspective. If you are being attacked by a predatorand are injured, you don't want to be focusing your attention on how much you hurt.This response doesn't just happen in response to tangible, visible threat; it isalso triggered by potential threat. Thus, if we feel threatened or fearful, our bodyreleases endorphins. This sets the stage for serious intellectual and interpersonalconsequences; because endorphins dull both our ability to think and our ability tofeel. Effective decision-making and interpersonal skills require both.Implications for the WorkplaceIn workplaces where people are constantly afraid and insecure, employees are atrisk of "numbing out" to protect themselves. We see it in the blank faces of clerks,the lack of enthusiasm by front line workers, and in the remarkably insensitive waysmanagers and employees treat each other. The very mechanism which allows aperson to survive an emotionally painful environment also makes it difficult for themto respond sensitively and empathetically to others. The organizational conflict andcustomer service consequences of this are obviously very costly.This numbing process affects far more than the interpersonal realm of organizational
performance. It affects all aspects of decision-making, innovation, and safety. Withtheir thinking impaired, people are at greater risk of causing serious mistakes andaccidents. They are also obviously less likely to make wise decisions and createprocess improvements.Stress and the Loss of CreativityCreative and innovative thought are is at the heart of the learning organization. Anorganization's ability to innovate is perhaps the most important source of competitiveadvantage. Organizations who know how to stimulate and leverage innovativethought are able to respond more rapidly and resourcefully to market changes andcustomer requirements than their slower, less innovative competitors. Despite theMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1tremendous contribution innovative thought makes to organizational survival, mostorganizations don't realize how they prevent such thought from being exercisedin their organization. The typical high stress workplace the physiological andpsychological affects of stress on the human brain and mind compromises suchcreativity and innovation.Studies show that when people are under stress, their thought processes narrow.This narrowing of attention, by definition, prevents divergent thinking, which isthe foundation of creativity. Divergent thinking is the ability to see connectionsbetween very distantly related ideas and context. It is an important componentof "thinking outside the box." When people are stressed, they are able to perceiveobvious connections and associations between ideas. When people are in apositive emotional state, their ability to make more distant, novel connectionsand associations increases. Thus, stress compromises, at the most fundamentalneurological level, one of the foundational skills of creativity and innovation.Uncontrollable Stress and the Dumbing Down ProcessResearch by Dr. James Pennebaker of Southern Methodist University has
demonstrated a very serious consequence of uncontrollable stress on thoughtprocesses. In an experiment performed by Dr. Pennebaker, subjects wrote aboutwhatever was going on in their mind - their "stream of consciousness." One groupwas subjected to a loud noise in the middle of the exercise and told there wasnothing they could do about it; they had to "grin and bear it." The other group wassubjected to the same loud noise in the middle of the exercise, but they were toldthey could have the noise stopped if they chose. The results were both fascinatingand disturbing in their implications for organizational performance.The group that had no control demonstrated a significant deterioration in theirthought process during and after the noise. Their thinking became unemotional,unimaginative, and dull. It was as if they became temporarily dumb in orderto endure the stressful situation. Even more interesting was the other group'sMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1response. "although they were told they could stop the noise if they needed to,not one person chose to do so. Therefore, they experienced the same amount ofunpleasant noise as the group which wasn't given that option.Despite being subjected to the same amount of noxious noise, their thought processremained unaffected. They engaged in deep, reflective, creative thought. Thus,it wasn't the negative external situation, but the perceived lack of control, whichresulted in a diminished thinking capacity. The operative term here is perceived. Thisstudy and others like it show that even if a person's perception is wrong - if in factthey really don't have control, the effect is the same as if they truly had control. It'sthe perception, the belief, that matters.Closely linked to this sense of perceived control is predictability. "s long as a person(or lab rat for that matter) knows when the next painful situation will occur, they do
not suffer the same kind of psychological and physiological harm as those who don'tknow "when the other shoe will drop." Simply knowing creates a feeling, even if illfounded,of control.Implications For The WorkplaceOne obvious implication of this research is that employee intellectual functioning canbe very powerfully influenced by their environment. In workplaces where employeesfeel helpless and disempowered, they are less likely to think in intelligent, creativeways. Another important implication, and this is born out by other research, is thatperceived control plays a major role in whether a person is affected by a potentiallystressful workplace. Workers in jobs with similar demands, but different levelsof control, exhibit very different psychological and physiological responses. Withthe same demand level, workers in low control workplaces are significantly moreaffected by their work.Thus, when workers have little control over their work and feel powerless in general,they are more likely to suffer from the kind of "dumbing down" that Pennebaker'sMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1work demonstrated; and which we see in organizations throughout America.In thinking about organizational implications, we need to realize that theword "perceived" in the term "perceived control" is important. It is important becausein reality, there is no way we can create a workplace in which a person has totalcontrol over their work and over their destiny. No organization can guarantee lifelongemployment, no one can foresee market changes or economic downturns. But, aslong as people have open lines of communication and know that they can get theinformation they need - even if it's "we don't know yet," they experience a sense ofcontrol. Thus, organizations which enable open, honest communication create a
context in which people are less likely to be stressed out, and because of that, morelikely to utilize their capabilities.Strategies for Managing StressStress experienced by the employees in their job has negative impact on theirhealth, performance and their behaviour in the organization. Thus, stress needs tobe managed effectively so as to set off these harmful consequences. Strategies formanaging stress are as follows-Organizational strategies for managing stress1. Encouraging more of organizational communication with the employees sothat there is no role ambiguity/conflict. Effective communication can also changeemployee views. Managers can use better signs and symbols which are notmisinterpreted by the employees.2. Encourage employees’ participation in decision-making. This will reduce rolestress.3. Grant the employees greater independence, meaningful and timely feedback,and greater responsibility.4. The organizational goals should be realistic, stimulating and particular. Theemployees must be given feedback on how well they are heading towards theseMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1goals.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 15. Encourage decentralization.6. Have a fair and just distribution of incentives and salary structure.7. Promote job rotation and job enrichment.8. Create a just and safe working environment.9. Have effective hiring and orientation procedure.10. Appreciate the employees on accomplishing and over-exceeding their targets.Individual strategies for managing stress1. The employees should make a “to-do” list daily, prioritize the acts in the listand plan the acts accordingly. Take regular breaks during work to relax you. Byeffective time management, the employees can achieve their targets timely and can
meet work pressures and, thus, avoid stress.2. Do hard work. Strive to achieve your goals but do not do it to the harm offamily, health, or peer.3. Indulge in physical exercises. It helps in effective blood circulation, keeps youfit, diverts mind from work pressures.4. Encourage a healthy lifestyle. Take a regular sleep, have plenty of water,have healthy eating habits. Promote relaxation techniques such as yoga, listeningmusic and meditation.5. The employees should have optimistic approach about their work. Theyshould avoid connections with negative approach employees.6. The employees should have emotional intelligence at workplace. They shouldhave self-awareness, self-confidence and self-control at workplace.7. The employees should build social support. They should have closeconnections with trustworthy peer who can listen to their problems and boost theirMuhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 1confidence level. This social network will help the employees to overcome stress.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected] Behavior Assignment# 18. Employee counselling is a very good strategy to overcome employee stress.Through counselling, employees can become aware of their strengths and how todevelop those strengths; their weaknesses and how to eliminate them; and they candevelop strategies for changing their behaviour. Employees are also given careercounselling which helps in reducing their ambiguities with regard to career.9. Find a fun way to release stress, such as, cracking jokes, playing tennis, golf,etc.10. Do not remain pre-occupied with yourself. Turn your focus outwards. Helpothers. This will release some stress.Muhammad Faisal Khan Roll No: AH 525552 [email protected]
