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"distinctive feature" recurs in stimulation, but with small variations and in r;ew combinations from which the invariant property can be abstracted.

Where does association come in? In the identification of "coded stimuli" it appears to play a major role in the matching of the items of the code. But the "cue" items of the code (e.g., written words) must first become discriminable as unique items; then they tnay be linked associatively to the already discriminated half of the code (the spoken words).

It is thus possible to say that association and diff~:~entiation both occur in perceptual learning, but only if the foregoing distiJ :tions are made.

ON T H E R E F L E C T O R Y ORIGIN OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

OF OBJECTS

A. V. ZAPORO~HETS Moscow (USSR)

While there exist quite a variety of viewpoints on the .,rigin of percep- tion, there are two main theoretical izes in the development of this psychological problem.

One of them, phenomenal, starts with the feelings of the subject as originally given. It ignores material activity of the subject in relation to the object, which is the cause of the feelings.

The second line stems from objective conditions oL material activity of the subject, and studies how in the process of this activity an adequate reflection of the environment appears, the reflection which is necessary for successful adjustment to the environment and purposeful changing of the latter.

This materialistic approach to the problem opens ways to really scientific, cause-genetic study of perception, and allows a psychologist to use as a basis the reflex theory by Seehenov and Parlor, and in particular their teaching about exploratory reflexes, which pays especially serious attention to orienting movements of pereeptory apparatus for the analyses of the qualities of the perceived stimuli.

In the activity, of man one can differentiate between the executive part, the system of executive movements which wifi immediately give certain practical results, and the orientiug part which is a system of orienting zcfions. Their function is to form a copy, an adequate image of the object, reproducing its features, forming, a "likeness" (Leontiev) of the latter.

Orienting movements originally appear and develop as organic parts

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of practical activity of the subject in close contact with its executive part. In the process of development, specific changes in the interrelation between them can be observed, as well as file process of transforming tile former into the latter.

Bearing this in mind, we undertook a series of experiments in our laboratory, devoted to the study of orienting movements in the process of visual perception of space characteristics of the objects of various com- plexity by children of different age groups. It appeared that the character of the orienting movements of the eye varies with children of different age. At earlier genetic stages, such a way of acquaintance prevails when a child casts only a short glance at a demonstrated object and begins at once to practically operate with this object without examining it in detail.

As distinct from this, at later genetic stages orienting reactions are separated from performing.

At the same time, orienting movements of the eye become more ex- tensive, and begin reproducing more or less precise outline of the per- ceived objects, space and time relations between them, etc. Such a process of complicating and perfecting orienting activity leads to the formation of more adequate images of the perceived objects.

It is only gradually that children master those ways of looking at ob- jects, those kinds of orienting movements of the eye, which form the "likeness'" of the object, make it possible to receive a copy, an adequate image of this object.

To find mechanisms of this "becoming alike" it is necessary to study sensory learning, i.e. changes in the orienting movementsof theeye in the process of multiple exhibitions of some object. A study of this kind was carried out in our laboratory by V. P. Zinchenko, who used cinema re- cording of the movements of the eye with grown-ups for the perception of a series of electric bulbs with a certain sequence of signals.

In these conditions, during the first exhibitions there were only "late" movements of the eye, appearing after the corresponding bulb had given a signal. But after three-four exhibitions, conditioned orienting reactions could be observed, consisting of "anticipating" movements of fl~e eye from the burning tamp to the one which was to be switched onthe next moment. Later, after a great number of exhibitions, conditioned anticipating move- ments of the eye successively appeared in relation to 2 or 3 lamps in response to the first initial signal. In this wa3, a certain system of cond- itioned orienting reactioms was formed, precisely corresponding to the demonstrated object, space and time relations of its parts.

Analogous changes of the orienting activity were observed in our

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laboratory by V, P. Zinchenko, D. B. Godovikova, amt others, in the process of visual perception of more complicated objects, such as series of sir-rials of complex space structure, geometrical forms, labyrinths, etc. We can think that the s.vste~ of conditioned orienting reactions forming a "likeness" of the specific features of the obiect of perception makes the basis of the image of this object.

One should take into accotmt, that movement components of the ori. enting reactions, recorded in our experiments, are only a part of the whole s~'stem, which includes other components, too. among them purely sensory. changes that can be of special importance. They ate also of reflex character and can become conditioned ,as well.

Only the whole complex of the components of the system of conditioned orienting reactions can reproduce the appearance of the obiect, to form the basis for its image.

The formation of the image in the process, of orienting-exploratory activity is the main product of this activity. When the image has been formed, the orienting acti~qt?, goes radically down, becomes of more and more narrow character. In the above-mentioned experimems of Zincbenko the "late" movements ~adua!ly became "anticipating" and then dis- appeared even as such. Bu', there was a perception of the situation at this stage of the proces's, and any change in the sequence of s i g n , s was immediately noticed by the subject, reviving the orienting reactions, which had disappeared before. In other words at later stages; of the formation of the image the "'momentous" seeing of the object appears, which is looked upon as the ori~nai form of visual perception by many psychologists. In realiD,, the genetic study shows that the possibility of this "momentous" seeing appears as a concluding phase of the formation of the sensory process, as a result of successive changes and reductions of the previously extended orienting activig', which is the only means to reproduce specific features of the ob}ect of perception at the early stages.

As we said, discussing the above mentioned experimental data. 'a child learns only gradually those perfect ways of orienting activity which are necessaLy-for adequate perception of complex objects. He acquires them in the process of his practice in life, At certain relativeiy high stages of development (as was the case in the experiments with grown-ups by V. P. Zinchenko, mentioned before) such learning is possible within the limits of one v'suaI acquaintance with the object, in the process of which the necessa W systems of conditioned orienting reactions of the eye are formed, reproducing the specific features of the system of stimuli per- ceived.

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13Ut at earlier stages of development this purely "sensory" learning does not give necessary effects. Z, M. Boguslavskaya drew a corresponding form on a blackboard in the presence of the child. The latter was to discriminate it aalong some others. Though such a dynamic way of demon- strating objects compelled the'child to move his glance round their con- tour, this following did not become orienting for the child, did not acquire the hinctioo of examining the object to find out its specilic features. l. M. Sechenov says that the eye before performing its oriemiug function independently should learn from the touching hand.

The results of experiments in our laboratory indicate that this theory proved to be correct. A. G. Ruzskaya studied the proccss of discrimination and gener:flization el geometric figures with preschool children and re- ceived almost 100 % positive eltect, teaching ~ e m at first to moveaf inger along the contour of the figure thus acquainting themselves with the forms b),' means of touching. Making such manipulations the subjects, at the same time, followed them with their look, and gradually orienting move- mertts of the eye more and more corresponded with the shape of the perceived figure. Further the children could discriminate the figures with the help of visual acquaintance only, though for some time there were '~abortive" movements of the hand, and children moved the finger round tile figure at a distance, without touching it.

Why is the palpable orientation in a situation primary in relation to the visual? Why does the hand play the role of mentor .in relation to the eye?

it is of substantial importance that t.he hand is a contact receptor and depends more immediately oft the features of the object in its movements, always running against its resistance, than the eye which performs its orienting functions at a distance and is free to skim over the object in any way and direction. Yet of still greater importance is the fact, that while the eye is only a "theoretician" and performs only orienting functi- ons, the hand is not only an orienting organ, but that of practical inter- action with the environment. It is as a practical organ that the hand can examine and make more precise the information from other organs of sense, and at the same time can plan routes for their orienting movements in accord with objective features of the thing, revealed in the process of practical activity.

Speaking about file leading role of tlle hand, practically acting with the object and pulping it, in relation to the orienting functions of the eye, we do not think at all, that this relation is simple and unchangeable. A comparative study, carried out in our laboratory by V. P. Zinchenko and

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other research workers, shows that these relations between the functions of the hand and the eye are raUaer complicated, contradictory, and that they continuously change in the process of development.

So, during the first half of the baby age, the initial accumulation of certain sensory experience takes place with the help of unconditioned orienting reactions, in particular, those of the eye. But this sensory experience is preliminary and hnperfect. It can become more precise only at the stage when the grasping and manipulating movements of the hand, which are late in their development, will appear. From this moment on file hand will teach and improve the orienting activity of the eye as a tool of practical interaction with the environment, in which orienting and executive functions are not differentiated yet.

But the eye, following the movements of the hand, gradually accumu- lates the experience and Iitde by little receives a change to perform iL~ functions independently. Here the advantages of the eye as an organ of orientation become apparent, as well as its abilities to observe the situation relatively independently of practical actions performed, and to clarify more distant perspectives of behaviour. At this stage the inter- sensory relations, which we are discussing now, become reverse in some respects, and the trained eye becomes to s o m e extent the teacher of the hand. it not only anticipates and directs its practical acdons, but exer- cises some influence upon the differentiation and formation of its orien- ting functions.

The reviewed facts give support to the view that tire process of visual perception is a reduced orienting movement, which is initially formed on the b~/sis of extended practical activity (actions) the object being in close contact with its executive part; and it is only gradually '.hat it obtains relative independence and ideal forms.